Inbound 1985894276213822728

The Formation of Elements in
the Universe
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to demonstrate an understanding of:
- the formation of elements during the big bang and during stellar evolution.
- the key elements produced during the early stages in the universe.
- the role of supernovae in generating heavy elements.

Elements are Formed in Different Ways in our Universe
Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei) formation.
Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
All three of these are related to the formation and evolution of the universe.
Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion reactions.
(fusion = come together)

In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei collide together to
make larger nuclei, and energy is released in the form
of electromagnetic radiation. Requires extremely high
temperatures and pressures beyond those found on or
within Earth. However, these temperatures and
pressures are found inside stars and did occur during
the initial formation of our universe (during the Big
Bang event).
The Big Bang Theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory about the
origin of the universe. It is supported by multiple lines of evidence.
The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally energetic explosion that initiated the expansion of
the universe.
At the moment prior to the Big Bang explosion, all matter and energy were compressed
at a single point (a singularity – a point of infinite density).
We do not know what was before…..?
The universe has been expanding ever since, with galaxies moving farther and farther
apart.
Using the rates of expansion measured in the universe and astronomical distances, the
age of the universe can be calculated back to the time of the Big Bang. The age of the
universe is calculated at about 13.7 billion years old. By contrast, our Sun and its
surrounding planets (i.e. our Solar System) is 4.65 billion years old.
Bigbang Nucleosynthesis
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe was produced during the Big
Bang Event, starting ~100 seconds after the explosion. A small amount of
Lithium was also produced.
Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few minutes after the Big
Bang because the universe had expanded and cooled sufficiently by then such
that the temperatures and pressures were too low to support additional
nuclear fusion reactions.
Early after the Big Bang as the universe continued to

expand and cooled, the first elements were formed,
these were just the nuclei of the elements. They
were not full atoms meaning they were ions or they
were missing their electrons.
The formation of the nuclei of hydrogen, helium
(Nuclei of the elements) happened about 3 minutes after the big bang. Now
the first elements to form were hydrogen,
helium, and a few other trace elements.
Eventually after more cooling and expansion, the hydrogen and helium nuclei
were able to attract and hold on to electrons. This allowed them to form full
neutral atoms as we have on our periodic table today.
(- E, + P)
(Neutral Atom)
Whereas the formation of the neutral atoms took until about 300,000
years after the big bang. As this matter formed both 3 minutes after and
300,000 years after the big bang, there was a key ratio that happened.
There was 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. And this same ratio of hydrogen
and helium is seen today in our universe and serves as a key evidence of the
Big Bang. It is also a key point where elements were formed in our universe.
This formation of hydrogen and helium no

longer takes place in large events in our
universe.
So basically all of the hydrogen and helium we
have, originated from the big bang.
The next major point where elements are formed
is in stellar nucleosynthesis.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
This takes place through the process of fusion in the
center of stars. A star is a very hot ball of gas (plasma).
Stars create elements by combining lighter nuclei into
heavier nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions in their cores
and releasing energy in the process.
Enormous temperatures (15,000,000 K), pressures, and

densities of matter are needed to initiate the fusion
(thermonuclear) reactions which squeeze nuclei
together and release energy.
The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun converts hydrogen to helium and
releases energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation (see the basic
fusion reaction below). This is why our Sun shines!
Our Sun is only large enough to fuse hydrogen into helium within its core.
The stellar nucleosynthesis is responsible for the formation of all of

the elements from Helium all way up to iron on the periodic table.
The formation of these elements takes place in the center of the stars in the
process called fusion. Where it is extremely hot and where there’s an
extreme amount of pressure. This process smashes the nuclei of smaller
elements together to form larger ones.
Let’s go through the general process that takes place in stars to form these
heavier elements. Young stars use the elements of hydrogen and helium
to fuel fusion in their cores. Now these smaller nuclei such as hydrogen and
helium are smashed together in the center of stars at such high temperatures
that there’s enough force to stick them together.
Extreme temperatures are required to complete this fusion process in

a star.
For example, our sun has a core temperature up
to 15 million degree celcius. Temperatures like
this are required to complete this fusion process
and this is how Stars through the process of
fusion can form heavier and heavier elements.
As a young star uses up all of the available

