teChnICaL anaLysIs

Dr. Lavern D. Wedeven

What Is EHD?
Editor’s Note: The life of many highly-
loaded machine elements relies on the for-
mation of a very thin elastohydrodynamic
(EHD) oil film between surfaces in mo-
tion. Its formation results from the combi-
examining the concepts involved
nation of a remarkable set of circum-
stances rarely appreciated. This article
in hydrodynamic lubrication is
endeavors to explain the mechanism of
elastohydrodynamic lubrication with
fundamental to our understanding
simple physical concepts that are easy to of elastohydrodynamics.
understand.

the LuBrICatIon oF ruBBInG surFaCes In MaChInes is accomplished by separat-

ing them or protecting them in some way so that detrimental effects of high wear or
Key concepTs high friction can be eliminated. This is generally achieved by the formation of a film
of material between the surfaces in motion. This film carries the load and bears the
• The success of a lubrication shear between the surfaces. These lubricating films are formed by many mechanisms
of lubrication, which fall under the general classifications of boundary, hydrodynamic
system in a machine relies on
and EHD. Some of these mechanisms rely on the chemical properties of the lubricant
the performance of many and its additives, while others rely more on the physical properties such as viscosity.
mechanisms of lubrication. Thus, the lubricating film may be of a liquid nature produced by the generation of
hydrodynamic pressure or it may be of a solid nature as the result of adsorption or
• The most dominant feature of chemical reactions at the solid surfaces.
elastohydrodynamic lubrica- In general, the success of a lubrication system in a machine relies on the perfor-
tion is the Hertzian condition mance of many mechanisms of lubrication. The lubrication system is like a team
whose success depends on the performance of the individual players. Each mecha-
of contact.
nism of lubrication has a task to perform, and the overall success depends on the
team effort.
• The conjunction zone of a
The objective of this article is to describe the mechanism of EHD lubrication. The
typical EHD contact is divided subject of elastohydrodynamics has been around since the early 1950s. Unfortunate-
into three general regions. ly, the literature has not always been very helpful in examining what EHD really is. Its
real meaning is frequently obscured by differential equations and computer solutions.

12 • NOVEMBER 2012 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 The mechanism of EHD lubrication is basically quite sim- closing The gap
ple and really doesn’t deserve such a long name. It is essen- Consider now the flow of fluid between two converging sur-
tially an extension of ordinary hydrodynamic lubrication, faces shown in Figure 2 (a). Here the top surface, which is of
which was described by Osborne Reynolds back in 1886.1 finite length, is at an angle to the bottom one. The gap be-
The concepts involved in hydrodynamic lubrication are fun- tween the surfaces is thicker at the inlet than it is at the out-
damental to the understanding of elastohydrodynamics, and let. The fluid adjacent to the lower surface moves with a ve-
this is where we begin. locity u and the fluid adjacent to the upper surface is
stationary. The inlet region would like to drag in fluid uni-
ViscoUs floW, formly with a velocity distribution that is linear and the out-
paRallel sURfaces let region would like to drag out fluid with a linear velocity
First, consider the flow of fluid between two parallel surfaces, distribution. The amount of fluid coming in is represented by
as shown in Figure 1. The fluid molecules adjacent to the the area of the triangle in the inlet and the amount of fluid go-
solid surfaces adsorb* or stick to it. Thus, the molecules on ing out is represented by the area of the triangle at the outlet.
the bottom surface move with it at a velocity u; and, the mol- Since the triangle in the inlet is bigger, we find that the
ecules on the top surface remain stationary. The molecules of inlet would like to take more fluid in than the outlet will al-
fluid in between are dragged along by the bottom surface. The low out. This jamming of the fluid into a converging region
velocity of the fluid at various positions within the film is creates a pressure between the surfaces, as shown in Figure
shown by the arrows in Figure 1. Note that the velocity of the 2(b). The high pressure in the center forces the fluid to slow
fluid increases linearly from the top surface to the bottom. down in the inlet and makes it go faster at the outlet so that
The cohesive forces between the molecules of a fluid cre- the flow coming in will equal the flow going out.
ate an inherent resistance to flow, which is expressed to terms
of its viscosity. Therefore, it requires a force to move the bot-
tom surface relative to the top one. The amount of force re-
quired depends on the viscosity of the fluid. The force also
depends on the rate at which the fluid molecules are being
sheared. The rate of shear for the linear velocity distribution
shown in Figure 1 is proportional to the surface velocity u
and inversely proportional to the thickness of the film h.
Thus, an increase in u or a decrease in h will require a greater
force to move the bottom surface. This force is parallel to the
surfaces. There is no lifting force which is required for lubri-
cation. (a) Flow in cannot be larger than flow out.

