Transmission Line Protection

1
Fault Characteristics
• Transient Faults
 Most common on Overhead transmission lines
 Approximately 80 - 85% share
 Lightning strikes are the most common cause
 Other causes are falling trees, swinging lines etc.
 By nature transient faults disappear in a short interval

• Persistent Faults
 Mostly caused by a broken conductor fallen on to the tower or
ground
 Can also be caused by a tree falling on to the line
 Must be located and attended to, before normal service can be
resumed

2
 Faults on Double Circuit Lines
Simultaneous Faults and Interline Faults
 On parallel lines simultaneous faults and
interline faults can happen.
 A non switched distance relay will be C A
discriminative in identifying the correct fault
A B
loop, when the protection is measuring two
different fault types at the same time. B C

AN
~ ~

CN

3
Measuring Principles

• Over current protection

• Differential protection
• Distance protection
• Voltage protection
• Frequency protection

4
 Application of Distance Protection

• Distance protection is widely applied for transmission

lines because :
• Decision is based on local current and voltage
• No communication required
• Reach is independent of fault current level
• Impedance characteristics can be chosen with different
reach for different impedance phase angles

• Enables remote back-up protection

5
Distance Protection – Basic Principle

UM
ZF
IF UF=0
B
A
Distance
Relay

ZF=UM/ IF

The impedance measured by the relay is proportional

to the distance to the fault.
6
Ground Fault Measurement - Principle

V = I1Z1 + I0Z0 + I2Z2 [ Z1 = Z2 for transmission lines ]

V = Z1( I1 + I2 + I0 ) + I0Z0 - I0Z1 [ I = I1 + I2 + I0 ]

V = I Z1 + I0 ( Z0 - Z1 ) [ 3I0 = IN ]

IN
V = I Z1 + ( Z0 - Z1 )
3
Z0 - Z1
V = IZ1 + IN( )
3
Z0 - Z1
Z0 - Z1 Z = Z1 ( 1 + ( ))
Z = Z1 + ( ) 3Z1
3
7
Ground Fault Measurement

 The current used for calculation of the return

path impedance is the phase current
multiplied by a factor KN = (Z0 - Z1) / 3Z1, the
Zero Sequence Compensation factor. Also
termed as Earth Return Compensation factor.
 The factor KN is a transmission line constant.
(Ratio of Z0/ Z1 is presumed to be identical
throughout the whole length of the line.)
 (1+KN) * Z1 is the total loop impedance for the
earth fault loop for a single end in feed.

8
Measuring Loop - Ground Faults

• The distance protection relays are always set based on the

phase impedance to the fault

Zs IA RL XL
VA

IN RN XN
The measured Impedance is a function of
positive and zero sequence impedance
9
Measuring Loop – Phase - Phase Faults

• The distance protection relays are always set based on the

phase impedance to the fault

Zs IA RL XL

VA-VB
IB RL XL

The measured Impedance is a function of

positive sequence impedance
10
Measuring Loop – Three Phase Faults

• The distance protection relays are always set based on the

phase impedance to the fault

Zs IA RL XL
VA IB
VB IC

VC

The measured Impedance is a function of

positive sequence impedance
11
Measurement Loops

12
 Fault Resistance

Phase faults
Constitutes only the Arc Resistance C A
B B
Ground faults
A C
Constitutes of Arc and Tower Footing Resistance

Warrington´s Formula
L = Length of arc in meters
28707 x L Tower Footing
Rarc = 1.4 I= Fault current in Amps Resistance
I
13
Polarization Methods

Self Polarization
 The same phase voltage is used for polarization
 When a fault occurs close to the relay location, the voltage can drop
to a value where the directional measurement cannot be performed
Cross Polarization
 Use other healthy phase voltages for polarization

 Terminal three phase fault will not be covered

Memory Polarization
 At three phase fault close to the station all phase voltages are low
and cross polarization is not of any use. Instead a memory voltage
is used to secure correct measurement.