hydrogen helium in it’s core, it will eventually
collapsed on itself. This causes an increase
amount of temperature and the amount of
pressure found in it’s core which then allows the
star to fuse heavier and heavier elements.
This process continues over and over again until a star
with enough mass can fuse smaller nuclei into iron.
Now, no star can fuse elements heavier than iron. This

is the limit.
We also wouldn't have any elements heavier than iron

if there wasn't another method of nuclear synthesis or
a way to create heavier elements.
Regular stars cannot form atoms
heavier than iron because there are
not enough neutrons in their cores.
The rest of the elements we have are

formed in the process of
supernova nucleosynthesis.
(Supernova Nucleosynthesis)
Supernova Nucleosynthesis
Now, these elements are formed during the very
violent explosions that happen in Supernova.
As a star runs out of all the other fuels available to it

from which it can make heavier elements and from
which it can complete the process of fusion, it will
eventually collapse in on itself which creates a heavy
bounceback or shock wave which pushes all of the
elements that are inside the core of the star.
An exploded star
(supernova)
Out into the space surrounding during a supernova
explosion, there are two key characteristics that
allow for elements heavier than iron to be made and
these two characteristics don’t exist anywhere else.
These two characteristics are extremely hot

temperatures and abundant number of
neutrons.
Supernova stars can reach temperatures of 100 billion degrees celcius.

This is 6000 times hotter than the core of our Sun.
Also, supernova explosions have extreme numbers of neutrons which allow

for elements heavier than iron to be created.
Now, these Supernova explosions or supernova nucleosynthesis account for all of

the other heavier and natural elements that we find on our periodic table.
Elements heavier than Iron (Z = 26) are made primarily when
giant stars explode in supernova.
Even the largest stars do not have core temperatures and

pressures high enough to fuse iron into heavier elements.
Therefore, when a star runs out of nuclear fuel (lighter nuclei)
and can no longer undergo fusion reactions, gravity causes
the star to collapse. The gravitational collapse triggers a
phenomenally large explosion called a supernova. The
explosion of the star momentarily generates high enough
temperatures and pressures to cause nuclear fusion reactions
that make elements with atomic numbers 27-92 (Cobalt to
Uranium).
Since only the largest stars can explode in supernova events,

elements with atomic numbers 27-92 are rarer than elements
with atomic numbers 1-26.
A summary…
(You are made of stardust from exploded stars)
Nuclear Fission
We have learned that elements form in the universe by nuclear fusion reactions which assemble larger nuclei by forcing
smaller nuclei together under tremendous temperatures and pressures.
However, elements can also form when a large, unstable nucleus breaks apart in an attempt to achieve a more stable,
lower energy state.
The splitting of a nucleus to form two or more smaller, more stable nuclei is called nuclear fission. (fission =split)
Fission may occur spontaneously (without energy being added) or it may be prompted by firing a nuclear bullet
(like a proton or neutron) at an unstable nucleus, as seen in the example below.
Nuclear Fission
Like fusion, fission also releases energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.
However, not as much energy is released from fission as from fusion. Still,
the energy released per gram of material by fission is considerably more than
the energy released by burning a comparable amount of wood, oil, gasoline,
etc. Fission of uranium-235 atoms is used in nuclear power plants to produce
energy.
Fission also occurs naturally within the layers of the earth as radioactive
elements in rocks spontaneously decay to more stable elements, creating a
natural source of heat within the earth. You also contain a small proportion
of radioactive isotopes within your body. These isotopes decay naturally,
releasing radiation. Therefore, you are slightly radioactive too!
Thank You For Listening!

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The Formation of Elements in

- the role of supernovae in generating heavy elements.

Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion reactions.

(fusion = come together)

Early after the Big Bang as the universe continued to

This formation of hydrogen and helium no

Enormous temperatures (15,000,000 K), pressures, and

The stellar nucleosynthesis is responsible for the formation of all of

Extreme temperatures are required to complete this fusion process in

As a young star uses up all of the available

Now, no star can fuse elements heavier than iron. This

We also wouldn't have any elements heavier than iron

The rest of the elements we have are

As a star runs out of all the other fuels available to it

These two characteristics are extremely hot

Supernova stars can reach temperatures of 100 billion degrees celcius.

Also, supernova explosions have extreme numbers of neutrons which allow

Now, these Supernova explosions or supernova nucleosynthesis account for all of

Even the largest stars do not have core temperatures and

Since only the largest stars can explode in supernova events,

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