the study of the non-living

matter and energy

the science of matter, motion, and energy. study of matter, its structure, properties,
behaviour, and it’s interactions.

the study of everything in the universe beyond

the study of the Earth's structure, properties,
Earth's atmosphere.
processes, and four and a half billion years of
biotic evolution.
All matter is made up of varying combination of
any of the 118 elements identified to be present in
the universe including Earth.

The existence of all matter is believed to have

started with the birth of the universe.
 Nucleosynthesis:
The Origins of Elements
 Atoms and Elements
• are the building blocks of matter
• An element is a pure substance
composed only of one type of atom.
• An atom has sub-atomic particles:
• protons (positively charged) inside
the nucleus
• neutrons (no charge) inside the
nucleus and
• electrons (negatively charged)
orbiting around the the nucleus
 Elements formed through Nuclear Reactions:
1. Nuclear Fusion – nucleus combines with another nucleus

2. Nuclear Fission – nucleus splits into smaller nuclei

Radioactivity – the emission of energetic particles involved in nuclear reaction.

Radioactive Particles may be:
• Elements
• electrons
• protons
• neutrons
Elements are Formed in Different Ways in
our Universe
 Nucleosynthesis
Is the process of element (nuclei) formation

Cosmic Origin of Elements:

The Big Bang

Stellar (star) Formation and Evolution

Stellar Explosion (Supernova)

Today, only stellar and supernova nucleosynthesis are occurring in

our universe.
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing the light
elements during the big bang expansion.
• The Big Bang theory is an explanation of the early development of
the Universe. According to this theory the Universe expanded from
an extremely small, extremely hot, and extremely dense state (a
singularity – a point of infinite density).

• The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally energetic explosion that

initiated the expansion of the universe.

• Since then the universe has been expanding and cooling, with
galaxies moving farther and farther apart.
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• The explosion spread a fast-moving cloud of gas.
• Few seconds after the explosion, sub-atomic particles protons, neutrons, and
electrons filled the universe.
• As the expanding universe cooled, the protons and neutrons started to fuse
(combine) to form a heavier nuclei of deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen with
1 neutron and one proton) and some into helium.

• Astronomers believed that a few seconds after the big bang, the universe was
composed of approximately 75% (by mass) hydrogen, 25% Helium and trace
elements of Lithium.
 Nuclear Fusion Reaction

Smaller nuclei merge to form a single heavier nucleus. The process

releases energy because the total mass of the resulting single
nucleus is less than the mass of the two original nuclei. The leftover
mass is converted to energy by Einstein’s famous equation, E=mc2 in
the form of Electromagnetic Radiation.
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• Subsequent nuclear fusion reactions resulted in the production of other light
elements and isotopes.
• Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.
Instruments used to observed evidences:
• Hubble Space Telescope
• Large Binocular Telescope
• Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer
• Radio Telescope
 Scientific Evidences of the Big Bang
Theory
1. Occurrence of Redshift
2. Background radiation

3. Abundance of light elements

 Redshift
• In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz measured the wavelengths
of light from spiral nebulae, which are interstellar clouds of dust and ionized
gases. They discovered that the light from the nebulae increased in
wavelength. They explained their discovery as a
• Doppler shift or Doppler effect explains that when an object gets closer to
us, its light waves are compressed into shorter wavelengths (blueshifted,
because blue light has the shortest wavelength in the visible region).
• On the other hand, when an object moves away from us, its light waves are
stretched into longer wavelengths (redshifted, because red light has the
longest wavelength in the visible region).
 Redshift
• In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light from galaxies to
calculate the velocities and distances of these galaxies from the Earth.
He discovered that they were moving away from the Earth and from
each other. His calculations supported the theory that the universe is
expanding.
• Using the rates of expansion measured in the universe and
astronomical distances, the age of the universe can be calculated
back to the time of the Big Bang. The age of the universe is
calculated at about 13.7 billion years old. By contrast, our Sun and its
surrounding planets (i.e. our Solar System) is 4.65 billion years old.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
• In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias discovered a low, steady
“hum” from their Holmdel Horn antenna (an antenna built to support
NASA’s Project Echo).

