THE BIGBANG THEORY

Scientists believe that the formation of the universe began through the explosion of a primordial
atom which happened 13 billion years ago. Goerges Lemaitre
EVIDENCES OF THE BIG BANG
• Cosmic expansion, Edwin Hubble
• Cosmic Microwave Background, George Gamow. (RELIC RADIATION)
• Primordial or Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei) formation.
• Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Today, only stellar and supernova nucleosynthesis are occurring in our universe.
• Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion reactions.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

➢ Formation of light elements, Hydrogen and Helium by combination of protons and neutrons
right after the Big Bang.
➢ Other light element, Lithium was also formed through this type of nucleosynthesis
➢ Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few minutes after the Big Bang because the
universe had expanded and cooled sufficiently by then such that the temperatures and
pressures were too low to support additional nuclear fusion reactions.

STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
• Formation of elements in the stars' interior.
• Occurs through nuclear fusion and electron capture
• Responsible for the formation of elements heavier than Helium, He until Iron, Fe.
• Formation of Hydrogen to Helium

FORMATION OF HYDROGEN TO HELIUM

• Proton-proton Chain or Hydrogen Burning- fusion of four hydrogen nuclei to form a helium
nucleus.
• Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen (CNO) Cycle- conversion of hydrogen to helium among massive stars
by using carbon as catalyst.

WHAT HAPPENS ONCE A STAR HAS USED UP THE HYDROGEN IN ITS CORE?
• P-P chain and CNO Cycle stop
• Helium starts to be expended and burned
• Helium is burned to produce Carbon through the process called Tri-alpha process.

TRI – ALPHA PROCESS

• alpha particle is equivalent to Helium atom
 • first reaction forms unstable Beryllium, Be atom

HOW DO ELEMENTS HEAVIER THAN IRON FORM?

SUPERNOVA NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
Supernova Nucleosynthesis is believed to be the reason for the formation of heavier nuclei after Iron.
➢ The pathway for heavier nuclei to be formed is through neutron capture; not nuclear fusion.
➢ Neutron capture happens when a neutron is added to a seed nucleus.

Neutron capture
➢ Creates a heavier isotopes of the same element
➢ Making it stable or radioactive
➢ Radioactive are unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay (i.e. beta decay)
➢ Electron is emitted; atomic number of the nucleus to increase by one, becoming an isotope of
the element next to the seed nucleus.

Two types of Neutron capture:

➢ S-process (slow), addition of neutron is so slow that beta decay happened before another
neutron is added to the nucleus.
➢ R-process (rapid), fast capture of neutron before radioactive decay occurs.

Types of Radioactive Decay – Alpha Decay

• In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus releases two neutrons and two protons. This is called an
alpha () particle. It is equivalent to a 42He nuclei. Energy is also released in the process.
• As a result, the mass number of the remaining nucleus decreases by 4 and the atomic number
decreases by 2. A new element is formed in the process!

Types of Radioactive Decay – Beta Decay

• In beta decay of an unstable nucleus, a neutron suddenly changes to a proton, releasing an
electron, a ghostly, low mass particle called a neutrino (not pictured), and energy!
• As a result, the atomic number of the remaining nucleus increases by 1 but the mass number
does not change. A new element is formed!
• Note: The released electron did not come from outside the nucleus. It came from inside the
nucleus. It is called a beta () particle.

Types of Radioactive Decay – Gamma Decay

• In gamma decay, an unstable nucleus releases a high energy form of electromagnetic radiation
(light) called a gamma () particle or a gamma ray. This particle of light is also known as a
photon.
• The energy is released as the protons and neutrons in the unstable nucleus reposition
themselves in an attempt to find a lower energy arrangement.
• Since no protons or neutrons are released, the mass number and atomic number of the nucleus
remain unchanged, and no new element is formed. Gamma decay usually accompanies alpha
and beta decay.
Nuclear Reactions can be Represented by Nuclear Equations
Fusion
Making a larger nucleus from two or more smaller nuclei
Fission
Making two or more smaller nuclei from a larger nucleus

Concept of Atomic Number that Led to the Synthesis of New Elements in the Laboratory

What’s In
There is what we call Big Bang Theory that has some key stages:
• Singularity,
• Nucleosynthesis and
• Recombination.

