Universe

and the
Solar System

Prepared by
Ms. Ezra Sharin Marato
IMPORTANT TERMS
a. Baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter consisting of protons,
electrons, and neutrons that comprises atoms, planets, stars,
galaxies, and other bodies
b. Dark matter - matter that has gravity but does not emit
light.
c. Dark Energy - a source of anti-gravity; a force that
counteracts gravity and causes the universe to expand.
d. Protostar- an early stage in the formation of a star resulting
from the gravitational collapse of gases.
e. Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear fusion reaction
responsible for the energy produced by stars.
f. Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse hydrogen
atoms to form helium atoms in their cores; outward
pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is balanced
by gravitational forces
g. light years - the distance light can travel in a year;
a unit of length used to measure astronomical
distance
 STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION, AND
AGE
The universe as we currently know it comprises all space
and time, and all matter and energy in it.
• It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter (“ordinary” matter
consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons: atoms,
planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae, and other bodies), 24%
cold dark matter (matter that has gravity but does not
emit light), and 71.4% dark energy (a source of
anti-gravity)
• Dark matter can explain what may be holding
galaxies together for the reason that the low total
mass is insufficient for gravity alone to do so while
dark energy can explain the observed accelerating
expansion of the universe.
• Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three
most abundant elements.
 NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
•Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei)
formation.
•Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
•Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion
reactions.
(fusion = come together)
 NUCLEAR FUSION
• In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei collide together
to make larger nuclei, and energy is released in
the form of electromagnetic radiation.
• Requires extremely high temperatures and
pressures beyond those found on or within Earth.
However, these temperatures and pressures are
found inside stars and did occur during the initial
formation of our universe (during the Big Bang
event).
 THE BIG BANG
•The Big Bang Theory is the most widely
accepted scientific theory about the origin
of the universe. It is supported by multiple
lines of evidence.
•The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally
energetic explosion that initiated the
expansion of the universe.
•At the moment prior to the Big Bang
explosion, all matter and energy were
compressed at a single point (a singularity
– a point of infinite density).
•The universe has been expanding ever
since, with galaxies moving farther and
farther apart.
 BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
• All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe was produced
during the Big Bang Event, starting ~100 seconds after the
explosion. A small amount of Lithium was also produced.

• Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few minutes after

the Big Bang because the universe had expanded and
cooled sufficiently by then such that the temperatures and
pressures were too low to support additional nuclear fusion
reactions.
 STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
• A star is a very hot ball of gas (plasma). Stars create elements by
combining lighter nuclei into heavier nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions
in their cores and releasing energy in the process. They are natural
nuclear reactors!
• The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun converts hydrogen to helium and
releases energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation .This is why our
Sun shines!
• Our Sun is only large enough to fuse hydrogen into helium within its core.
 STELLAR
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
• Stars much larger than our Sun
can fuse heavier elements
from lighter elements.
• These giant stars have an
“onion layer” structure.
• As you proceed deeper into
the star, temperatures and
pressures increase, and
heavier and heavier nuclei are
fused together.
 SUPERNOVA An exploded
star
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS (supernova)

• Elements heavier than Iron (Z = 26) are made primarily when giant stars explode in
supernovae.
• Even the largest stars do not have core temperatures and pressures high enough to fuse
iron into heavier elements. Therefore, when a star runs out of nuclear fuel (lighter nuclei)
and can no longer undergo fusion reactions, gravity causes the star to collapse. The
gravitational collapse triggers a phenomenally large explosion called a supernova. The
explosion of the star momentarily generates high enough temperatures and pressures to
cause nuclear fusion reactions that make elements with atomic numbers 27-92 (Cobalt to
Uranium).
• Since only the largest stars can explode in supernovae events, elements with atomic
numbers 27-92 are rarer than elements with atomic numbers 1-26
 NUCLEAR FISSION
• We have learned that elements form in the universe by nuclear fusion reactions which
assemble larger nuclei by forcing smaller nuclei together under tremendous temperatures
and pressures.
• However, elements can also form when a large, unstable nucleus breaks apart in an attempt
to achieve a more stable, lower energy state.
• The splitting of a nucleus to form two or more smaller, more stable nuclei is called nuclear
fission. (fission = split)
• Fission may occur spontaneously (without energy being added) or it may be prompted by
firing a nuclear bullet (like a proton or neutron) at an unstable nucleus, as seen in the
example below.
Nuclear
bullet
 ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