• They concluded that the noise is Cosmic Microwave

Background Radiation (CMBR), the remains of energy
created after the big bang expansion.
 Abundance of Light Elements

• The observed abundance of light elements supports the big bang

theory.

• The theory predicts that the universe is composed of 74%

hydrogen and 25% helium by mass.

• The prediction correlated to the measured abundances of

primordial material in unprocessed gas in some parts of the
universe with no stars.
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• Fusion involves only the nuclei of atoms. At the temperatures at

which fusion can occur, matter exists as a plasma. This is the state of
matter where the electrons have been stripped off of the atoms.
Plasma is basically a super high energy, electrically charged gas.

• When nuclei collide, some of the mass of the nuclei is converted to

energy by Einstein’s famous equation, E=mc2
 Stellar Formation and Evolution
• A nebula is a giant cloud of dust and gases mostly made of
hydrogen and helium in space. Also called “Star nurseries” as this is
where stars begin to form.
• A Protostar is formed as gravity begins to pull the gases together into a
ball. It is a young star that still gathering mass from its parent molecular
cloud. When its core temperature exceeds 10 million K. This is the
temperature needed for hydrogen fusion to operate efficiently.
• A Red giant forms after a star has run out of hydrogen fuel for
nuclear fusion, and has begun the process of dying.
• A red giant will usually produce a planetary nebula and become a white
dwarf at the end of its life.
 Stellar Formation and Evolution
• Stars (a hot ball of gas) form as the cloud of hydrogen and helium gases
condensed while the universe continuously expand.
• Over millions of years, the stars became hotter and denser triggering nuclear
fusion reactions, which produced elements heavier than lithium.
• Light elements combine to form atoms of carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon, and
iron.
• As more elements were produced, new layers like “onion skin” added up to the
size of the star until it became a red giant star.
• The heaviest element that can be made in a star is iron.
 Stellar Formation and Evolution
• Starting from a small, young yellow star, (protostar) successive nuclear
reactions occurred until it became a giant red star. The reactions involved in the
formation of each new element happened in regions or layers so called “fusion
shells”.
 Nuclear Fusion (in stars)

• The fusion of 28Si produced radioactive 56Ni, which then decayed into
iron. Iron is the most stable nuclei it cannot undergo nuclear fusion.
• Elements heavier than iron have fusion reactions with temperature and
pressure requirements greater than those that can occur within the core of a
giant star.
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
• Elements heavier than Iron (Z = 26) An exploded star
(supernova)
are made primarily when giant stars
explode in supernovae.

Therefore, when a star runs out of

nuclear fuel (lighter nuclei) and can no
longer undergo fusion reactions, gravity
causes the star to collapse.

The gravitational collapse triggers a

phenomenally large explosion called a
supernova.
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
An exploded star
• The explosion of the star momentarily (supernova)
generates high enough temperatures
and pressures to cause nuclear fusion
reactions that make elements with
atomic numbers 27-92 (Cobalt to
Uranium).