 Covers all type of faults

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Polarization Methods

 Cross Polarization

VCA
VC

VBC
VA

VB

VAB

15
Distance Protection Characteristics

Mho Characteristics

16
 Distance Protection Characteristics

Offset Mho Characteristics

17
Distance Protection Characteristics

Quadrilateral Characteristics

18
 Impedance Setting Criteria

• Typically overhead transmission lines have impedances in the

range of 0.3 - 0.4 ohm/ km and angles of 80 - 85 degrees in a
50Hz system.
A B

ZL = R + jX

21 21
• While setting the distance protection relay, the line impedance
may have to be converted to secondary values by multiplying
with the Impedance ratio.
CTR
Zratio =
VTR
VTsec CTprim VTsec CTprim x
Zratio= x Zsec = x Zprim
VTprim CTsec VTprim CT sec

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 Zones Setting Criteria

S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2 S/Stn 3

Relay Relay Relay Relay

Time A B C D

Zone 2 Zone 3F
Zone 3R Zone 1

Zone 3R
Zone 2 Zone 1

Zone 3R Zone 2
Zone 1

Zone 3 Zone 3R
Zone 2 Zone 1

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Zones Setting Criteria

A B C
Zone 4
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3

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Load Encroachment

When setting the zones for long lines or setting the over reaching zones, it
can happen that the characteristic may encroach into the Load region.
This will result in unwanted operation of the zones.
A novel approach is to have a Load Encroachment blinding characteristic.

22
Load Encroachment

When protecting very Long Lines, which are heavily loaded,

there exists a problem of Load encroachment, where the
measured load impedance may encroach into the characteristic
zones of the under impedance relay. If the impedance remains in
the characteristic for more than the zone trip time, unwanted
tripping of the line can result.

This situation can be addressed by introducing a Load

Encroachment characteristic into the Under Impedance relays.
These characteristic can be in the form of load blinders or
shaped load region characteristics.
Load Encroachment
Carrier Communication Schemes

Carrier Communication
Schemes

Permissive Schemes Blocking Schemes

Permissive
Permissive Over
Under reach
reach Schemes
Schemes

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 Permissive Under Reach

 Operation of Zone 1 sends signal to remote end

SIGNALLING CHANNEL
 Instantaneous trip if
REQUIRED BETWEEN ENDS
 Zone 1 Operation
 Zone 2 + Signal from Remote end

S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2

Relay Relay Relay

A Signalling Channel B C

Zone 2
Time Carrier
Zone 2
Aided
Time Delayed Trip
Trip

Distance
Zone 1 (No Operation) Zone 2

Zone 1 Distance

Enables Instantaneous Tripping over 100% Length of the Line...

26
 Permissive Over Reach
 Instantaneous Operation of Zone 2 sends signal to remote end
 Instantaneous trip if
SIGNALLING CHANNEL
 Zone 1 Operation
REQUIRED BETWEEN ENDS
 Zone 2 + Signal from Remote end

S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2

Relay Relay Relay

A Signalling Channel B C

Zone 2
Time Carrier
Zone 2
Aided
Time Delayed Trip
Trip

Distance
Zone 1 (No Operation) Zone 2
Zone 2 Instantaneous
Zone 1
Distance

Enables Instantaneous Tripping Over 100% Length of the Line...

27
 Blocking Scheme

 Operation of Zone 4 sends blocking signal to remote end

 Instantaneous trip only if
SIGNALLING CHANNEL
 Zone 1 Operation REQUIRED BETWEEN ENDS
 Zone 2 + No blocking Signal from Remote end
 WITHIN the Permissive Trip Time

S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2

Relay Relay Relay

A Signalling Channel B C

Zone 2
Time Carrier
Aided
Trip

Distance
Zone 1 (No Operation) Zone 2

Zone 1 Zone 4 - Blocking Distance

Enables Instantaneous Tripping Over 100% Length of the Line...

28
 Blocking Scheme
 Non-Operation of Zone 4 sends No blocking signal to remote end
 Instantaneous trip if
 Zone 1 Operation SIGNALLING CHANNEL
 Zone 2 + NO BLOCKING SIGNAL from Remote End REQUIRED BETWEEN ENDS
 WITHIN the Permissive Trip Time

S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2

Relay Relay Relay

A Signalling Channel B C

Zone 2
Time Carrier
Aided
Trip

Distance
Zone 1 (No Operation) Zone 2

Zone 1 Distance
Zone 4 - Blocking
(No Operation)

Enables Instantaneous Tripping Over 100% Length of the Line...

