Name: Jhon Patrick P.

Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

Date Performed: October 4 & 8, 2019 Score:

EXERCISE 11:
THE FUNGI

INTRODUCTION

Fungi are classified into a separate group of organisms differing from both plants and

animals, primarily by the type of nutrition. Fungi are not autotrophs, they have no chloroplasts,

they can only use the energy stored in organic compounds. This distinguishes fungi from plants.

As against animals, fungi are osmotrophic: they obtain food by absorbing nutrients from the

environment. These feeding features correlate with fungal morphology and physiology.

The body of most fungi is made of mycelium consisting of very branched hyphae that

will eventually create tangled web called the mycelium. Such a structure allows a maximum

occupation of the substrate, whether it is soil or plant, to extract nutrients. Fungi absorb nutrients

by the entire body. The osmotrophic type of feeding makes a vegetative body plunge fully into

the substrate, which impedes its propagation and occupation of new substrates. Therefore, in

most fungi, spores are brought out above the substrate in special structures, which in many cases

have a complex arrangement (sporangiophores, conidiophores, and fruit bodies). Sporiferous

structures of endophytic fungi (those developing inside plants) are released through stomata or

breaches in epidermis. Fungi need to use, as energy sources, complex organic compounds that

cannot pass to the cell through cellular covers because of large molecular weight. Therefore,

fungi release the enzymes depolymerases to the environment that cause degradation of polymers.

Degradation products enter cells in a dissolved form. Fungi are sources of highly active
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

depolymerases. Fungi need to develop high turgor pressure in the cells to provide entrainment

of nutrient solutions from the substrate to the mycelium.

Fungi have played important roles as foods and medicines in both ancient and

modern biotechnological processes. Fungi range from microscopic yeasts

and molds to macroscopic mushrooms. Their applications include production of antibiotics,

alcohols, enzymes, organic acids, and numerous pharmaceuticals.

Fungi reproduce by both sexual and asexual spores. The yeasts also reproduce asexually

by budding. Most fungi have a life cycle that involves the alternation of sexual and asexual

stages. Sexual spores are usually produced on large, easily recognizable fruiting bodies made out

of millions of reproductive hyphae and commonly called mushrooms, shelf fungi, truffles, etc.

Asexual spores are more often produced on individual reproductive hyphae that can only be seen

with magnification.

OBJECTIVES

In this exercise, students were able to describe the general characteristics of the phyla in

the kingdom Fungi. Moreover, they were also able to learn the anatomy, life cycle and

identification of representative organisms in every phylum. Lastly, students were able to know

the ecological role as well as the economic importance of fungi.

PROCEDURES

In observing the various phyla in the kingdom Fungi, a microscope, prepared slides as

well as fresh and dried specimens of mushroom and other fruiting bodies were obtained by the

students. These were the essential materials needed for the activity to be accomplished.
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

A. Familiar Fungi: Mushrooms and Other Fruiting Bodies

With the use of the obtained fresh and/or dried mushrooms and other fruiting bodies,

students then observed them and identified their parts. These observations were then

recorded and students made sketches out of these observations.

B. Zygote Fungi (Phylum Zygomycota)

In this part, prepared slides of “Rhizopus Conjugation” and “Rhizopus Sporangia”

were observed by the students under the microscope. For the fist mentioned slide,

students were tasked to locate the zygosporangia present on it. Observations were then

recorded and a sketch was made by the students illustrating the zygosporangia as well

as their typical stuctures.

For the latter mentioned slide, students also examined it under the microscope.

Their task was to locate for the several sporangia present and their associated mycelia.

Similar to the first one, they had also done a sketch where these structures can be seen

alongside their labels.

C. Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota)

Under this, students were able to examine prepared slides of Yeast and Penicillium

conidium. For the fist one, students were able to identify individual yeast cells as well

as in locating the budding cells. A labeled diagram was also made for a clearer

visualization.

On the other hand, students were tasked to locate for the conidia in the prepared

slide of Penicillium w.m. Observations were then recorded and a sketch was made, too.
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

D. Club fungi (Phylum Basidiomycota)

To know how typical mushrooms are produced, students looked up for available

illustrations on the internet emphasizing on the life cycle of mushroom. A sketch was

then made alongside the labels for a more comprehensive understanding.

Moreover, using the prepared slide of “Coprinus Mushroom, c.s.”, students were

tasked to find for the basidia and their basidiaspores. They also make a diagram to

illustrate these.