• Since only the largest stars can explode

in supernovae events, elements with
atomic numbers 27-92 are rarer than
elements with atomic numbers 1-26
(see abundance diagram to right)
 A summary…
(You are made of stardust from exploded stars)
 Fusion vs Fission
• nuclear fusion reactions • Fission may occur spontaneously
which assemble larger (without energy being added) or it
may be prompted by firing a
nuclei by forcing smaller nuclear bullet (like a proton or
nuclei together under neutron) at an unstable nucleus
tremendous temperatures • release lesser energy than fusion
and pressures.
• Fission also occurs naturally
• release greater energy within the layers of the earth as
radioactive elements in rocks
spontaneously decay to more
stable elements, creating a natural
source of heat within the earth.
Practical Science: Nuclear Power Plants
• Nuclear Energy has been useful as a source of electricity in
some countries. Energy in nuclear plants is generated from Nuclear
Fission. However, such technology can only be adapted by countries
with sufficient capabilities to handle such a hazardous facility. The
biggest problem that may arise from a nuclear power plant is the
potential release of radioactive materials once an accident occurs. In
addition, nuclear wastes may also pose human and environmental
problems if not properly treated. Thus, only a small portion of the world
utilizes nuclear power as an energy source. If utilized and maintained
properly, nuclear power plants can provide the electricity to power
different appliances in homes.
 Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the release
of energy, in the form of
energetic particles and
waves, from the nuclei of
unstable (radioactive)
isotopes. Radioactive atoms
undergo fission-type
reactions in order to try to
become more stable nuclei
with lower energies.
Radioactive atoms are called
radioisotopes.
 Radioactivity
The nuclei of unstable, radioactive isotopes have the
wrong ratio of neutrons to protons (n/p). Generally, it is
too high. When n/p of an isotope falls between 1 to 1.5,
the nucleus is stable (within the “Band of Stability” on a
n0 vs. p+ plot). Outside of that range, nuclei tend to be
unstable and break apart over time. This “breaking
apart” of unstable nuclei over time and the
accompanying release of nuclear particles and energy is
called radioactive decay.
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Alpha Decay
In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus releases two neutrons and two protons.
This is called an alpha () particle. It is equivalent to a 42He nuclei. Energy is
also released in the process.

As a result, the mass number of the remaining nucleus decreases by 4 and the
atomic number decreases by 2. A new element is formed in the process!

Credit: Khan Academy

Alpha Decay
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Beta Decay
In beta decay of an unstable nucleus, a neutron suddenly changes to a proton,
releasing an electron, a ghostly, low mass particle called a neutrino (not
pictured), and energy!

As a result, the atomic number of the remaining nucleus increases by 1 but the
mass number does not change. A new element is formed!

Note: The released electron did not come from outside the nucleus. It came
from inside the nucleus. It is called a beta () particle.

Credit: Khan Academy

 Types of Radioactive Decay – Gamma Decay
In gamma decay, an unstable nucleus releases a high energy form of
electromagnetic radiation (light) called a gamma () particle or a
gamma ray. This particle of light is also known as a photon.

The energy is released as the protons and

neutrons in the unstable nucleus reposition
themselves in an attempt to find a lower
energy arrangement.

Since no protons or neutrons are released,

the mass number and atomic number of the
nucleus remain unchanged, and no new
element is formed. Gamma decay usually
accompanies alpha and beta decay.
Credit: Khan Academy
 Nuclear Reactions can be Represented by
Nuclear Equations

• Fusion
Making a larger nucleus from two
or more smaller nuclei

• Fission
Making two or more smaller nuclei
from a larger nucleus
 Important Symbols Used in Nuclear
Equations
Particle How written in a nuclear reaction
• To write a nuclear reaction, you Proton 1 1
p or H
must remember how to read and 1 1
use isotope symbol notation
Neutron 1
n
0

Electron 0 0
(Beta particle) e or β
-1 -1

Alpha Particle 4 4
(Helium nuclei)  or He
• You must know the symbols used 2 2
for various subatomic particles Gamma Particle or 
like protons, neutrons, etc. Ray (a massless packet of pure electromagnetic
radiation, a form of energy)
Balancing Nuclear Reactions
Check the math on these
examples of nuclear
equations to see if the
sums of the mass numbers
and the atomic numbers
are the same on each side
of the equations.

Can you figure out which

equations are fission and
which are fusion?
 Nuclear Fusion (in stars)

• The fusion of 28Si produced radioactive 56Ni, which then decayed into
iron. Iron is the most stable nuclei it cannot undergo nuclear fusion.
• Elements heavier than iron have fusion reactions with temperature and
pressure requirements greater than those that can occur within the core of a
giant star.
 Transmutation
Transmutation is a general term for the changing of chemical element or
isotope to another by changing the number of protons and/or neutrons.
Fusion and fission reactions both qualify as transmutations. The
bombardment of a nucleus by a nuclear bullet in order to change it into
another element also counts as transmutation.