Non-scientific Thought
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which
narrate that the world arose from an infinite sea at the first
rising of the sun.
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator
god Mbombo (or Bumba) who, alone in a dark and
water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and then
vomited the stars, sun, and moon.
• In India, there is the narrative that gods
sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose
head, feet, eyes, and mind became the
sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme
being created the universe, including man and
other living organisms.
Big Bang Theory
• As the currently accepted theory of the
origin and evolution of the universe, the
Big Bang Theory postulates that 13.8
billion years ago, the universe expanded
from a tiny, dense and hot mass to its
present size and much cooler state.
 Astronomers use the analogy of
cooking raisin bread to demonstrate
the expanding universe

Expanding the Universe on a Balloon

Demo
 WHAT IS A “NEBULA”?

⦿ A cloud in space
⦿ Made of gas and dust
• Can have stars inside
⦿ Most of the ones we see are inside our Milky Way
Galaxy
 THE SOLAR
NEBULA THEORY

Basis of modern theory

of planet formation.

Planets form at the

same time from the
same cloud as the star.

Planet formation sites

observed today as dust
disks of T Tauri stars.

Sun and our solar system

formed ~ 5 billion years ago.
• a), (b) The solar nebula contracts and flattens into a
spinning disk. The large blob in the center will become
the Sun. Smaller blobs in the outer regions may become
Jovian planets.
• (c) Dust grains act as condensation nuclei, forming
clumps of matter that collide, stick together, and grow
into moon-sized planetesimals.
• (d) Strong winds from the still-forming Sun expel the
nebular gas.
• (e) Planetesimals continue to collide and grow.
• (f) Over the course of a hundred million years or so,
planetesimals form a few large planets that travel in
roughly circular orbits.
 SO… BIG BANG & SOLAR NEBULAR?
HOW ARE THEY RELATED?

•The Big Bang Theory considers the creation of all the

matter and energy that exists in the universe.. Anywhere..

•The Solar Nebula theory uses that matter and energy, to

create galaxies and solar systems.
 WHAT IS A “GALAXY”?

⦿ A large group of stars outside of our own Milky Way

⦿ Made of billions to trillions of stars
• Also may have gas and dust
⦿ Spiral, or elliptical, or irregular shaped

Image at
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/galaxy/spiral/2007/41/
results/50/
 SPIRAL GALAXY--ANDROMEDA

NOAO/AURA/NSF Images at
http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/html/im0606.html and
http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/html/im0685.html
 ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES

Images at
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/galaxy/elliptical/2007/08/image/a/format/large_web/results/50/
and http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/galaxy/elliptical/1995/07/results/50/
 IRREGULAR GALAXIES

NASA and NOAO/AURA/NSF Images at

http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/galaxy/irregular/2005/09/res
ults/50/ , http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/html/im0560.html , and
http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/html/im0993.html
 OUR GALAXY: THE MILKY
WAY
•has about 200 billion stars, and lots of gas and dust
•is a barred-spiral (we think)
•about 100,000 light-years wide
•our Sun is halfway to the edge, revolving at half a million
miles per hour around the center of the Galaxy
•takes our Solar System about 200 million years to revolve
once around our galaxy
 THE MILKY WAY

