Cosmology is the body of science that studies the origin, evolution and eventual

fate of the universe.

Religious Cosmology
• Religious or mythological cosmology explains the origin of universe and
life based on religious beliefs of a specific tradition
• The concept of creatio ex nihilo
• God creating the universe as written in the book of Genesis

Physical cosmology explains the origin of universe based on scientific insights,

studies and experiments
Ex:
• Nicolaus Copernicus and the heliocentric nature of the universe
• The expanding universe through Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity
• The big bang theory

The big bang theory, a cosmological model that describes how the universe
started its expansion about 13.8 billion years ago, states that the universe continues
to move and expand

1. The universe began as a singularity or a point containing all space,

time, matter and energy
2. It expanded rapidly in nothingness through a rapid yet peaceful process
called inflation
3. The universe cooled down as it expanded
4. A soup of matter in the form of subatomic particles was formed and nuclei of light
atoms were created via nucleosynthesis or nuclear fusion between protons and
neutrons
5. Electrons interacted with these nuclei to form actual, primordial atoms via the
process of recombination

Evidences:
1. Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz (1910)
• Measurement of redshift
• Observed that most spiral galaxies were moving away from the earth
2. Georges Lemaître (1927)
• Proposed alternative idea that the universe is expanding
3. Edwin Hubble (1929)
• Calculated distances between the earth and several galaxies using redshift of light
• Observed distant galaxies were moving away from the Earth and one another
 4. Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias (1965)
• Discovered cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)—a low, steady
humming noise believed to be energy remains
5. Modern astronomy (2014)
• Universe is estimated to be 13.8 billion years old with 5% of its composition
existing as ordinary matter

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• Big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN), also known as primordial nucleosynthesis, is the

process of producing light elements during the big bang expansion
It yields two stable isotopes of hydrogen, two isotopes of helium, some lithium atoms and
beryllium isotopes .The BBN did not give rise to elements heavier than beryllium
• Drop in temperature resulted in insufficient energy levels for fusion reactions
to push through
• Nucleosynthesis continued with the expansion of the universe
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
1. A proton (p) and a neutron (n) may fuse together to yield a high-energy
2
photon (γ) and an isotope of hydrogen (H) called deuterium (D or H, with
one p and one n)

• The deuterium bottleneck can be traced to its low binding energy

and eventual destruction by photons at very high temperatures
• A decrease in temperature enabled deuterium to stabilize and
eventually initiate the BBN cascade
Stellar Formation
The star formation theory states that stars formed when gravity acted on the
particles expanding with the universe.
• Stellar nurseries form from dense molecular regions
• Protostars are formed when these regions collapse.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Elements associated with both living and nonliving things mostly originated
from stars
• Processes that occurred inside stars were responsible for the formation of
these elements
• Elements heavier than beryllium were formed through stellar nucleosynthesis
• H and He produced from BBN started to combine in nuclear fusion reactions
• Very high amounts of energy were released in the form of light, heat and
radiation.
Stellar evolution refers to the process in which a star changes through its lifetime

• The abundances of elements a star contains change as it evolves

 • The course of evolution is determined by its mass
• Protostars evolve into main sequence stars upon reaching gravitational equilibrium
• Nuclear reactions form subatomic particles called neutrinos and positrons
• An increase in pressure brought about by positrons and neutrinos halt the contraction of
the protostar
The sun is believed to be in the middle of the main sequence phase of stellar evolution
• It will remain as such for at least five billion years
• Red dwarf stars stay on the main sequence phase for at least 100 billion years due to the
slow rate of hydrogen fusion
Not all protostars become main sequence stars
• Brown dwarf stars are only able to fuel deuterium fusion reactions
• They cool gradually and have an average lifespan of less than a billion years
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all hydrogen atoms in their cores
get depleted
1. Helium becomes the major component of the core.
• Proton-proton chain reactions use hydrogen to produce helium
• Hydrogen fusion moves to the outer shell and the core's surface
2. Fusion stops when all hydrogen atoms in the core are used up
• Pressure in the core decreases
3. Helium atoms or alpha particles are converted to carbon via the alpha fusion processes
4. Temperature can increase to approximately 10 million K
• Pressure also increases
• Hydrogen is pushed away from the core
• The resulting expansion eventually transforms the main sequence star to a red
giant