E. Symbiotic Fungi

In this part, students observed a prepared slide of “Lichen Physia cup with asci” and

had searched available illustration of Mycorrhizae. The fungal layers, the filamentous

hyphae and the algal cells which are embedded in the fungus were the different parts

the students were able to locate upon observing the mentioned prepared slide. Lastly,

students then made sketches of the two showing their important physical aspects.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Familiar Fungi: Mushrooms and Other Fruiting Bodies

A mushroom consists of many parts. The top part of a mushroom is called the cap. This cap

looks similar to an umbrella and acts in a similar way in protection. This protection is most

important to the gills and spores that are just below the cap. The purpose of the gills (or spines or

pores) are to hold the spores, the microscopic "seeds" of a mushroom. Mushrooms produce

millions of spores because of the rare conditions that are required for a spore to germinate. The

veil, which is also under the cap, provides additional protection to the gills and spores. It is a thin

membrane that protects the gills and spores until the mushroom reaches full maturity and is
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

ready to release the spores. The ring (annulus) is also present in some mushrooms. Ring

(annulus) is a membrane located under the cap and circling the stem. This is actually remnant of

a membrane that covered the gills of the immature mushroom and ruptured as the cap grew.

From the cap we can see what is called the stem of the mushroom. This acts in the same

way that a stem of a flower does in that it attaches the item that is important for the plant, or

fungus, to reproduce to the underground parts of the growth. The underground part of the

mushroom is the growing fungus. This is made up of many small, hair-like fibers that

collectively are called the mycelium. These small fibers are individually called the hyphae.

The hyphae branch out of the germinated spore and act as the fungus' root system. Seen

below were the mushrooms that were observed. For a better visualization, sketches were also

provided alongside labels of the parts.

Table 1. Illustration of Mushrooms and Other Fruiting Bodies

Mushrooms and Other Sketches with labels

Fruiting Bodies
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

Zygote Fungi (Phylum Zygomycota)

1. Rhizopus Conjugation

Figure 1. “Rhizopus
Figure 2. Sketch of
Sporangia, w.m. under
Zygosporangia
the microscope

In the above illustrations, we are able to see the presence of zygosporangia that is usually

a thick-walled structure. Hyphae- which are the thread-like structures in fungi produce structures

that contain several haploid nuclei. Fusion of two of these structures from opposite mating types

results in a heterokaryotic zygosporangium.
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

2. Rhizopus Sporangia

Figure 3. “Rhizopus Figure 4. Sketch of

sporangia under 40x Sporangia and their
magnification associated mycelia

Here we can see several sporangia and their associated mycelia. These sporangia are in-

charge in making and storing spores.

B. Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota)

1. Yeast

Figure 5. Yeast, w.m.

Figure 6. Sketch of the
showing budding under
budding yeast cell
the microscope

Like other organisms, fungi also undergo reproduction. In the above illustration, we are

shown with the image of a yeast. Yeast are single-celled members of the sac fungi. Most

reproduction is asexual; a small cell pinches off from a larger cell. This type of mitosis where a
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

smaller individual grows from a larger individual is called budding. Yeast also reproduce

sexually by forming an ascus and eight ascospores. During sexual reproduction, the fusion of two

cells results in the formation of an ascus.

2. Penicillium conidium

Figure 7. Penicillium
Figure 8. Sketch
w.m. under the
showing the conidia
microscope
Like the yeast, Penicillium reproduces asexually as well. The spores are called conidia. It

is usually produced at the tip or side of hyphae (filaments that make up the body of a typical

fungus) or on special spore-producing structures called conidiophores. 

C. Club fungi (Phylum Basidiomycota)

1. Mushroom Life Cycle

Figure 9. Diagram that Figure 10. Sketch of the life cycle of a

illustrates the structure mushroom with the label of the fruiting
of a typical fruiting body as well
body of a mushroom
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

The life cycle of a mushroom begins when spores are already released by the mushroom

through its fruiting body. Of the many spores produced by a mushroom, only a tiny number will

land where they can germinate – to produce hyphae. Hyphae of different species may grow in

soil or in wood and may later form a tiny mushroom button. This then grows, and the stalk and

cap expand to become a mushroom.

2. Coprinus mushroom

Figure 12. Illustration

Figure 11. “Coprinus
of the basidia and their
mushroom, c.s.” under 40x
basidiaspores
magnification

In the above illustrations, we are able to see the basidia and basidiospores at 40x

magnification. The basidium serves as the site of karyogamy and meiosis, functions by which

sex cells fuse, exchange nuclear material, and divide to reproduce basidiospores.

D. Symbiotic Fungi

1. Lichens

Figure 14. Sketch

Figure 13. “Lichen showing the fungal
Physcia cup with asci” layers, the filamentous
under 40x hyphae and the algal
magnification cells
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

Lichens are structures made up of two different species: (a) fungus and (b) either a

cyanobacterium or green algae. Lichens are a complex life form that is a symbiotic

partnership of two separate organisms, a fungus and an alga. The algal or bacterial

symbiont gets a protected environment, shading from intense sunlight, and protection from

herbivores. The fungal symbiont gets free food in the form of sugars made by the

photosynthetic algae, and, in the case of a cyanobacterial symbiont, a nitrogen supply since

these are nitrogen fixing bacteria. These organisms derive most of their water and minerals

from rainwater and air. This allows them to survive on bare rock, tree trunks, and other

inhospitable places.

