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Module 4
Chapter 1 -Heat transfer

 Modes of heat transfer

 Heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. Though it looks simple, heat
transfer is a quite complex phenomenon. There are three basic modes of heat transfer.

 Conduction-
 It is the mode of heat transfer particularly in solids and also for liquid at rest. In this mode
of heat transfer, the heat transfers from one atom to its neighboring atom through
molecular vibrations.
 At the molecular level, First heat energy of a higher energy level molecule converts to
vibrating kinetic energy and this kinetic energy is transferred to neighboring atoms and so
on.
 Again process repeats until the temperature difference between two neighboring atoms is
zero

 Convection:
 This mode of heat transfer particularly occurs in fluids in motion. That is in both liquids
and gases that are in motion.
 This mode of heat transfer occurs due to the transfer of energy through the bulk mass.

 Radiation:
 In this mode, heat can transfer even through a vacuum. Heat transfer occurs as quantum
packets of light energy.
 This is the mode by which we receive solar energy from the sun.

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 Fourier law of heat conduction

 Fourier’s law states that the time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to
the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area.”

Q = -kA(dT/dx)
 Where,
 ‘Q’ is the heat flow rate by conduction (W)
 ‘k’ is the thermal conductivity of body material (W·m−1·K−1)
 ‘A’ is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow (m2) and
 ‘dT/dx’ is the temperature gradient (K·m−1).

 Explain Newtons law of cooling or heat transfer by convection

 Newton’s law of cooling, which states that The rate of heat loss of a body is directly
proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body and its surroundings
provided the temperature difference is small and the nature of radiating surface remains
same.

 Explain stefansboltzmann law of radiation

 The thermal energyor emissive power radiated by a blackbody radiator per second per unit
area is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature and is given by

E= σT4

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
Thermal energy radiated by anybody is given byE= ϵAσT4
 Where E is the emissive power of the body
ϵ is the emissivity of the surface
σ is the Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4
T is the temperature in kelvin

 Thermal conductivity
 Thermal conductivity is the fundamental property of the material that gives a measure of
affectivity of the material in transmitting heat through it

 Unit of thermal conductivity is W/mK

 Absorbance ,transmittance, reflectance

 Thermal radiation incident on a body tends to increase its temperature . However
depending upon the nature of the material constituting the body and its surface
characteristics a part of thermal radiation is absorbed , a part is reflected, a part is
transmitted .
 The amount of thermal radiation absorbed by the material from incident radiation is
known as absorbance
 The amount of thermal radiation reflected by the material from incident radiation is
known as reflectance
 The amount of thermal radiation transmitted by the material from incident radiation is
known as transmittance

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 Absorptivity, reflectivity and transmisivitty

 Thermal radiation incident on a body tends to increase its temperature . However

depending upon the nature of the material constituting the body and its surface
characteristics a part of thermal radiation is absorbed, a part is reflected, a part is
transmitted .
 The ratio thermal energy absorbed to the amount of heat energy incident on it is known
as absorptivity (α)
 The ratio of portion of incident radiation absorbed by the material to incident radion is
known as absorptivity (α)
 Similarly the ratio thermal energy reflected to the amount of heat energy incident on it is
known as reflectivity (ρ)
 The ratio The ratio thermal energy transmitted to the amount of heat energy incident on
it is known as transmisivity(τ)
 Generally α + ρ+ τ =1

 Concept of black body

 Black body is any inanimate body that always absorbs all radiation completely falling on
it and radiates same amount of energy it receives at a constant temperature. There is no
real existence of black body. But approximation leads the idea to a perfect black body in
practice. As per this approximation, the black body is a hollow insulated enclosure
containing a small hole in one wall.

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The incident energy goes inside the black body and gets reflected again and again against the
inner wall of that black body. The black body acts as a perfect absorber. Whether this cavity is
heated, all energy will be emitted through this hole.

Chapter 2 Heat exchanger

A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between two or more fluids. The fluids can be
single or two phase and, depending on the exchanger type, may be separated or in direct contact.