29
 Zone 1 Extension Scheme

 No Signalling used between ends

 Used with Auto-Recloser only
 Results in More Breaker Operations

Will trip CB @ 'A' for

Gives improved fault clearance fault @ this position
S/Stn 1 time for fault @ this position S/Stn 2 S/Stn 3

Relay Relay Relay Relay

A B C C

Time

Trip Zone 1 Ext

Distance

Reclose Zone 1 Zone 2

Zone 3F
Distance

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Weak End Infeed
Weak infeed is a condition that can occur during a fault on a transmission
line, either when the circuit breaker is open, so there is no current infeed
from that line end, or when the current infeed is low due to weak
generation behind the bus.

A B

W
S
CR CS (echo)
Z< Z<
CS CR

Carrier Send = Z2 pickup (Permissive overreach)

CS (echo)=CR x Under Voltage x No start either forward or
reverse
Trip = Zone1 + Z2 start x (CR + t2)
31
Current Reversal Blocking Logic

Permissive Overreaching schemes can

A B trip a healthy line, if Current Reversal
Blocking Logic is not used.
A1 B1 1. A fault occurs on Line 1. It is detected by
~ ~ protections A1, B1 and A2 in the Forward
direction.

A2 B2 2. Relay B1 is faster and trips its CB and

sends a carrier to relay A1.
A B As relay A2 sees the fault in forward direction
it will send a carrier to B2. (POR)
A1 B1 3. As fault is cleared at B1, current direction
~ ~ will change on Line 2.
4. Carrier from A2 and forward looking
measuring element in relay A2 does not reset
A2 B2
before relay B2 detects the fault in forward
direction and trips, also relay A1 will trip
when receiving carrier from B1.

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Double End Infeed

I1 I Load I2

V1 RF VF V2

VF = RF ( I1 + I2 )
RF ( I1 + I2 )
RF1 =
I1

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 Double end Infeed

Resistive Fault VA

ZSCA k ZL (1-k) ZL ZSCB

IA IB
+ +
EA Rf EB
- -

VA = k ⋅ ZL ⋅ IA + (IA + IB ) ⋅ R f

VA IA + IB
ZA = = k ⋅ ZL + ⋅Rf
IA IA
The influence of the fault resistance on impedance measurement
depends on the fault current infeed from the remote end.

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 Double end Infeed

Resistive Fault

IA + IB
⋅ Rf
Rf IA

IA + IB
ZA = k ⋅ ZL + ⋅Rf
IA k ⋅ ZL

The fault resistance seen by the distance protection can be

apparently increased compared to its real value. This shall
result in Under reach… 35
 Double end Infeed

Resistive Fault
The apparent fault resistance seen by
the relay can get a phase shift,
depending on the load conditions Rf
before the fault, which can result in
Overreach.
IA + IB
⋅ Rf
IA
I +I k ⋅ ZL
ZA = k ⋅ ZL + A B ⋅ R f
IA

There is a risk that zone 1 will trip for faults outside its reach.
36
Remote Infeeds

• The distance protection in Station A will measure a higher impedance, than

the actual impedance to the fault F, because of the current contributions
If2 and If3 from other sources in station B.
• The relay will thus under reach and in practice it can be difficult to get a
remote back-up as expected.

Station A Station B
If1 If2
ZL

Vm If1+If2+If3
ZF
F
21 If3

Vm= If1 X ZL+ (If1+If2+If3) X ZF

37
 Mutual Coupling

• Positive and Negative sequence coupling between parallel symmetrical lines

are small and can be neglected. Zero sequence coupling can be considerable,
being up to 50% to 70% of the zero sequence impedance of the line.