2. Mycorrhizae

Figure 15. Illustration Figure 16. Sketch

of a plant with the distinguishing between
Mycorrhizae the fungus and the plant
tissues

Mycorrhizae are actually a fungus. They exist as very tiny, almost or even entirely

microscopic, threads called hyphae. The hyphae are all interconnected into a net-like web called

a mycelium, which measures hundreds or thousands of miles—all packed into a tiny area around

the plant. Mycorrhizae actually connect to plants in two ways. One form,

called ectomycorrhizae, simply surrounds the outside of the roots. Another form,

Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

called endomycorrhizae, actually grows inside of the plant—their hyphae squeeze in between the

cell wall and the cell membranes of the roots. Plants help mycorrhizae due to the excess sugar

produced in the leaves through photosynthesis and is send to the roots-where the mycorrhizae

can be found. From here, the mycorrhizae are able to absorb it to sustain themselves. There is

very little sunlight underground, and even if there was, the mycorrhizae wouldn’t be able to

harvest it like plants because they don’t have the equipment needed for photosynthesis. The

sugar from the plants literally keeps the mycorrhizae fed and alive. On the other hand, the

mycorrhizae absorb nutrients such as phosphorus and magnesium and bring it directly to the

plant roots. Here, they exchange the nutrients they’ve collected for some sugar. It’s a fair trade,

and both sides benefit.

CONCLUSION
The kingdom Fungi is mainly terrestrial and includes yeasts and molds. Their non-motile

nature and the fact that many grow from the ground and seem to have rootlike and stem-like

structures causes many to think of them as plants. However, they are not autotrophs, they do not

carry out photosynthesis; they are actually more animal-like in their eating habits, since they are

absorptive heterotrophs. They also reproduce by both sexual and asexual spores. Most fungi have

a life cycle that involves the alternation of sexual and asexual stages. Sexual spores are usually

produced on large, easily recognizable fruiting bodies made out of millions of reproductive

hyphae and commonly called mushrooms, shelf fungi, truffles, etc. Lastly, Fungi have played

important roles as foods and medicines in both ancient and modern biotechnological processes.

Fungi range from microscopic yeasts and molds to macroscopic mushrooms. Their applications

include production of antibiotics, alcohols, enzymes, organic acids, and numerous

pharmaceuticals.
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between a hypha and a mycelium.

 Hyphae are the masses of branched, tubular, thread-like filaments that penetrate into

substrates and absorb nutrients. They secrete enzymes that break down nutrients

into smaller molecules before being absorbed. Moreover, hyphae don’t produce

spores. Hyphae branch into a complicated and expanding patchwork and now it is

called a mycelium which forms the thallus, or vegetative part of the fungus. These

are not thread-like in appearance; however, spores are formed on the mycelium

which develop and grow into hyphae. 

2. Distinguish among an ascus, an ascospore and an ascocarp.

 Ascus

o develops from sexual reproduction; sac that produces spores. It is a

reproductive cell in which meiosis and an additional cell division produce

eight spores.

 Ascospore

o dark-colored, spherical; contained inside ascus

 Ascocarp

o product of sexual reproduction, fruiting bodies

3. Provide at least 3 economic importance of species under Phylum Basidiomycota.

 Food

o They are regularly cultivated for being delicious. The young fleshy

sporophores of many species of puff balls (Lycoperdon and Clavatia) are

also edible. Clavatia contains an anticancer substance calvacin.

Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

 Decomposing Agent

o The saprophytic Basidiomycetes play a significant role in decomposing the

dead fallen leaves and other forest litter converting waste material and

returning it to the soil. Some of the higher Basidiomycetes such as the pore

fungi are the common wood rotters. They destroy lumbar and timber.

 Agriculture

o Their association is mutually beneficial. The fungus obtains sugars and other

organic substances from the roots of the tree partner whereas the mantle of

the fungal partner serves to pass on nitrogen, phosphorus, and other

elements absorbed by the mycelium to the root.

4. Lichens are frequently the first colonizers of hostile growing sites, including

sunbaked or frozen rock, recently hardened lava, and even gravestones. How can

lichens survive in habitats so seemingly devoid of nutrients and under such harsh

physical conditions?

 Lichens are one of the first organisms to colonize a newly disturbed area and are a part of

the first stage in plant succession. Like mosses lichens have a number of adaptations

which allow them to survive seemingly nutrient free habitats. Lichens, unlike vascular

plants can grow with very little nutrients. There are enough nutrients carried in rain water

and dust to allow lichens to grow on rock faces and other inhospitable places.

5. Describe some of the human benefits of lichens and mycorrhizae.

 Lichens are an important part of nature and are often useful for humans. They

currently provide us with dyes and scents for perfumes. In the future, lichens may

provide us with antibiotics and sunscreen chemicals. Some species can withstand
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN

high levels of radiation. Others can be used as biological sensors that give us

information about the environment. Mycorrhizae, on the other hand, helps the soil

to be healthy. This, in turn, helps the plant to survive and to grow well considering

its symbiotic relationship with them. This helps farmer to reduce irrigation

requirements and fertilizers due to the enhanced water and nutrient uptake of plants.

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conservation.extension.org/benefits-of-mycorrhizae/
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology 1-MN