Image at
http://news.nationalgeographi
c.com/news/bigphotos/19453
71.html
THE LIFE CYCLES OF STARS
 NEBULAE
• Nebulae are regions of gas
and dust in interstellar space
within galaxies.
• Nebulae contain gas and dust
from previously exploded
stars.
• Nebulae are the birthplaces
of new stars. (recycling!)
• When stars form, planets
may form too (a solar
system)
ANOTHER THEORY WHICH
HAS CHANGED OVER
CENTURIES IS THE
SCIENTIFIC MODEL OF
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
 PTOLEMY’S MODEL OF THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
▪ Ptolemy’s theory is known as
the Geocentric Model because
he thought the Earth was the
center of the universe
▪ In Greek, “Geo” means earth
▪ He believed his theory for
several reasons
▪ Gravity of all objects were attracted to the
earth, which suggested to him that the
earth must be the center.
▪ He thought the Earth did not move because
objects fell in
the same place if thrown up in
the air. He thought if the earth moved,
objects would fall in a different place.
 ARISTOTLE’S AND PTOLEMY’S
UNIVERSE
• The Geocentric Theory is credited to the Greek astronomers
Aristotle and Ptolemy.
 GEOCENTRIC IDEAS
• The Earth is still, motionless, and at the center of the Universe

• Celestial bodies move in perfect circles at uniform speeds

• Stars were set in a rotating sphere that turned E to W once a day

• Planets, moon, sun also set in separate spheres that moved slower
 COPERNICUS’ MODEL OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
▪ Copernicus’ theory is called the
Heliocentric Theory because he thought
the sun was the center of the universe.
▪ In Greek, “helios” means sun
▪ Galileo made additional observations
using a telescope which supported the
heliocentric theory.
▪ Galileo observed that Venus went
through a full cycle of phase’s like the
Moon. This could only be explained if
Venus were orbiting the Sun.
 THE COPERNICAN MODEL:
A SUN-CENTERED SOLAR SYSTEM
 SUN CENTERED
• The distinction between the Solar System and the Universe was not clear until
modern times
• Polish priest –
astronomer Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473 –
1543) eventually
decided
to reject the
geocentric model
 HELIOCENTRIC

• Heliocentric – Sun centered universe

Copernicus
 GALILEO GALILEI
PROVES COPERNICUS’ HYPOTHESIS

• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was a pivotal figure in the

development of modern astronomy. He proved the Copernican
hypothesis.
• He also invented the telescope.
 GALILEO
•The sun is the center (heliocentric) of our solar
system
•Our solar system is a part of a larger universe
•Using a new invention, the
telescope, Galileo was able
to view parts of our Solar
System in motion
 WHAT COULD GALILEO SEE?
• New stars (Milky Way made up of stars)
• Mountains and valleys on the moon
• Four moons orbiting Jupiter (now called Galilean
moons)
• Phases of Venus
• Sunspots (rotating around the sun about once a
month)
• The rings of Saturn
• Planets are disks, not pinpoints of light like the
stars
JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630)
• Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer who
lived at about the same time as Galileo.
• He showed mathematically that Copernicus'
idea of a sun-centered system worked well if
uniform circular motion was replaced with
uneven (but predictable) motion along
off-center ellipses.
 MODERN VIEW

• Like any experiment, as we learn more, we change our hypothesis

about the universe
• Geocentric – Ptolemy's model Earth-Centered Universe
• Heliocentric – Copernicus & Galileo Sun-Centered Solar System
and larger Universe
• Big Bang Theory – the Universe started from one big explosion
 MODERN THOUGHT BEGINS TO TAKE HOLD

• Other scientists began to look and explain how the universe

worked
• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proposed that gravity is the main source that
holds our solar system together.
• The sun's gravitational pull holds the Earth and other planets in
their orbits.
• Things on or near the Earth are pulled toward it by the Earth's
gravity.
 SO WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED?
Before modern thought, the universe was seen in 2
ways
1. Geocentric: Ptolemy's Earth-centered Universe
2. Heliocentric: Copernicus’ and Galileo’s Sun Centered
Universe
3. Kepler: explained the orbits of planets
4. Newton: explained gravity is the glue that hold the solar system
together
5. 20th century: newer ideas would change the way we thought
about gravity, space, and time
 WHY WAS THE
GEOCENTRIC MODEL
OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM REPLACED BY
THE HELIOCENTRIC?
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