Sugarcane Cultivation in Guyana

Guyana is the largest sugar producer in the Caribbean Community. Sugarcane is grown in

several areas near the coast. Temperatures are high all year round and the area receives

about 2000 mm of rain each year. This is good as sugarcane requires high temperatures

and at least 1500 mm of rain annually to thrive. Also, there are two rainy seasons and two

drier periods. Therefore, there are two sugarcane harvests per year. The sugarcane is

allowed to grow during the wetter periods and harvested in the drier periods. The soil near

the coast is deep and fertile. It is therefore suitable for growing sugarcane. Most of

Guyana’s population lives on the narrow coastal plain, providing the sugar estates with an

adequate supply of unskilled as well as skilled labour. The main road which runs along the

coast makes estates easily accessible and also provides the estates with access to other

areas. The fact that the estates are located near the coast makes it easier to export their

finished product. All sugar estates are located relatively close to one of the ports from

which sugar is exported. Sugar is transported by ship from Blairmont, Skeldon or

Georgetown. The planting of sugarcane is usually done by hand.

Sugarcane is usually harvested manually. It is important to note that much of the work

involved in sugarcane cultivation is done by hand. This includes planting and harvesting.

Therefore sugarcane cultivation in Guyana can be described as labour intensive.

 Marketing Sugar

In Guyana, eight sugar factories are operated by a government owned sugar company

called Guysuco. It grows sugar on 470 square kilometers of land. Some sugarcane is also

grown by independent farmers. Sugar production in Guyana was over 218,000 tonnes in

2013.

Most of the sugar produced in Guyana is exported to the European Union. Some is

exported to the United States. Some is sold to other Caricom member states including

Suriname, Dominica, Antigua, St. Lucia, Grenada and Jamaica. These markets pay more

than the world price, allowing the sugar industry to remain profitable. After supplying these

markets, any remaining sugar is sold on the world market.

Tourism
Tourism is the commercial organisation and operation of vacations and visits to places of
interest. Tourism is an important economic activity in many Caribbean territories. Many of
them invest a great deal of time, effort and of course money in order to attract tourists to their
shores. The World Tourism Organisation defines tourists as “people travelling to and staying in
places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure,
business and other purposes”.

Tourism in the Caribbean

Every year millions of tourists visit the Caribbean, which is viewed by many as a tropical
paradise. Most of these tourists come from the U.S.A, Canada and Europe, our main
markets. Tourists come to the Caribbean islands mainly via aircraft and cruise ships. Those
who come via aircraft stay mainly at hotels or guest houses. Cruise passengers remain aboard
cruise ships and disembark at the various ports on the islands mainly to go sightseeing and
shopping. Cruise passengers are less valuable in a sense to the various Caribbean territories as
they do not spend money on accommodation in the islands they visit.

Why do tourists visit the Caribbean?

 Geographical location: The Caribbean region is located in the tropics, near enough to
the equator to experience high temperatures year-round. Many tourists come to the
region from temperate regions to escape the cold during the
northern hemisphere winter. Furthermore, the Caribbean region is closer to North
America and Europe than most other tropical locations. This makes the region the
easiest choice for many when planning a tropical vacation. Click on the link below and
study the map. Notice how close the Caribbean is to North America.
 Natural features: The Caribbean is blessed with many beautiful natural features which
attract visitors. Many territories have beautiful beaches, clear calm waters, stunning
coral reefs lush rain-forests and waterfalls. Some territories have features that are
unique, such as the Pitons in St. Lucia and Harrison’s Cave in Barbados.
 Culture: The Caribbean has a very unique and diverse culture. Our speech, food, music
and dance are all uniquely Caribbean. Many visitors come to the region hoping to have
this unique Caribbean cultural experience.
Benefits of tourism to the Caribbean
Economic Benefits
 Employment: Tourism creates employment for many people throughout the
Caribbean. Many people are employed at hotels in many different jobs requiring varying
levels of qualification and skill. Some jobs require unskilled or semi-skilled labour, such
as housekeeping. Others require a high level of skill or qualification. Tourism also
creates employment outside of hotels. Tour operators and taxi drivers, for instance,
would find it very hard to make a living if there were no tourists.
 Linkages: Many individuals and small businesses benefit from tourism by providing
goods and services to hotels and tourists. Bars, restaurant owners, craft vendors and
car rental companies all benefit when they are patronized by tourists.  Many hotels
purchase local produce such as fruits, vegetables and eggs from local farmers. Hotels
also purchase fresh fish and other seafood from local fishermen.
 Foreign exchange: Tourism is a major source of foreign exchange for
many Caribbean countries. Foreign exchange can be used to purchase goods and
services from overseas.
 Infrastructure: Tourism helps to pay for facilities which benefit local people such as
airports, sports facilities and roads to areas where hotels will be built.
 Government revenue: Departure tax and other charges help increase government
revenue and help pay for government services.