• In the case of an impedance measurement, the current measured

does not reflect the effect of mutual coupling and the relay’s
measured impedance could under reach or over reach depending
on the direction of the current flow in the healthy circuit.
38
 Mutual Coupling Compensation

Distance relay adaptation for parallel lines

The influence of zero sequence coupling in impedance

measurement can be compensated in different ways.
 By including the parallel line zero sequence
current in the relay measurement
 Different KN factor for different Zones in the same
setting group
 Different setting parameters for different operating
conditions in separate setting groups

39
Switch On To Fault (SOTF)

When a power line is closed on to an engaged earth switch,

no measuring voltage will be available, which means
practically zero Impedance in fault path.
This point is also boundary condition for Zones 1 & 2. For
Quad characteristics, the directional measuring can’t operate
correctly.

SOTF Fault Point

40
Switch On To Fault (SOTF)

An SOTF function will address this situation. Different principles are

used, from one phase current to non-directional impedance
measurement.

AC SOTF - Used where VT is on LINE SIDE of the CB

A dead line condition is detected before closing of the breaker.

Then an over current element or a non directional over reaching
zone is allowed to trip instantaneously ( for approx 1 sec)

DC SOTF - Used where VT is on BUSBAR SIDE of the CB

When Circuit Breaker Manual Close is Operated, an over current

element or a non directional over reaching zone is allowed to trip
instantaneously ( for approx 1 sec)
sec)

41
Switch On To Fault (SOTF)

DC SOTF - Used where VT is on

BUSBAR SIDE of the CB

The Breaker status can be monitored

or the Close command can be used
for initiating the SOTF function

A second Harmonic Restraint

function may be used, if closing
command is to charge a transformer
Power Swing Blocking

 Power swing is a three phase phenomenon that can start by,

sudden load change or due to a fault somewhere in the
network that is cleared after a delay.
 Close to the centre of the power swing, it can be low voltage
and high current and thus low impedance will result.

 A distance zone must then be blocked during the power

swing, as the swing locus may pass through its operating
characteristics.

43
Power Swing Detection & Blocking
Power Swing Outer
boundary

Power Swing Inner

Zone 3
boundary
Zone 2

Zone 1 Power swing locus

Transit
time

 A Power Swing can be detected by measuring the transit time

of the impedance locus, passing two dedicated impedance
zones or blinders.
 Typically the time used is 35 - 45 ms.

44
Power Swing Blocking

• When the power swing detection relay / function

operates, the relevant impedance zones shall be
blocked for a preset time.

• The power swing detection function is inhibited

when zero sequence current is detected. This is to
ensure tripping during high resistance earth faults,
where fault resistance can decrease gradually.

45
Power Swing Blocking

46
 Stub Protection

When the line disconnector is open in a Breaker and Half system, the
distance protection relay can’t measure proper impedance. Not to risk
incorrect operation, the distance protection must be blocked and a Stub
protection is released.
The Stub protection is a simple over current relay with a controlled release.

Bus A Bus B

Line Disconnector
Open
&
I > Stub Protection Trip

21

47
Series Compensated Transmission Lines
• Used to increase load capacity

• Improve power system stability

• Improve load division on parallel paths

• Reduce transmission losses

A XC =40% B
XL =100%

48
Series Compensated Transmission Lines

• Effect of series capacitor

• Voltage reversal
• Current reversal
• Transients/dynamics
• Circuit elements
• MOV/Gap operation

• Classical protection devices will mal-function due to these effects.

Series Compensated Transmission Lines
jX B´
Consideration for line distance protections
100%
gap flashed • Correct directional discrimination at
voltage reversal (negative fault
B
reactance) and current reversal
• variation in resulted line impedance

A´
R
40%
gap not flashed
A

50
Use of traveling waves for protection

• Advantages
• Fast detection
• Not affected by CT saturation
• Less affected by series capacitors

• Types of traveling wave based protection methods

• Distance estimations (Single ended/Double ended)
• Not suitable for real-time applications
• Affected by reflections
• Very high sampling rates (Mhz-range)
• High bandwidth communication
• Fault direction identification
• Suitable for real-time applications
• Not affected by reflections
• Lower sampling rates (kHz-range)
• Lower bandwidth communication
Thank you…

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