 Classification of heat exchanger

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Classification based on heat exchange technique

Direct contact

 A heat exchanger in which fluid exchange heat by coming in to direct contact is called a
direct contact or open heat exchanger
 Eg. Cooling tower

Indirect contact

 Heat exchanger in which hot and cold fluid flow simultaneously on either of separating
wall known as indirect heat exchanger or recuperators
 Since fluids are separated by a wall ,hence it can not be allowed to mix the fluid by direct
contact
 Eg. Radiator

 Classification of Heat Exchangers by Flow Configuration

Counter flow heat exchanger

 In counterflow exchanger in which the two fluids flow parallel to each other but in
opposite directions. This type of flow arrangement allows the largest change in
temperature of both fluids and is therefore most efficient (where efficiency is the amount
of actual heat transferred compared with the theoretical maximum amount of heat that can
be transferred).

Countercurrent flow.

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Parallel Flow heat exchanger

 In Parallel flow heat exchangers, the streams flow parallel to each other and in the same
direction as shown in figure . This is less efficient than countercurrent flow but does
provide more uniform wall temperatures.

Parallel flow.
Crossflow heat exchangers
 Crossflow heat exchangers are intermediate in efficiency between countercurrent flow and
parallel flow exchangers. In these units, the streams flow at right angles to each other as
shown in Fig

Crossflow.

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Hybrid heat exchanger

 In industrial heat exchangers, hybrids of the above flow types are often found. Examples
of these are combined crossflow/counterflow heat exchangers and multi pass flow heat
exchangers. (See for example Figure 4.)

Hybrid flow.

 Classification based construction

1.Shell and tube heat exchanger .

Shell-and-tube configurations are shown in the three figures below. One of the fluids flows
through the inside of the shell and the other fluid flows through tubes passing through the
inside of the shell, thereby enabling heat transfer between the two fluids. Baffles are added to
enhance the convection coefficient, which increases heat transfer between the two fluids. The
baffles serve to induce turbulent mixing and a cross-flow component, both of which increase
the convection coefficient. The figure shows one shell pass and two tube passes.

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2. Concentric tube boiler

 In concentric tube or double pipe heat exchanger each pipe carrying one of the fluids. The
flow direction of fluids may be unidirectional or counter flow as shown

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 Temperature variation of parallel and counter flow heat exchanger

 Logarithmic mean temperature difference

 The logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is used to determine the
temperature driving force for heat transfer in flow systems, most notably in heat
exchangers.
 The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the hot and
cold feeds at each end of the double pipe exchanger. The larger the LMTD, the more heat
is transferred
 LMTD is defined by the logarithmic mean as follows:

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 where ΔT1 is the temperature difference between the two streams at end A, and ΔT2 is the temperature
difference between the two streams at end B.

Chapter 3- Air -Compressors

 Function of air compressor

 An air compressor is a machine that uses an electric motor or gas engine to power a device
that sucks in successive volumes of air from the atmosphere, compresses (squeezes) each
volume of air in a confined place to increase its pressure by making the volume smaller,
and then transfers the high-pressure air to a receiver tank

 Use of compressed air

1. Operation tools like drill hammers etc.
2. Filling the air in automobile tyres
3. Spray painting
4. Increasing inlet pressure of I.C. engine
5. To operate air motor I mines where fire risk are more
6. Pumping water
7. Gas turbine power plant
8. Conveying the materials like sand and concrete alongpipe line
9. For sand blasting
10. Operating blast furnace
11. Operating air brakes used in buses truck trains etc

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 Classification of air compressors

 Positive Displacement Air Compressors.

 Positive displacement type’s compressor are those who mechanically displace a fixed
volume of air into a reduced volume.
 These types of Air Compressor further classified as
1.Reciprocating Air Compressor.
 In this type compressed air is generated by to & fro movement of piston inside the
cylinder (compression chamber).
 Each movement compresses a fixed quantity of free air at a specific pressure
2.Rotary Air Compressor.
In this type air is compressed by two rotating or inter meshing rotors

 Dynamic Air Compressors.

