Lesson 1.

Stellar Evolution and the

Formation of Heavier
Elements
 Learning Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the learner should be able

to do the following:

● Describe the evolution of stars.

● Give evidence for and describe the formation of

heavier elements during star formation and
evolution.
The tiny stars shining in the sky are actually giant
balls of hydrogen and helium.
Earth is just a tiny part of the vast complex
universe.
Did you ever wonder how the universe came into
existence?
 Try it!
Warm-Up

Nucleosynthesis Game
This activity will demonstrate nuclear reactions involved in stellar
Procedure
formation.

Add Refer
Hydrogen Absorb a Add one
fusion one neutron.
neutron.
Radioactive
decay to the
proton. chart.
 Try it!
Warm-Up

Nucleosynthesis Game

Add two Marbles

Add either attached to
Free Helium protons Bombard-
1 proton or the silver
choice fusion and two ment
magnet will
2 neutrons neutrons be retained
 Learn about It

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN)

The BBN did not give rise to elements heavier than
beryllium.
• Drop in temperature resulted in insufficient energy
levels for fusion reactions to push through.
• Nucleosynthesis continued with the expansion of the
universe.
 Learn about It

Stellar Formation
The star formation theory states that stars formed
when gravity acted on the particles expanding with the
universe.
• Stellar nurseries form from dense molecular regions.
• Protostars are formed when these regions collapse.
 Learn about It

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Elements associated with both living and nonliving
things mostly originated from stars
• Processes that occurred inside stars were responsible
for the formation of these elements
 Learn about It

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Elements heavier than beryllium were formed through
stellar nucleosynthesis.
• H and He produced from BBN started to combine in
nuclear fusion reactions.
• Very high amounts of energy were released in the
form of light, heat and radiation.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Stellar evolution refers to the process in which a star
changes through its lifetime.
• The abundances of elements a star contains change as
it evolves.
• The course of evolution is determined by its mass.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
All stars are formed from stellar nurseries called nebulae.
• A nebula breaks into smaller fragments as it further
collapses before contracting into a protostar, or a very
hot stellar core that continues to gather gas and dust as it
contracts and increases in temperature.
• Nuclear reactions like the proton-proton fusion
reactions occur at a temperature of around 10,000,000
K.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Protostars evolve into main sequence stars upon
reaching gravitational equilibrium.
• Nuclear reactions form subatomic particles called
neutrinos and positrons.
• An increase in pressure brought about by positrons and
neutrinos halt the contraction of the protostar.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
The sun is believed to be in the middle of the main
sequence phase of stellar evolution.
• It will remain as such for at least five billion years.
• Red dwarf stars stay on the main sequence phase for at
least 100 billion years due to the slow rate of hydrogen
fusion.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Not all protostars become main sequence stars.
• Brown dwarf stars are only able to fuel deuterium
fusion reactions.
• They cool gradually and have an average lifespan of
less than a billion years.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all
hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted.
1. Helium becomes the major component of the core.
• Proton-proton chain reactions use hydrogen to
produce helium.
• Hydrogen fusion moves to the outer shell and the
core's surface.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all
hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted.
2. Fusion stops when all hydrogen atoms in the core are
used up.
• Pressure in the core decreases.
3. Helium atoms or alpha particles are converted to
carbon via the alpha fusion processes.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all
hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted.
4. Temperature can increase to approximately 10 million K.
• Pressure also increases.
• Hydrogen is pushed away from the core.
• The resulting expansion eventually transforms the main
sequence star to a red giant.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all
hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted.

Fusion of elements in a red giant

 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars when the
majority of helium in their cores are consumed.
1. Hot and inert carbon core eventually becomes the white
dwarf.
• Lower amounts of helium in the core decrease the
rate of the alpha processes.
• Outer shell expands into space, forming a planetary
nebula.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars when the
majority of helium in their cores are consumed.
2. A white dwarf’s composition depends on its predecessor’s
mass.
• A sun-sized main sequence star lacks energy to fuse
carbon and the white dwarf would mostly contain inert
carbon and some oxygen.
• A smaller star will produce a white dwarf mostly
composed of helium and a bit of hydrogen.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars.
1. A high mass star can reach pressure and temperature
levels favorable for carbon fusion.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars.
2. It evolves through several stages where heavier
elements are fused in the core and in the shells around it
eventually forming multiple shells.
• Multiple elements formed in a series of reactions in
the following order:

Carbon Oxygen Neon Silicon Iron

 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars.
3. Elements lighter than iron can be fused since the
nucleus produced has a mass lower than the sum of
their masses.
• Missing mass is released as energy.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars.
4. Stellar nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron is
not possible due to its energy requirement.
 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Massive stars evolve
into multiple-shell
red giant stars.

A multiple-shell red giant

 Learn about It

Stellar Evolution
Elements heavier than iron are formed after a supernova.
1. An exploding multiple-shell red giant is called a supernova.
• happens when its core can no longer produce energy to
resist gravity
2. It releases massive quantities of high-energy neutrinos.
• Neutrinos break nucleons and release neutrons.
3. The generated neutrons are picked up by nearby stars.
• key step in the formation of elements heavier than iron
 Learn about It

Proving Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis

1. the discovery of interstellar gas and dust in the early 1900s
2. the study of different stages of stellar evolution happening
throughout the universe
• Infrared radiation (IR) can be detected from
different stages of stellar evolution.
• IR released by protostar is measured and compared to
IR from nearby area with zero extinction.
• approximation of energy, temperature and pressure
from IR
 Key Points

• Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which

elements are formed within stars.
• The primary factor that determines how stars evolve
is mass.
• The star formation theory proposes that stars
form due to the collapse of the dense regions of a
molecular cloud.
 Key Points

• Stellar evolution is the process by which a star

changes during its lifetime.
• All stars are born from clouds of gas and dust called
nebulae or molecular clouds that collapsed due to
gravity.
• As a cloud collapses, it breaks into smaller fragments
which contract to form a superhot stellar core called
a protostar.
 Key Points

• The protostar continues to accumulate gas and dust

from the molecular cloud and continues to contract
while the temperature increases, forming a main
sequence star.
• A main sequence star transforms into red giants if
hydrogen atoms successfully fuse to form the helium
core.
• When the core can no longer produce energy to
resist gravity, the star undergoes an explosion, called
a supernova.
 Check Your Understanding

Identify what is being described by the

following statements.
1. This stellar core is formed as fragments from the
collapsing of cloud contract.
2. This new element is formed from He in a red giant star.
3. It is the force that squeezes stars when mass,
temperature or pressure is altered.
 References

Clayton, D.D. 1968. Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis. Chicago, USA: University
of Chicago Press.

Constan, Z. “Learn Nuclear Science with Marbles.” National Science Foundation 2017. Accessed
July 13, 2018.
http://www.jinaweb.org/outreach/marble/Marble%20Nuclei%20Project%20-%20Activities%20
Student%20Worksheet.pdf
.

Langer, N. “Nucleosynthesis.” Bonn University SS 2012. Accessed December 8, 2016.

https://astro.uni-bonn.de/~nlanger/siu_web/nucscript/Nucleo.pdf.
 References

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “The Big Bang.” Accessed December 8, 2016.
https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-big-bang/.

National Geographic. “Origins of the Universe—An Expanding World.” Accessed December 8, 2016.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/origins-of-the-universe.

Overton, Tina, et al. 2010. Shriver and Atkins’ Inorganic Chemistry. 5th ed. London: Oxford University Press.