Figure 1 | Viscous flow between parallel surfaces

On the other hand, if the surfaces were allowed to collapse,

it would take a finite time for the fluid to squeeze out. The
momentary lifting force by the fluid, while the surfaces are
normally approaching, is called a hydrodynamic squeeze film. (b) Hydrodynamic pressure generation.
The hydrodynamic squeeze film is a useful concept to remem-
ber in connection with the mechanism of EHD lubrication. Figure 2 | Viscous flow between nonparallel surfaces

* The adsorption of liquids onto solid surfaces is due to physical and chemical forces of attraction. The formation of adsorbed material on solid surfaces is
fundamental to the mechanism of boundary lubrication.

Name the speaker: “Bad times have a scientific value. These are occasions a good learner would not miss” 13
(Ralph Waldo Emerson, poet)
 The pressure that is generated creates a lifting force which Figure 4 illustrates the nonconforming surfaces of a ball
separates the surfaces with an oil film. This pressure is a hy- bearing. The ball and raceway conform to some degree in
drodynamic pressure and the separating of the surfaces due one direction, but the side view of the bearing shows that the
to this pressure is called hydrodynamic lubrication. The load curvatures of the ball and race have very little degree of con-
that this bearing can carry depends on the hydrodynamic formity. There was very little belief up until the early 1950s
pressure generated. If the viscosity of the fluid is increased, a that these nonconforming surfaces with their extremely
greater pressure will be generated, since more work will be small area of contact could be separated by an oil film. The
needed to slow the fluid down in the inlet. Increasing the lubrication of these nonconforming surfaces leads us to EHD
velocity u will also increase the pressure, since it will have to lubrication.
slow the fluid down at a faster rate.
There are three basic requirements for the generation of a
hydrodynamic pressure of the type shown in Figure 2(b):
(1.) the surfaces must be moving, (2.) they must be converg-
ing and (3.) a viscous fluid must be between them.
The bearing shown in Figure 2(b) is a simple bearing. It
is called a slider bearing or pad bearing. Several of these pads
arranged in a circle make a thrust bearing of the type found
in many machines.
Another common bearing, which is hydrodynamically lu-
bricated, is the journal bearing shown in Figure 3. Here the
converging surfaces are formed by virtue of the fact that the
journal is not concentric with the bearing housing. When
the journal rotates, it drags fluid into the converging region, Figure 4 | Ball bearing components
thus generating a pressure which separates the surfaces.

heRTZ The opposiTion

Let us consider first of all the contact condition between two
nonconforming surfaces to see what the mechanism of EHD
lubrication is up against. The contacting surfaces of bearings
and gears may be represented by a sphere or cylinder loaded
against a flat surface, as shown in Figure 5(a). The load,
which presses the two bodies together, causes the surfaces to
elastically deform and contact each other over a small but
finite region of contact. This condition of elastic contact is

(a) Equivalent sphere or cylinder

on a flat surface.

Figure 3 | Journal bearing

The nonconfoRmisTs
Hydrodynamic lubrication is characterized by surfaces that
are conforming. That is, the surfaces fit onto or into each
other quite well so that the load is carried over a relatively
large area. There are many machine elements whose contact-
ing surfaces do not conform to each other very well at all.
The full burden of the load must then be carried by a very
small area of contact. Some examples of these nonconform- (b) Local region of contact.
ing surfaces are mating gear teeth, cam and followers and
rolling element bearings. Figure 5 | Hertzian condition for dry contact