 The dynamic type air compressors mechanically impart velocity to the air. The impellers
rotating at a high speed, in enclosed casing, produce this action. The air is forced into a
progressively reduced volume. The volumetric flow will vary inversely with the
differential pressure across the compressor. This type of compressor is further classified as
o Centrifugal Air Compressor
o Axial Flow Air Compressor
o Roots Blower Compressor.

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(a) Centrifugal Air Compressor.

 In a centrifugal air compressor an impeller is mounted on a shaft and positioned within
housing, consistingof an inlet duct, a volute and a diffuser. The velocity to the air can be
imparted by the high-speed rotation of impeller. The diffuser surrounds the impeller and
act to convert the kinetic energy of air into potential energy at a higher-pressure level.

(b) Axial Flow Air Compressor.

 The axial flow type air compressor is essentially a large capacity, high-speed machine
withy characteristic quite different from the centrifugal air compressor. Each stage consist
of two rows of blades, one rowrotating& the next row of blade is stationary. The rotor
blades impart velocity and pressure to the air as the motor turns, the velocity being
converted to pressure in stationery blades.

(c) Roots Blower Compressor.

 This type is generally called as blower. The discharge air pressure obtained from this type
of machine is very low. The discharge pressure of 1 bar can be obtained in single stage
and pressure of 2.2 bars is obtained from double stage. The discharge pressure achieved
by two rotors, which have separate, parallel axis androtate in opposite directions. This is
the example of positive displacementcompressor in rotary type air compressor

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 Working of single stage reciprocating compressors

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 Drawback of single stage compression

If a single-stage machine is required to deliver a high-pressure then it have following draw backs

 Advantage of multistage compression

1. The work done in compressing the air is reduced, thus power can be saved.

2. Prevents mechanical problems as the air temperature is controlled.

3. The suction and delivery valves remain in cleaner condition as the temperature and

vaporization of lubricating oil is less

4. The machine is smaller and better balanced Effects from moisture can be handled better,

by draining at each stage

5. Compression approaches near isothermal

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 Working of two stage compression

Construction:
In single stage compressor, entire compression of air takes place in single stroke of the piston. In
multi stage compressor, compression takes in stages. For maximum compressor efficiency, it is
desirable to cool air after one stage using inter- stage cooler. In two stage compressor, initial
compression takes place in the low pressure cylinder. Air from this stage (low pressure cylinder)
is passed through the inter cooler to reduce the temperature. Then the cooled air is compressed in
the high pressure cylinder.

Working:
Figure shows the two stage (inline type) reciprocating air compressor. When the prime mover
connected to crank shaft rotates, crank rotates and the piston in the first stage reciprocates. It
sucks the air through the suction filter and inlet valve. The air, compressed to a certain degree
passes from the left cylinder to right cylinder through the intermediate cooler. The compression
ratio in the first stage is determined by the degree of cooling required.

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The air is first compressed in the LP cylinder to intermediate pressure p2. It is then passed
through an intercooler where air is cooled at constant pressure before it is compressed in the HP
cylinder. If the air is cooled back to initial temperature, then the inter cooling is said to be perfect.

 Function of inter cooler

 An intercooler is an intake air cooling device commonly used on multistage compression

supercharged engines.

 An intercooler cools the air compressed by reducing its temperature and thereby

increasing the density of the air supplied to the engine.

 Define perfect and imperfect intercooling .

 In multi stage compression when air is cooled to intake air temperature in the intercooler,

the inter cooling called perfect inter cooling

 When air is not cooled back to intake temperature in inter coller, the inter cooling called

imperfect inter cooling

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 Working of roots blower.

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 Working of centrifugal compressor

action of impeller, air moves outward. During this movement the air is guided by the impeller

vanes . The impeller transfer the energy of the drive to the air causing a rise of both pressure and

temperature and velocity . The air is now enter the diverging passage called diffuser, which

converts the velocity to pressure energy ,as a result there is further rise in pressure . Finally air is

delivered to receiver

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 Working of axial flow compressors

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