Bab 6 Getaran

Elastisitas

Hukum Hooke

F = kx

- Susunan pegas seri - Susunan pegas paralel

Kp= K1+K2
1 1 1
 
Ks K1 K2

Usaha untuk mengubah panjang pegas :

W = Ep = Ep2 – Ep1 = ½ ky22 – ½ ky12

Free vibration without damping

To start the investigation of the mass–spring–damper we will assume the damping is

negligible and that there is no external force applied to the mass (i.e. free vibration).

The force applied to the mass by the spring is proportional to the amount the spring is
stretched "x" (we will assume the spring is already compressed due to the weight of the
mass). The proportionality constant, k, is the stiffness of the spring and has units of
force/distance (e.g. lbf/in or N/m)
The force generated by the mass is proportional to the acceleration of the mass as given by
Newton’s second law of motion.

The sum of the forces on the mass then generates this ordinary differential equation:

Simple harmonic motion of the mass–spring system

If we assume that we start the system to vibrate by stretching the spring by the distance of A
and letting go, the solution to the above equation that describes the motion of mass is:

This solution says that it will oscillate with simple harmonic motion that has an amplitude of
A and a frequency of fn. The number fn is one of the most important quantities in vibration
analysis and is called the undamped natural frequency. For the simple mass–spring system,
fn is defined as:

Note: Angular frequency ω (ω = 2πf) with the units of radians per second is often used in
equations because it simplifies the equations, but is normally converted to “standard”
frequency (units of Hz or equivalently cycles per second) when stating the frequency of a
system.
If you know the mass and stiffness of the system you can determine the frequency at which
the system will vibrate once it is set in motion by an initial disturbance using the above stated
formula. Every vibrating system has one or more natural frequencies that it will vibrate at
once it is disturbed. This simple relation can be used to understand in general what will
happen to a more complex system once we add mass or stiffness. For example, the above
formula explains why when a car or truck is fully loaded the suspension will feel “softer”
than unloaded because the mass has increased and therefore reduced the natural frequency of
the system.

[edit] What causes the system to vibrate: from conservation of energy point
of view

Vibrational motion could be understood in terms of conservation of energy. In the above

example we have extended the spring by a value of x and therefore have stored some
potential energy ( ) in the spring. Once we let go of the spring, the spring tries to return
to its un-stretched state (which is the minimum potential energy state) and in the process
accelerates the mass. At the point where the spring has reached its un-stretched state all the
potential energy that we supplied by stretching it has been transformed into kinetic energy
( ). The mass then begins to decelerate because it is now compressing the spring and in
the process transferring the kinetic energy back to its potential. Thus oscillation of the spring
amounts to the transferring back and forth of the kinetic energy into potential energy.

In our simple model the mass will continue to oscillate forever at the same magnitude, but in
a real system there is always something called damping that dissipates the energy and
therefore the system eventually bringing it to rest.

[edit] Free vibration with damping

We now add a "viscous" damper to the model that outputs a force that is proportional to the
velocity of the mass. The damping is called viscous because it models the effects of an object
within a fluid. The proportionality constant c is called the damping coefficient and has units
of Force over velocity (lbf s/ in or N s/m).

By summing the forces on the mass we get the following ordinary differential equation:
The solution to this equation depends on the amount of damping. If the damping is small
enough the system will still vibrate, but eventually, over time, will stop vibrating. This case is
called underdamping – this case is of most interest in vibration analysis. If we increase the
damping just to the point where the system no longer oscillates we reach the point of critical
damping (if the damping is increased past critical damping the system is called overdamped).
The value that the damping coefficient needs to reach for critical damping in the mass spring
damper model is:

To characterize the amount of damping in a system a ratio called the damping ratio (also
known as damping factor and % critical damping) is used. This damping ratio is just a ratio of
the actual damping over the amount of damping required to reach critical damping. The
formula for the damping ratio (ζ) of the mass spring damper model is:

For example, metal structures (e.g. airplane fuselage, engine crankshaft) will have damping
factors less than 0.05 while automotive suspensions in the range of 0.2–0.3.

The solution to the underdamped system for the mass spring damper model is the following:
The value of X, the initial magnitude, and φ, the phase shift, are determined by the amount
the spring is stretched. The formulas for these values can be found in the references.