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named after Heinrich Hertz who, in 1881, analyzed the con-
tact between elastic bodies under conditions where the re-
gion of contact is very much smaller than the radius of cur-
vature.2 A close-up view of the intimate region of contact is
shown in Figure 5(b). The load gives rise to a pressure called
the Hertzian pressure, which is distributed over a small re-
gion of contact called the Hertzian region. The pressure has
a parabolic distribution, being high in the middle and dimin-
ishing to zero at the edges of the contact. Typical maximum
Hertzian pressures found in bearing and gear contacts are
very high, on the order of 1.4 x 109 N/m2 (200,000 psi). Note
that this Hertzian pressure is an elastic pressure due to the
elastic deformation of the surfaces.
The Hertzian condition of contact is a dominating feature
of EHD lubrication. It establishes the overall shape of the
contacting surfaces. Thus, if we were to follow the journey of
a fluid particle passing between the surfaces, it would first of
all encounter a converging region, followed by a flat region,
and finally it would be exposed to a diverging region. As stat-
ed before, one of the requirements for the generation of hy-
drodynamic pressure is that the surfaces must be converging.
Figure 6 | Effect of pressure on viscosity of a synthetic paraffinic oil
Therefore, we should expect all of the action to be in the
at 38 C (100 F).
converging region. The hydrodynamic pressure generated in
this region has the task of separating the surfaces, which are
being forced together by the enormous pressure in the Hertz-
ian region. When we consider that typical maximum Hertz- The influence of pressure on viscosity is usually given by
ian pressures may be on the order of 1.4 x 109 N/m2 (200,000 a straight line, as shown in Figure 6, which has the equation:
psi) and that the usual hydrodynamic pressures generated in
journal bearings are on the order of only 7 x 106 N/m2 (1,000 μ = μoeαp [1]
psi) or less, there doesn’t seem to be much hope for the es-
tablishment of an oil film under these conditions. where μ is the viscosity at pressure p and μ0 is the viscosity at
atmospheric pressure. The exponent α is a property of the
anKle-Deep-in-cheese fluid called the pressure-viscosity coefficient. When α is
The power of elastoydrodynamics is derived from two im- large, the viscosity rises rapidly with pressure. When α is
portant considerations, which together provide the team- small, the viscosity rises slowly with pressure.
work necessary to separate the surfaces. The first is that
typical EHD films are very much thinner (about 1,000 times hyDRoDynamics VeRsUs heRTZ
thinner) than they are long. If, for example, the Hertzian re- Figure 7 shows the flow of fluid in the convergent inlet re-
gion were the length of a football field and you were standing gion where hydrodynamic pressure is generated. It should be
on the field, a typical EHD oil film would only be about ankle noted that this figure was drawn using two conventions that
deep. are frequently employed to graphically illustrate an EHD
The second important consideration is the effect of pres- conjunction region. First, because typical EHD oil films are
sure on the viscosity of the fluid. Figure 6 shows how the very much thinner than they are long, the vertical dimen-
application of pressure influences the viscosity of a synthetic sions are usually expanded about 1,000 times greater than
hydrocarbon at 38 C (100 F). The viscosity, which is given in the horizontal dimensions. If this were not done, the thick-
centipose (cp), is plotted on a logarithmic scale because it ness of a typical EHD oil film, if it were drawn to scale, would
increases very rapidly with pressure. At atmospheric pres- be less than the thickness of the horizontal line shown in the
sure, the viscosity is about 350 cp (approximately the same Hertzian region of Figure 5(b). The second convention il-
consistency as an SAE 30 motor oil). At 0.14 x 109 N/m2 lustrates the contacting surfaces of machine elements with
(20,000 psi), the viscosity has increased one order of magni- an equivalent sphere or cylinder on a flat surface with all the
tude to 3,500 cp. The fluid at this pressure has a consistency elastic deformation represented in the curved body.
approaching that of molasses. At typical Hertzian pressures The shape of the convergent region, as shown in Figure 7,
of 1.4 x 109 N/m2 (200,000 psi), the fluid viscosity can in- must be viewed with this in mind. The real shape of the con-
crease several orders of magnitude so that its consistency vergent inlet region, where hydrodynamic pressure is gener-
may be more like butter or cheese. ated, is actually very long and narrow.

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY NOVEMBER 2012 • 15

 are very similar to the Hertzian pressure and shape except at
the leading and trailing edges of the Hertzian region. The
high local pressure and local constriction at the trailing edge
is a result of the requirement to maintain continuity of flow.
If there were no constriction, the sudden drop in pressure
would force more fluid out than was coming in. Therefore,
the surfaces deform in such a manner that they restrict the
flow going out.