Fusion of elements in a red giant

Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars when the majority of helium in their
cores are consumed
1. Hot and inert carbon core eventually becomes the white dwarf
• Lower amounts of helium in the core decrease the rate of
the alpha processes
• Outer shell expands into space, forming a planetary
nebula
2. A white dwarf’s composition depends on its predecessor’s mass.
 • A sun-sized main sequence star lacks energy to fuse
carbon and the white dwarf would mostly contain inert
carbon and some oxygen
• A smaller star will produce a white dwarf mostly
composed of helium and a bit of hydrogen
Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars
1. A high mass star can reach pressure and temperature levels favorable for carbon fusion
2. It evolves through several stages where heavier elements are fused in the core and in
the shells around it eventually forming multiple shells

• Multiple elements formed in a series of reactions in the following order: carbon

→ oxygen → neon → silicon → iron
3. Elements lighter than iron can be fused since the nucleus produced has a mass lower
than the sum of their masses

• Missing mass is released as energy

4. Stellar nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron is not possible due to its energy
requirement

Multiple- shell Red Giant

Elements heavier than iron are formed after a supernova
1. An exploding multiple-shell red giant is called a supernova
• Happens when its core can no longer produce energy to
resist gravity
2. It releases massive quantities of high-energy neutrinos
• Neutrinos break nucleons and release neutrons
3. The generated neutrons are picked up by nearby stars
• Key step in the formation of elements heavier than iron

-Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars.
-The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the
dense regions of a molecular cloud.
-Stellar evolution is the process by which a star changes during its lifetime

Stellar nucleosynthesis refers to the set of nuclear fusion reactions in a star's core
and overlying layers
• Responsible for the formation of elements heavier than those formed
during big bang nucleosynthesis (H, He, Li and Be)
Evidences
Arthur Eddington
 Used atomic mass measurements of F. W. Aston
 Stars get energy from the nuclear fusion of H nuclei
 Heavier elements are formed inside stars
George Gamow
• Derived the formula for mutual electrostatic repulsion
• Refers to the probability of bringing two nuclei close enough such that their
forces overcome the Coulomb barrier
• Derived the rate at which high-temperature reactions occur
Hans Bethe
• Elucidated how energy is produced in stars via hydrogen burning

Hydrogen burning refers to a set of stellar reactions resulting in the production of

He-4 from H
• Responsible for producing energy in stars
• Two dominant processes
• Proton-proton chain reaction (responsible for the
formation of helium cores)
• Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle
Proton-proton chain reaction
• Chain reaction by which a star transforms H into He
• Occurs only when there is mutual electrostatic repulsion
Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle
• Dominant source of energy in stars about 1.3 times more massive than the sun
• Main source of He for such stars upon recycling 12C and finishing the whole cycle
Helium burning refers to a set of stellar nuclear reactions that uses helium to produce energy
and heavier elements such as Be, O, Ne and Fe
• Also responsible for producing energy in stars
• Two dominant processes
• Triple-alpha process
• Alpha process
Triple-alpha process
• Set of two-stage nuclear fusion reactions converting three alpha particles (He-4 nuclei)
into 12C
• Creates inert carbon core found in white dwarfs and larger stars
Alpha processes
 • Set of nuclear reactions that convert He into heavier elements
• The reactions consume He and ultimately ends at Fe
• 56Fe is the most stable element, having the lowest mass to nucleon (mass number)
ratio
• Increases the core size and density by forming heavier elements
Vital in transforming main sequence stars to supergiants
-Hydrogen burning is a set of stellar processes that produce energy in the stars.
-Helium burning is a set of stellar nuclear reactions that uses helium to produce
heavier elements such as beryllium, oxygen, neon and iron.

ATOM – basic unit of matter

● Protons – positively charged
● Electrons – negatively charged
● Neutrons – neutrally charged
Democritus
Everything is made up of small indivisible particles known as atomos.

Atomism
● Matter is composed of atomos and void.
● The atomos may combine to form clusters in the void.
● Change can happen when some atoms collide with each other in the
void
● Protons - positively charged and found at the nucleus. Discovered by Ernest
Rutherford.
● Neutrons - neutral and found at the nucleus. Discovered by James Chadwick.
● Electrons - negatively charged and move around the nucleus. Discovered by JJ
Thomson

Daltons Solid sphere Model

● The atom is indestructible.
● The atom is a solid particle.
● Atoms of the same element have the same properties.
The atom can combine to form compound

Thompsons Plum Pudding model

● The atom is divisible into charged particles.
● The atom is made of a massive mass with a positive charge.
 ● Electrons are negatively charged particles that are embedded on the
body of the atom.

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

● The atom is composed of positive and negatively charged particles.
● The nucleus is at the center of the atom and this is where the mass of
the atom is concentrated
● Protons are the positively charged particles and are found at the
nucleus.
● Electrons are the smaller negatively charged particles and they move
around the nucleus.
● The atom is made up of mostly space.