Social Benefits
 Cultural exchange: Visitors and locals interact with each other and share aspects of
their culture. Through this cultural exchange we get to learn about the cultures of
visitors from other countries and they get to learn about ours.
 Community identity: Tourism is a good way of generating a positive community
identity and pride. Also tourism encourages communities to maintain traditions,
especially those which can be put on display for tourists.
 
Disadvantages of tourism to the Caribbean
 Destruction of habitat: Often coastal forests, mangrove or wetlands are destroyed in
order to build hotels. This poses a serious threat to the wildlife which depend on these
areas for survival.
 Tourists may damage the environment they come to enjoy: Tourists sometimes
engage in practices which damage our natural environment. For instance, they may
break off bits of coral or engage in the practice of walking on the coral reefs.
 Pollution: Irresponsible disposal of solid waste and sewage by cruise ships and hotels
pollutes the environment. Cruise ships and hotels often take advantage of the fact that
Caribbean islands to not have adequate laws to protect their environment or the means
to enforce such laws when they exist.
 Increase in the price of land: The increase in the demand for land to build hotels often
causes the price of land, especially near the coast, to increase. This makes it more
difficult for locals to buy land.
 Neglect of other industries: Industries such as agriculture and fishing may be
neglected if they offer lower earnings than tourism.
 Loss of beach access: Locals may be denied access to certain beaches.

Urbanization
Urbanization does not only occur in developed countries such as the USA. Urbanization occurs
in the Caribbean as well. More and more people in the region are choosing to live in urban
areas. There are many reasons for this:
 Employment opportunities: This is one of the major reasons for urbanization. There
are more jobs available in urban areas. Also there is a greater range of job opportunities
in urban areas. Therefore many people move to the towns and cities in search of
employment.
 Social services: Urban areas generally have better healthcare facilities than rural areas.
Indeed, some rural areas have no healthcare facilities at all. Urban areas also have
better educational facilities. Most secondary and tertiary level educational facilities are
to be found in towns and cities. The availability of these facilities is another reason that
many people prefer to live in urban areas.
  The availability of public utilities: Utilities such as piped water, electricity, telephone
and internet services are readily available in urban areas. Some of these services are
unavailable in some rural areas. This is another reason that many people choose to live
in urban areas.

 Entertainment: Urban areas provide more opportunities for entertainment than rural

areas. In urban areas one may find nightclubs, fancy restaurants, sports facilities,
shopping malls and many other opportunities for entertainment and recreation. Many
people prefer to live in urban areas because of the availability of these entertainment
opportunities.

Benefits of Urbanization
Some of the benefits of urbanization include:
 Convenience: A wide range of goods and services are conveniently located in the same
area.
 Many businesses prefer to be located in urban areas in order to have access to potential
customers, employees and other businesses which supply them with inputs.
 Efficiency: Services such as piped water, electricity, telecommunications and even
garbage collection can be provided more efficiently in urban areas.
 

Problems caused by Urbanization

Some of the problems associated with urbanization include:
 Shortage of land for building: In many cities, there is a shortage of land for building. As
a result, cities often spread out onto the surrounding areas. This is known as “urban
sprawl”. A good example of urban sprawl has occurred in Jamaica as the capital,
Kingston, has spread outward into the surrounding areas such as St. Andrew and
Portmore.
 Traffic: Since many people travel to cities for work or school, there may be very heavy
traffic on the roads leading into these areas on mornings. Traffic is also quite heavy on
afternoons as people make their way home from work or school. There may be traffic
congestion during these periods as the road networks are often incapable of handling
such a heavy flow of traffic.
  Poor housing conditions: Some of the less fortunate residents of our cities cannot
afford proper housing. This has led to the development of slums in and around many
cities. About one billion people live in slums all over the world. Many of these areas lack
electricity, piped water or proper sanitation.
 Crime: Urban areas usually experience higher rates of crime than rural areas.
Unemployment and poverty sometimes lead people to engage in activities such as
robbery, prostitution or selling illegal drugs.