The TRiniTy
The conjunction zone of a typical EHD contact can be con-
veniently divided up into three general regions, as shown in
Figure 8. Each region performs a particular function. The
inlet region pumps the film up. The Hertzian region rides it
and the outlet region discharges it. The viscous character of
Figure 7 | Flow distribution within the convergent inlet region the fluid, while passing through these regions, changes dras-
tically, going from an easy flowing liquid to a pseudosolid
and back to an easy flowing liquid within a matter of milli-
The surfaces shown in Figure 7 are in pure rolling, each seconds. The viscous properties of the fluid in each region
moving with the same velocity, u. Each surface carries with it are determined by the temperature, pressure and shear con-
a certain quantity of fluid, which joins together at some loca- ditions the fluid encounters or creates in each region. It is
tion to fill the gap between the surfaces. Fluid adjacent to important to know how these conditions influence the vis-
each surface is attached to it and travels with it. Because the cous character of the fluid, since viscosity plays an important
surfaces are converging, the fluid in the interior of the film is role in how these regions function.
forced to slow down and may even flow backwards. Just as For example, the film-forming capability of the hydrody-
we saw before, this slowing down of the fluid generates a namic pressure generated in the inlet region is governed by
hydrodynamic pressure. As the pressure rises in the inlet re-
gion, the viscosity also rises with it. The higher viscosity pro-
duces even higher pressure. When the fluid reaches the lead-
ing edge of the Hertzian region, the viscosity of the fluid may
have increased one order of magnitude and the hydrodynam-
ic pressure may have reached typical values of 0.14 x 109 N/
m2 (20,000 psi). This hydrodynamic pressure must compete
with the Hertzian pressure. While the hydrodynamic pres-
sure is trying to separate the surfaces, the Hertzian pressure
is trying to force them together.
The hydrodynamic pressure generated in the convergent
inlet region is much lower than the maximum Hertzian pres-
sure. Nevertheless, the hydrodynamic pressure is capable of
separating the surfaces, and it does so in a very subtle way. It
cannot compete with the Hertzian pressure in the center
where the pressure is very high, but it can overcome the
Hertzian pressure at the leading edge of the Hertzian region Figure 8 | Elastohydrodynamic pressure and shape
where the pressure is much lower. If it does this, and if it
separates the surfaces here, then the hydrodynamic pressure
will have achieved total surface separation. Total surface sep- the local viscosity throughout this region. Because the inlet
aration is achieved because of time. Once the fluid gets into region is very narrow, the viscosity is controlled by the tem-
the leading edge of the Hertzian region, it cannot escape be- perature of the solid surfaces. The variation of viscosity with
cause the viscosity becomes too high and the film is too thin. pressure is usually accounted for by the α-parameter of
There will not be enough time for the Hertzian pressure to Equation[1], which is sufficiently accurate over the pressure
squeeze the fluid out because the motion of the surfaces range encountered within the inlet region. It is the viscous
passes the fluid through the Hertzian region very quickly properties of the fluid, as governed by these pressure and
(typically on the order of milliseconds). temperature conditions within the inlet region, that influ-
The final pressure that is achieved, as well as the overall ences the thickness of the oil film, which is observed in the
shape, are shown in Figure 8. The final pressure and shape Hertzian region.