The major points to note from the solution are the exponential term and the cosine function.
The exponential term defines how quickly the system “damps” down – the larger the
damping ratio, the quicker it damps to zero. The cosine function is the oscillating portion of
the solution, but the frequency of the oscillations is different from the undamped case.

The frequency in this case is called the "damped natural frequency", fd, and is related to the
undamped natural frequency by the following formula:

The damped natural frequency is less than the undamped natural frequency, but for many
practical cases the damping ratio is relatively small and hence the difference is negligible.
Therefore the damped and undamped description are often dropped when stating the natural
frequency (e.g. with 0.1 damping ratio, the damped natural frequency is only 1% less than the
undamped).

The plots to the side present how 0.1 and 0.3 damping ratios effect how the system will
“ring” down over time. What is often done in practice is to experimentally measure the free
vibration after an impact (for example by a hammer) and then determine the natural
frequency of the system by measuring the rate of oscillation as well as the damping ratio by
measuring the rate of decay. The natural frequency and damping ratio are not only important
in free vibration, but also characterize how a system will behave under forced vibration.

[edit] Forced vibration with damping

In this section we will look at the behavior of the spring mass damper model when we add a
harmonic force in the form below. A force of this type could, for example, be generated by a
rotating imbalance.

If we again sum the forces on the mass we get the following ordinary differential equation:

The steady state solution of this problem can be written as:

The result states that the mass will oscillate at the same frequency, f, of the applied force, but
with a phase shift φ.

The amplitude of the vibration “X” is defined by the following formula.

Where “r” is defined as the ratio of the harmonic force frequency over the undamped natural
frequency of the mass–spring–damper model.

The phase shift , φ, is defined by following formula.

The plot of these functions, called "the frequency response of the system", presents one of the
most important features in forced vibration. In a lightly damped system when the forcing
frequency nears the natural frequency ( ) the amplitude of the vibration can get
extremely high. This phenomenon is called resonance (subsequently the natural frequency of
a system is often referred to as the resonant frequency). In rotor bearing systems any
rotational speed that excites a resonant frequency is referred to as a critical speed.

If resonance occurs in a mechanical system it can be very harmful – leading to eventual

failure of the system. Consequently, one of the major reasons for vibration analysis is to
predict when this type of resonance may occur and then to determine what steps to take to
prevent it from occurring. As the amplitude plot shows, adding damping can significantly
reduce the magnitude of the vibration. Also, the magnitude can be reduced if the natural
frequency can be shifted away from the forcing frequency by changing the stiffness or mass
of the system. If the system cannot be changed, perhaps the forcing frequency can be shifted
(for example, changing the speed of the machine generating the force).

The following are some other points in regards to the forced vibration shown in the frequency
response plots.

 At a given frequency ratio, the amplitude of the vibration, X, is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the force F0 (e.g. if you double the force, the vibration doubles)
 With little or no damping, the vibration is in phase with the forcing frequency when the
frequency ratio r < 1 and 180 degrees out of phase when the frequency ratio r > 1
 When r ≪ 1 the amplitude is just the deflection of the spring under the static force F0. This
deflection is called the static deflection δst. Hence, when r ≪ 1 the effects of the damper and
the mass are minimal.
 When r ≫ 1 the amplitude of the vibration is actually less than the static deflection δst. In
this region the force generated by the mass (F = ma) is dominating because the acceleration
seen by the mass increases with the frequency. Since the deflection seen in the spring, X, is
reduced in this region, the force transmitted by the spring (F = kx) to the base is reduced.
Therefore the mass–spring–damper system is isolating the harmonic force from the
mounting base – referred to as vibration isolation. Interestingly, more damping actually
reduces the effects of vibration isolation when r ≫ 1 because the damping force (F = cv) is
also transmitted to the base.
[edit] What causes resonance?

Resonance is simple to understand if you view the spring and mass as energy storage
elements – with the mass storing kinetic energy and the spring storing potential energy. As
discussed earlier, when the mass and spring have no force acting on them they transfer energy
back and forth at a rate equal to the natural frequency. In other words, if energy is to be
efficiently pumped into both the mass and spring the energy source needs to feed the energy
in at a rate equal to the natural frequency. Applying a force to the mass and spring is similar
to pushing a child on swing, you need to push at the correct moment if you want the swing to
get higher and higher. As in the case of the swing, the force applied does not necessarily have
to be high to get large motions; the pushes just need to keep adding energy into the system.

The damper, instead of storing energy, dissipates energy. Since the damping force is
proportional to the velocity, the more the motion, the more the damper dissipates the energy.
Therefore a point will come when the energy dissipated by the damper will equal the energy
being fed in by the force. At this point, the system has reached its maximum amplitude and
will continue to vibrate at this level as long as the force applied stays the same. If no damping
exists, there is nothing to dissipate the energy and therefore theoretically the motion will
continue to grow on into infinity.

Mass on Spring Resonance

A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency determined by
its spring constant k and the mass m. Using Hooke's law and
neglecting damping and the mass of the spring, Newton's second
law gives the equation of motion:

The solution to this differential equation is of the form:

which when substituted into the motion equation gives:

Collecting terms gives B=mg/k, which is just the stretch of the

spring by the weight, and the expression for the resonant vibrational
frequency:
 This kind of motion is called simple harmonic motion and the
system a simple harmonic oscillator.

Definition

Free vibration (no external force) of a single degree-of-freedom system with viscous damping
can be illustrated as,

Damping that produces a damping force proportional to the mass's velocity is commonly
referred to as "viscous damping", and is denoted graphically by a dashpot.

Time Solution for Damped SDOF Systems

For an unforced damped SDOF system, the general equation of motion becomes,

with the initial conditions,

This equation of motion is a second order, homogeneous, ordinary differential equation

(ODE). If all parameters (mass, spring stiffness, and viscous damping) are constants, the
ODE becomes a linear ODE with constant coefficients and can be solved by the
Characteristic Equation method. The characteristic equation for this problem is,

which determines the 2 independent roots for the damped vibration problem. The roots to the
characteristic equation fall into one of the following 3 cases:

1.
If < 0, the system is termed underdamped. The roots of the
 characteristic equation are complex conjugates, corresponding to oscillatory
motion with an exponential decay in amplitude.
2.
If = 0, the system is termed critically-damped. The roots of the
characteristic equation are repeated, corresponding to simple decaying motion
with at most one overshoot of the system's resting position.
3.
If > 0, the system is termed overdamped. The roots of the
characteristic equation are purely real and distinct, corresponding to simple
exponentially decaying motion.

To simplify the solutions coming up, we define the critical damping cc, the damping ratio ,
and the damped vibration frequency d as,

where the natural frequency of the system n is given by,

Note that d will equal n when the damping of the system is zero (i.e. undamped). The time
solutions for the free SDOF system is presented below for each of the three case scenarios.

To obtain the time solution of any free SDOF system (damped or not), use the SDOF
Calculator.
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Underdamped Systems

When < 0 (equivalent to < 1 or < ), the characteristic equation has a pair of
complex conjugate roots. The displacement solution for this kind of system is,
An alternate but equivalent solution is given by,

The displacement plot of an underdamped system would appear as,

Note that the displacement amplitude decays exponentially (i.e. the natural logarithm of the
amplitude ratio for any two displacements separated in time by a constant ratio is a constant;
long-winded!),
where is the period of the damped vibration.
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Critically-Damped Systems

When = 0 (equivalent to = 1 or = ), the characteristic equation has repeated

real roots. The displacement solution for this kind of system is,

The critical damping factor cc can be interpreted as the minimum damping that results in non-
periodic motion (i.e. simple decay).

The displacement plot of a critically-damped system with positive initial displacement and
velocity would appear as,

The displacement decays to a negligible level after one natural period, Tn. Note that if the
initial velocity v0 is negative while the initial displacement x0 is positive, there will exist one
overshoot of the resting position in the displacement plot.
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Overdamped Systems
When > 0 (equivalent to > 1 or > ), the characteristic equation has two
distinct real roots. The displacement solution for this kind of system is,

The displacement plot of an overdamped system would appear as,

The motion of an overdamped system is non-periodic, regardless of the initial conditions. The
larger the damping, the longer the time to decay from an initial disturbance.

If the system is heavily damped, , the displacement solution takes the approximate
form,