Bauxite in Jamaica
Most of Jamaica’s bauxite is refined into alumina and the rest is exported unrefined.

Trends in the Jamaican Bauxite Industry

The future looks relatively secure for the industry. The capacity of the alumina plants has been
increased as a result of recent investment. The reserves are great enough to last several
decades at current rates of use. The bauxite contains few impurities. It is soft and therefore
easily mined. Transport costs are low as a result of rail lines and ports which are in place.
Jamaica is also located close to North America and can therefore easily supply the smelters
there.

Challenges facing the Jamaican Bauxite Industry

Jamaica is finding it more and more difficult to compete with other bauxite producers around
the world. Countries such as Australia and Guinea have become important bauxite producers.
Also, aluminium smelters have been built in Europe, Asia and South America. North America is
no longer the major producer of aluminium.
Output per worker is lower and their wages are higher than in other countries. Jamaica needs
to find a way to reduce the cost of mining bauxite to remain competitive. This is especially so as
transport costs have dropped. This has caused mining costs to become a more important factor
than location near a smelter.

Environmental Issues caused by bauxite mining

the end result of mining on the landscape is very unsightly. The topsoil is removed and
preserved before mining begins. When mining is done, the land is smoothed , the topsoil is
replaced and grass is planted. the disposal of the red mud produced when refining bauxite is
dumped into large “ponds”. The caustic soda contained in the red mud can kill vegetation and
make the air unpleasant to breathe. It can also pollute water sources. However, improved
methods in alumina plants produce less red mud. Also, drains under the ponds extract some
caustic soda for reuse in the alumina plants. 
Case Study – Jamaica
Population Growth in Jamaica
The population of Jamaica increased rapidly in the 1900’s but in recent times, the rate of growth

has decreased. Though the population is still growing, it is not growing as quickly as it was in

past decades. Population growth in Jamaica has generally been on the decline for some time. In

the early 1980’s the population growth rate was almost two percent but by 2017, the rate had

dropped to about 0.31 percent.

Let us examine some of the factors affecting population growth in Jamaica:

The fertility rate has decreased drastically in the last few decades and is now about 2.4.

The birth rate has also decreased. The decrease in the birth and fertility rates has a negative

effect on the rate of population growth. The fertility and birth rates have decreased partly

because more women now pursue careers and thus delay childbearing. Also birth control is

more readily available. The fall in the birth rate has caused a decrease in the rate of natural

increase.

Life expectancy has increased and infant mortality has decreased as a result of improvements

in living conditions and medical care. This will tend to have a positive effect on the rate of

population growth.

There is a significant outflow of migrants to the USA, Canada, Britain and other Caribbean

territories. There is a much smaller number of people moving into Jamaica from other

countries. Since emigration is greater than immigration, this will have a negative effect on

population growth.
Case Study – The USA
Population Growth in the United States of America
(USA)
Unlike many developed countries, where the population is stable or even decreasing, the
population of the USA is growing fairly quickly. Let us examine some of the factors influencing
population growth in the USA:
The death rate is fairly high due to the large proportion of elderly people in the population. A
high death rate tends to slow down the rate of population growth.
The fertility rate is only slightly above 2.0. This cannot account for the rate of increase in the
population as a fertility rate of about 2.0 is believed to have a stabilizing effect on population
growth.
Every year, the USA receives large numbers of immigrants. Over 1 million people enter the
country legally each year. Large numbers also enter illegally. These immigrants are often young
people who start families soon after settling in the USA. They often have larger families than
people born in the United States. Immigration is the main reason for the fairly rapid growth in
the population of the USA.
 

Comparing Population Growth in Jamaica and the

USA
The CXC/CSEC syllabus requires students to compare the factors affecting population growth in
one Caribbean territory and one developed country. You can easily compare population growth
in Jamaica and the United States.
 The fertility rates in both countries are quite low. The fertility rate in the USA is just
above 2.0. The fertility rate in Jamaica is about 2.4, a little higher than that of the USA.
 
  Jamaica experiences a net outflow of migrants. This means that there are more
emigrants than immigrants. The situation in the USA is reversed. There is a net
inflow of migrants with very large numbers of immigrants and relatively few emigrants.
The large number of immigrants which pour into the USA and their descendants are the
main reason for the current rate of growth in the US population.