16 • NOVEMBER 2012 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 By the time the fluid has entered the Hertzian region, it
has completed its task of pumping the film up. The viscous (μou)0.7 α0.54R0.43
hm = 2.65 —————— [2]
character of the fluid in the Hertzian region is important, E0.03w0.13
primarily in connection with sliding friction (sometimes
called traction). Sliding friction is derived from the Hertzian
region because the film is very thin and its viscosity is ex- Where hm = film thickness at the rear constriction
tremely high. The tremendous enhancement of viscosity μ0 = viscosity at atmospheric pressure
with pressure is offset to some degree by frictional heating of α = pressure-viscosity coefficient as defined in
the fluid in the Hertzian region, as well as possible shear and Equation [1]
time-dependent effects on viscosity. Nevertheless, friction u = velocity defined as u = ½ (u1 + u2) where
coefficients as high as 0.1 can still be achieved under certain u1 and u2 are the individual velocities of the
conditions. moving surfaces
R = radius of equivalent cylinder
w = load per unit width
E = elastic modulus of equivalent cylinder
The viscous properties of the fluid in each (flat surface assumed completely rigid)
region are determined by the temperature,
pressure and shear conditions the fluid The above equation shows that film thickness is most
sensitive to the velocity (u), the lubricant properties (μo and
encounters or creates in each region. α) and the radius of curvature (R). An increase in any one of
these parameters, which are the numerator of Equation [2],
will result in a larger film thickness. The denominator has
After the fluid leaves the Hertzian region, it enters a di- two parameters (E and w) which tend to decrease film thick-
verging region which attempts to generate negative pres- ness. However, neither the load w nor the elastic modulus E
sures. When small subambient pressures are reached, the influence film thickness very much since their exponents are
gases, which are dissolved in the fluid, come out of solution very small (0.13 and 0.03). It is somewhat ironic that the
and fill the space between the surfaces in the outlet region. type of lubrication which bears the name elastohydrodynam-
This film cavitation or “passing gas” terminates the pressure ic shows very little dependence on the elasticity of the mate-
profile. rials. As long as the elastic deformation is similar to the
Hertzian deformation, it doesn’t matter if the elastic modulus
pReDicTing film ThicKness is high like that of tungsten carbide or low like that of alumi-
The practical importance of the mechanism of EHD lubrica- num or glass.
tion lies in the thickness of the oil film between the surfaces. If the elastic modulus is extremely low, like that of rubber,
Its thickness is controlled by the operating conditions ex- the pressure will not be sufficient to enhance the viscosity of
pressed in terms of various operating parameters such as sur- the fluid. The mechanism of lubrication, while still elastohy-
face velocity, load and fluid viscosity. drodynamic, cannot be described by Equation [2] since it
The influence of these parameters on film thickness includes the pressure-viscosity coefficient α.
should be obvious if the basic concepts of elastohydrody- For moderately hard materials, the theoretical prediction
namics have been understood. For example, a change in any of film thickness, as represented by Equation [2], has been
parameter, which causes a greater hydrodynamic pressure to verified by experimental measurements. These measure-
be generated in the inlet region, will result in a larger film ments are difficult to make because typical EHD films are
thickness. Thus, an increase in surface velocity or fluid vis- extremely thin (on the order of 0.5 x 10-6 m or 20 x 10-6 in).
cosity will result in a larger film thickness. One measurement technique that has been used is optical
An important feature of EHD lubrication is that the influ- interferometry, which uses the wavelength of light as a unit
ence of load on film thickness is very small. This is not sur- of measure. Figure 9 shows a photomicrograph of the light
prising if one considers that an increase in load merely in- interference fringes, which have formed between a steel ball
creases the maximum Hertzian pressure and makes the rolling against a glass surface. The circular area is the Hertz-
Hertzian region larger. It does very little to the inlet region ian region. The fluid passes through the Hertzian region
where the hydrodynamic pressure is generated. from left to right with its cavitation clearly visible in the out-
The influence of various operating parameters on film let region. The interference colors in the Hertzian region pro-
thickness can be shown with an equation. One of the early vide a contour map of the thickness of the oil film. The green
equations (see Equation [2]) has been derived from theory3 color in the center indicates that the film is very parallel ex-
for a line contact geometry represented by a cylinder on a cept for the constrictions at the rear and sides of the Hertzian
plane, as shown in Figure 5 (a) on page 14. region. The side constrictions are the result of side leakage of

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 Although these pressures may be much smaller than the
maximum Hertzian pressure, they are still sufficient to sep-
arate the surfaces at the leading edge of the Hertzian region.
Once this is achieved, the fluid finds that it cannot escape
because its viscosity is too high, the gap between the sur-
faces in the Hertzian region is too thin and the time is too
short.

Vern Wedeven is an STLE Fellow and the founder of

Wedeven Associates, Inc., in Edgmont, Pa. You can
reach him at vwedeven@wedeven.com.
Figure 9 | Photomicrograph of optical interference fringes formed
between a steel ball and glass surface.

RefeRences
the fluid immediately upstream in the inlet region. This side 1. Reynolds, O., “On the Theory of Lubrication and its Ap-
leakage inhibits the generation of hydrodynamic pressure, plication to Mr. Beauchamp Tower’s Experiments Includ-
which results in a smaller film thickness. ing an Experimental Determination of the Viscosity of
Olive Oil,” Phil. Trans., (1886), 177, (i), pp. 157-234.
TicKle oR scRaTch 2. Hertz, Heinrich, R., Reine Angew. Math. (Crelle’s j.), 92,
The thickness of EHD lubricating films found in bearings 1881, pp. 156-171.
and gears is frequently not much larger than the height of 3. Dowson, D., “Elastohydrodynamics,” Proc. Inst. Mech.
individual asperity roughness on the surfaces. If total surface Engrs., 182, Part 3A, 1967-68, pp. 151-167.
separation can be achieved, the life of bearing and gear com-
ponents can be expected to be very
long, being limited ultimately by fa-
tigue of the metal surfaces. However,
when total separation of the surfaces is
not achieved, the load is supported
partially by the EHD film and partially Herguth Laboratories, Inc….
by local areas of asperity contact. People and Data You Can Count On!
These local areas of contact are vulner-
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perity heights is an important design has over 25 years of client dedication and service with
criteria. It will determine whether the firsts to prove it.
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ties is just tickle or a scratch. First independant oil analysis lab to:

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18 • NOVEMBER 2012 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG