Name: SULEKHA GAURI Sub: Histology

Student ID: 19-2-02489 Date: 21 February 2021

Assignment 5: Nervous Tissue

1. Discuss nerve tissue development
In vertebrates, the first sign of the nervous system is the appearance of a thin
strip of cells along the center of the
back, called the neural plate. The
inner portion of the neural plate
(along the midline) is destined to
become the central nervous system
(CNS), the outer portion the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). As
development proceeds, a fold called
the neural groove appears along the
midline. This fold deepens and then
closes up at the top. At this point the
future CNS appears as a cylindrical
structure called the neural tube,
whereas the future PNS appears as
two strips of tissue called the neural
crest, running lengthwise above the
neural tube. The sequence of stages
from neural plate to neural tube and
neural crest is known as Neurulation.

2. State the functions of the following neuronal structure:

 Cell body: Cell body, also known as a soma, is the neuron's core. The cell
body carries genetic information, maintains the neuron's structure, and
provides energy to drive activities. A neuron's soma contains a nucleus and
specialized organelles.
 Axons: An axon is a long, tail-like structure which joins the cell body at a
specialized junction called the axon hillocks which are rich in ion channels
involved in generating actions or nerve impulses. Many axons are insulated
 with a fatty substance called myelin. Myelin helps axons to conduct an
electrical signal. Neurons generally have one main axon.

3. Explain the following processes:

Nerve impulses
 A nerve impulse is an electrical phenomenon that occurs because of a
difference in electrical charge across the plasma membrane of a neuron.
 When a neuron is not actively transmitting a nerve impulse, it is in a
resting state, ready to transmit a nerve impulse. During the resting state,
the sodium-potassium pump maintains a difference in charge across the
cell membrane of the neuron. The sodium-potassium pump is a mechanism
of active transport that moves sodium ions out of cells and potassium ions
into cells. The sodium-potassium pump moves both ions from areas of
lower to higher concentration, using energy in ATP and carrier proteins in
the cell membrane. These differences in concentration create an electrical
gradient across the cell membrane, called resting potential.
 An action potential is a sudden reversal of the electrical gradient across the
plasma membrane of a resting neuron. It begins when the neuron receives
a chemical signal from another cell or some other type of stimulus. The
action potential travels rapidly down the neuron’s axon as an electric
current. In an action potential, the cell membrane potential changes quickly
from negative to positive as sodium ions flow into the cell through ion
channels, while potassium ions flow out of the cell.
  A nerve impulse is transmitted to another cell at either an electrical or a
chemical synapse. At a chemical synapse, neurotransmitter chemicals are
released from the presynaptic cell into the synaptic cleft between cells. The
chemicals travel across the cleft to the postsynaptic cell and bind to
receptors embedded in its membrane.

Synaptic communication
 Synaptic communication is the process by which one neuron
communicates with another. Information is passed down the axon of the
neuron as an electrical impulse known as action potential.
 Once the action potential reaches the end of the axon it needs to be
transferred to another neuron or tissue. It must cross over the synaptic gap
between the presynaptic neuron and post-synaptic neuron.
 At the end of the neuron (in the axon terminal) are the synaptic vesicles,
which contain chemical messengers, known as neurotransmitters. When
the electrical impulse (action potential) reaches these synaptic vesicles,
they release their contents of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters then
carry the signal across the synaptic gap. They bind to receptor sites on the
post-synaptic cell, thereby completing the process of synaptic
communication.
4. Discuss the histologic characteristics and function of the following cells:
 Oligodendrocytes: Oligodendrocytes are the myelinating cells of the
central nervous system (CNS). They are the end product of a cell lineage
which has to undergo a complex and precisely timed program of
proliferation, migration, differentiation, and myelination to finally produce
the insulating sheath of axons.
 Astrocytes: Astrocytes are the most numerous cell types within the central
nervous system (CNS) and perform a variety of tasks, from axon guidance
and synaptic support, to the control of the blood brain barrier and blood
flow. Astrocytes play the most important role in the regulation of
extracellular ionic concentration around the neurons.
 Ependymal cells: Ependymal cell, type of neuronal support cell
(neuroglia) that forms the non epithelial lining of the fluid filled ventricles
(cavities) of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. The
Ependymal cells have many important functions in the developing brain
that they are no longer needed in the mature brain. In the adult brain, they
are responsible for the transport of electrolytes and some solutes between
the cerebrospinal fluid and the brain parenchyma.
 Microglia: Microglial cells are monocyte derived and provide immune
defenses within the CNS. Microglia is resident cells of the brain that
 regulate brain development, maintenance of neuronal networks, and injury
repair.
 Schwann cells: Schwann cells are the main glial cell in the PNS that
produce the myelin sheath around neuronal axons and play an essential
role in the survival and functions of neurons. In response to nerve injury,
Schwann cells undergo rapid changes in phenotype and their basal lamina
provides a conduit for axon regrowth, a critical process for nerve
regeneration.
 Satellite cells of ganglia: Satellite cells (formerly called amphicytes) are
glial cells that cover the surface of neuron cell bodies in ganglia of the
peripheral nervous system. Thus, they are found in sensory, sympathetic,
and parasympathetic ganglia. Satellite cells also act as protective,
cushioning cells which provide nutrient support and protection. They may
also help to regulate the neuronal environment and be involved in
neurotransmission.

5. Discuss the following components of the Central nervous system

 Meninges: The Meninges refer to the membranous coverings of the brain
and spinal cord. There are three layers of Meninges, known as the dura
mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater. The primary function of the
Meninges and of the cerebrospinal fluid is to protect the central nervous
system.

 Blood brain barrier: The blood brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective
semi permeable border of endothelial cells that prevents solutes in the
circulating blood from non-selectively crossing into the extracellular fluid
of the central nervous system where neurons reside. The blood–brain
barrier is formed by endothelial cells of the capillary wall, astrocyte, and
pericytes embedded in the capillary basement membrane. This system
allows the passage of some molecules by passive diffusion, as well as the
 selective and active transport of various nutrients, ions, organic anions,
and macromolecules such as glucose, water and amino acids that are
crucial to neural function. It also restricts the passage of pathogens.

 Choroid plexus: The choroid plexus is a unique tissue projecting with

elaborate folds and many villi into the fluid filled ventricles of the brain.
The function of the choroid plexus is the transport of water and ions from
plasma in the capillaries and its release in the ventricle as the essentially
cell free cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is produced continuously in the
choroid plexi and circulates through the ventricles and central canal from
which it enters the subarachnoid spaces within the Meninges for
reabsorption into the venous circulation.

6. Discuss the following components of the Peripheral nervous system:

 Nerve organization: The organs of the peripheral nervous system are the
nerves and ganglia. Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers. Cranial nerves and
spinal nerves extend from the CNS to peripheral organs such as muscles
and glands. Ganglia are collections, or small knots, of nerve cell bodies
outside the CNS.
The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into an afferent
(sensory) division and an efferent (motor) division. The afferent or sensory
division transmits impulses from peripheral organs to the CNS. The
efferent or motor division transmits impulses from the CNS out to the
peripheral organs to cause an effect or action.
Finally, the efferent or motor division is again subdivided into the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous
system or somatic efferent nervous system supplies motor impulses to the
skeletal muscles. Because these nerves permit conscious control of the
skeletal muscles, it is sometimes called the voluntary nervous system. The
autonomic nervous system, also called the visceral efferent nervous
system, supplies motor impulses to cardiac muscle, to smooth muscle, and
to glandular epithelium. It is further subdivided into sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions. Because the autonomic nervous system
regulates involuntary or automatic functions, it is called the involuntary
nervous system.
 Nerve fibers: The nerve fibres of the peripheral nervous system conduct
information to and from the central nervous system. Nerve fibers of the
PNS are classified according to their involvement in motor or sensory,
somatic or visceral pathways. Mixed nerves contain both motor and
 sensory fibers. Sensory nerves contain mostly sensory fibers; they are less
common and include the optic and olfactory nerves. Motor nerves contain
motor fibers.
 Ganglia: A ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the PNS. Ganglia can
be categorized as either sensory ganglia or autonomic ganglia, referring to
their primary functions. The most common type of sensory ganglion is a
dorsal (posterior) root ganglion. These ganglia contain the cell bodies of
neurons with axons that are sensory endings in the periphery, such as in
the skin, and that extend into the CNS through the dorsal nerve root.