 Due to reductions in the fertility and birth rates, population growth in Jamaica has

slowed down quite a bit in the last few decades. However, the population of the USA

continues to grow fairly quickly.

Case Study – Dominica
Dominica is a small Caribbean island located in the Lesser
Antilles. It has an area of 751 square kilometers. In July of
2011, its population was estimated to be 73,126. Therefore
the population density of Dominica works out to be roughly
97 per sq km. The CSEC/CXC syllabus requires that you study
population distribution in one Caribbean territory. Dominica
happens to be a good choice for this.

Population Distribution in Dominica

Population distribution refers to the way in which people are
spread out over an area. You may have noticed that the
interior of Dominica is very mountainous. You may also have
noticed that there are no major settlements in the mountainous areas. Therefore it is clear
that relief or topography is a major factor affecting population distribution in Dominica. Since
the interior of the island is very mountainous, most settlements are located in the flatter areas
near the coast. It is easier to build roads, houses and other buildings and also to practice
agriculture in flatter areas.
The greatest population densities exist in and around the capital Roseau as it is the main
commercial, cultural and social centre in the country. In the north, high population densities
exist in the area in and around Portsmouth which is the main commercial centre in the north of
the island. On the west coast of the island the population is mostly concentrated in various
nucleated settlements. On the east coast, the population is more dispersed.

International Migration
Migration may be defined as the movement of people (or animals) from one place to another.
People sometimes move from one country to another. This is called international migration.
People may choose to move to another country for many reasons. People may move to another
country seeking work, education or training, to join parents or other family members already
living overseas or even to escape persecution in another country. Some people move to other
countries, stay for months or a few years to work or study (or for some other reason) and then
return to their country of origin. This is known as short term migration. Other people make a
permanent home in another country. This is known as long term migration. The CXC/ CSEC
syllabus requires students to study the pattern and consequences of migration in one
Caribbean country. The Jamaican experience with migration is similar to the experience of
many other Caribbean countries.
 
Migration: The Jamaican Experience
There is a rather large flow of migrants from Jamaica. Most of these migrants travel to the
United States of America (USA), Canada and England. A few travel to other countries outside of
the Caribbean. Some travel to other Caribbean territories. Some people are seasonal migrants
who work in hotels or on farms in the USA. Others attempt to make permanent homes in other
countries.
There is a much smaller flow of migrants into Jamaica. Some of them are people who return to
Jamaica after living overseas for many years. Others have obtained work permits and moved
from places like India, the USA or other Caribbean countries.
 
The Effects of International Migration on Jamaica

 Because the outflow of migrants from Jamaica is much greater than the inflow of
migrants to that country, migration helps to slow down the rate of population growth.
Also, most emigrants are young people who would probably have children in Jamaica if
they remained there. Therefore, migration also helps to reduce the birth rate.
 Many emigrants are young, talented, ambitious, skilled or educated. These people may
have made a great contribution to their home country if they had remained there.
Jamaica, like many other countries loses many of its skilled, trained and educated
people through migration.
 Many migrants send money back home to their children, siblings or other relatives.
These sums of money are known as remittances. In Jamaica, remittances often bring in
as much money into the country as tourism.
 Many Jamaicans who live overseas return to Jamaica from time to time as tourists to
visit friends and family. They rent vehicles, patronize restaurants and other business
places and stay at hotels or guests houses. The country benefits from these people just
as it would from other tourists.
 Emigration often leads to further emigration. Children, parents or other relatives often
migrate to join migrants who have established themselves overseas.
 Some emigrants eventually return to Jamaica. Some return after retiring. Some have
acquired some qualifications or skills overseas and return to work. Some may have
substantial savings which they may use to start a business or build a home.
 Some migrants are forced to return to Jamaica. Some are deported for being in these
countries illegally or because they have been convicted of criminal acts. Others are
required to return because their work or student visas have expired.
Peasant Farming in Guyana
Peasant farming refers to a type of small-scale agriculture. Peasant farmers grow crops and

often rear some livestock on a small scale. Some of the produce is used to feed the family and

the surplus is sold. In Guyana, many farmers practice this type of agriculture on the narrow

coastal plain. An average peasant farm in Guyana is less than 10 acres in size. The farmer and

family members provide most of the labour. Most of the land is used for growing crops.

Peasant farmers grow a variety of crops including tomatoes, cabbages, peppers, ginger, yams,

legumes and rice. Crop rotation is usually practiced. For instance, small farmers often rotate

legumes with peppers or vegetable crops. Peasant farmers often rear some livestock including

chickens, ducks and other small animals. Farming is done using mostly labour-intensive

methods and traditional hand tools. Several irrigation channels or canals are used to supply

crops with water. Manure and compost are used as fertilizers. More modern methods are

sometimes employed especially for the cultivation of rice. Tractors may be used to prepare the

land. Chemical fertilizers are used. Combine harvesters are sometimes hired to harvest rice

when needed.

Wheat Farming in Canada

The prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) are the most important
agricultural regions in Canada. They encompass an area of approximately 1.96 million square
kilometers. This area experiences a large annual range of temperature, ranging from below
freezing in winter to about 18 degrees Celcius in summer. Rainfall is generally light with
most areas receiving 250mm – 500mm of rain per year.The soil is deep and has a high humus
content. Wheat farming is an important activity on the Canadian Prairies.
Wheat is one of the world’s important cereal crops. More land is used for growing wheat than
any other crop in the world. Wheat is processed to produced wheat flour which in turn is used
to make many of the things we eat. In order for wheat to thrive, the following conditions are
necessary:
 Annual rainfall between 300mm and 500mm, most of which should occur in the growing
season.
 Temperatures should be between 15 and 21 degrees Celsius during the three month
growing period.
  Large areas of flat land to enable the use of large machines.
 Deep, humus rich soil.
All these conditions exist on the Canadian Prairies. Therefore, this area is ideal for growing
wheat.

Trends in Canadian Wheat Farming

Wheat farms are very large. Many are over 600 hectares in size.  This is an extensive form of
agriculture. The yield per hectare is low, however, farms are so large that farmers are able to
make large profits.
Wheat farming is capital intensive. There is a very heavy reliance on machinery for ploughing,
planting, spraying the crop and harvesting. A large proportion of expenditure goes toward
machinery, chemicals and other equipment. Most of the work can be handled by just a few
workers using machines such as combine harvesters and harrows. One or two extra helpers
may be hired during planting or harvest time.
The trend on the Canadian Prairies is towards larger farms. For instance, average farm size in
Saskatchewan is now about 675 hectares. The number of farms has decreased significantly
during the past few decades. There is also a trend toward using less labour and more
machinery. The machinery being used is also becoming more sophisticated.

Tourism in Barbados
Why do tourists visit Barbados?
Over half a million tourists visit Barbados every year. Many vacationers choose to go to
Barbados for one or more of the following reasons:
 Natural attractions: Barbados has several beautiful beaches which are well
maintained and the sea water is crystal clear. There are also features such as
Blackmans Gully, Barbados Wildlife Reserve and Harrison’s Cave which have
been developed for tourism.
 Cultural attractions: The annual Crop Over festival attracts many visitors to Barbados.
Barbados also has a rich history. Many historic sites and buildings such as Sunbury
plantation house and St. Nicholas Abbey.
 Sports: Tourists can engage in water sports such as surfing or windsurfing. There are
land-based sporting activities such as golf or tennis. Also, international cricket matches
attract thousands of visitors.
  Accessibility: Barbados is easy to get to. It has an international airport with direct
flights to Europe and North America. Tourists do not have to deal with the hassle of
getting a connecting flight.
 Accommodation: There are may different types of hotels and other forms of
accommodation to fit just about any budget or taste. There are inexpensive guest
houses with bed and breakfast. There are luxury accommodations in some of the
world’s best hotels. Tourists can also rent self-catering apartments, cottages or elegant
villas. There are also hotels for sports enthusiasts.

Challenges facing tourism in Barbados

   Competing Destinations: Barbados was one of the first tropical islands to develop its
tourism product. Today there are many other well established tropical destinations in
the Caribbean and elsewhere. It is now more difficult to make Barbados stand out when
there are so many tropical islands to choose from.
   Cruise Ships: An increasing number of tourists are taking cruises instead of land based
vacations. Cruise ship passengers are less valuable than those who stay on the island as
they do not pay for accommodation.
   High Cost: Some destinations have lower utility costs than Barbados and can charge
less for accommodation. This may make Barbados less attractive to vacationers on a
tight budget.
  Traffic: Increased car ownership has led to traffic congestion which inconveniences
tourists who do not expect to deal with this problem in a tropical paradise.