• Singularity - Point in space with dense matter and intense gravity, defying conventional physics.
• Laws of physics breakdown - Not applicable in singularity due to extreme conditions.
• Universe expansion - Early rapid expansion believed to cause uniform distribution of matter.
• Nucleosynthesis was the nuclear fusion and the formation of new nuclei actions in the early
stages of the expansion the universe.
• Recombination - the formation of the capture of free electrons by the cations in a plasma.

Henry Moseley, an English physicist, conducted an experiment revealing that an element's properties
are determined by its atomic number, not its atomic weight. His work firmly linked atomic number to
the charge of the atomic nucleus.

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction — a
reaction involving the transformation of one element or isotope into another element. The first nuclide
to be prepared by artificial means was an isotope of oxygen, 17O. It was made by Ernest Rutherford in
1919 by bombarding nitrogen atoms with α particles: +
However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they tend to repel
each other.
Therefore, instead of using fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing new elements, atomic
nuclei are often bombarded with neutrons (neutral particles) in particle accelerators.

James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, as a previously unknown neutral particle
produced along with 12C by the nuclear reaction between 9Be and 4He: +
The first element to be prepared that does not occur naturally on the earth, technetium, was
created by bombardment of molybdenum by deuterons (heavy hydrogen, H12), by Emilio Segre and
Carlo Perrier in 1937: +2 +
 The first controlled nuclear chain reaction was carried out in a reactor at the University of
Chicago in 1942.

Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the atomic
numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Two of these elements were synthesized in the laboratory using particle
accelerators.
A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the repulsion
between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to
synthesize new elements.
In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized element with atomic number 43 using
a linear particle accelerator. He bombarded molybdenum (Z=42) with fast-moving neutrons. The newly
synthesized element was named Technetium (Tc) after the Greek word "technêtos" meaning “artificial.”
Tc was the first man-made element.
The bombarding of Mo with deuteron formed technicium which is the first artificially made
element.

In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered element with atomic number
85. They bombarded atoms of bismuth (Z=83) with fast-moving alpha particles in a cyclotron.
A cyclotron is a particle accelerator that uses alternating electric field to accelerate particles
that move in a spiral path in the presence of a magnetic field. Element-85 was named astatine from the
Greek word “astatos” meaning unstable.

The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were discovered through studies in
radioactivity. Element-61 (Promethium) was discovered as a decay product of the fission of uranium
while element-87 (Francium) was discovered as a breakdown product of uranium.

The Synthesis of the Elements

The invention of the device called cyclotron paved the way for transmuting one element into
another artificially. The high-energy particles that are produced from the cyclotron upon hitting heavy
target nuclei produce heavier nuclei.
The Universe ran into the Be problem. Red giant cores get past this via the Triple Alpha process,
but the Universe expands right through this possibility and the density/temperature are quickly too low
to synthesis any additional elements.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• The oldest stars in the Galaxy are deficient in the abundance of elements heavier than Helium
(but show the predicted amount of He)
• The current record holder has Fe/H about 130,000 times smaller than the solar value.
• Not quite down to Big Bang abundances, but we are getting pretty close and still looking.

Neutron d Elements
There are two principle paths to building the elements heavier than Fe. Both use the addition of
neutrons to existing `seed’ nuclei (neutrons have no charge so are much easier to add to positively-
charged nuclei).
S-process (slow addition of neutrons)
R-process (rapid addition of neutrons)
The Transuranic Elements
In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic number 92. Early in
1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an element having an atomic number 93could be created. He used a
particle accelerator to bombard uranium with neutrons and created an element with an atomic number
93 which he named neptunium.
Transuranic elements are synthetic elements with atomic numbers higher than that of Uranium
(Z = 92). Plutonium (Z = 94)

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Stars create elements by fusing protons and neutrons from lighter nuclei. Fusion turns hydrogen
into helium, generating heat and radiation. Heavier elements form in stars as they die or explode.

The Superheavy Elements

Superheavy elements are elements with atomic numbers beyond 103. These are produced by
bombarding heavy nuclear targets with accelerated heavy projectiles.
Bohrium (Z = 107) – projectile used was Cr

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Determining the Polarity of Molecule

1. How does bond polarity affect the polarity of a molecule
2. How to determine the direction of a molecule's polarity
3. How does shape affect polarity
4. How do elements on the outside of a molecule affect polarity

What is Polarity
Molecules are neutral
1. If negative charge is evenly distributed around the molecule it is not polar
2. If there is an uneven distribution of negative charge, the molecule is polar

Determining the Molecule Polarity.

Bond Polarity - polar bond = electronegativity is 0
Outside atoms
Molecule shape

The Lewis structure was named after Gilbert N. Lewis, who introduced it in his 1916 article The
Atom and the Molecule. Lewis structures extend the concept of the electron dot diagram by adding lines
between atoms to represent shared pairs in a chemical bond.
The Lewis structure of a compound can be generated by trial and error. We start by writing
symbols that contain the correct number of valence electrons for the atoms in the molecule. We then
combine electrons to form covalent bonds until we come up with a Lewis structure in which all of the
elements (with the exception of the hydrogen atoms) have an octet of valence electrons.

Notable Exceptions to the Octet Rule

• H only needs 2 valence electrons.
• Be and B don’t need 8 valence electrons.
• S and P sometimes have more than 8 val. Electrons.
 • Elements in Period Three, Four, etc (on the periodic table) can hold more than 8 valence
electrons.

An intermolecular force of attraction (IMFA) is simply an attractive force between neighboring

molecules.
There are three common types, namely:
• London dispersion forces,
• Dipole-dipole, and
• Hydrogen bonds.

London dispersion forces

are present in molecules, regardless of the polarity. This is the weakest among the
intermolecular forces. They originate from the fluctuations of the electron distribution around the
molecule over time. Since larger molecules have larger electron clouds, they exhibit stronger dispersion
forces than smaller molecules.

Dipole-Dipole Forces
are present only in polar molecules (i.e., those with a net dipole moment). This kind of force is
stronger than London dispersion forces because polar molecules have a permanent uneven distribution
of electrons

Hydrogen bond
is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs in molecules having a hydrogen atom
bonded to an electronegative atom such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. It is the strongest
intermolecular force of attraction among the three.

Intermolecular forces are involved in phase changes. The IMFA in solids are very strong, thus the
particles are compact. The IMFA in liquids are not strong enough to keep the particles remain in fixed
positions so liquids generally tend to resemble the shape of their containers. The IMFA in gases are
extremely weak or almost negligible thus, particles are free to move around.

Effect of Intermolecular Forces on the Properties of Substances

How these forces affect the properties of molecules

Properties of Molecules
Depend on the type and strength of their intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA)
Solubility
Melting Point
Boiling Point
Surface Tension
Viscosity
Vapor Pressure

Solubility
• refers to the ability of a substance to be dissolved in a given amount of solvent
• the rule like dissolves like when the solute and the solvent both exhibit the same intermolecular
forces of attraction they form a solution
 • when the solute and the solvent both exhibit the same intermolecular forces of attraction they
form a solution
• the only attractive forces present in gasoline are the relatively weak London dispersion
forces and this forces cannot significantly disrupt the strong hydrogen bonding among water
molecules therefore gasoline and water form a heterogeneous mixture or they do not form a
solution

Phases of Molecules at Room Temperature

• Solid - When molecules have strong intermolecular forces of attraction they are packed close
together
• Liquid - they often exist as condensed phase solid or liquid at room temperature
• Gas - when molecules have weak intermolecular forces of attraction they are far apart from
each other they often exist as gas at room temperature

Melting Point
• Melting point is the temperature at which the substance changes from solid to liquid
• stronger intermolecular forces means greater amount of energy is needed to break the
attracting forces between molecules
• substances with stronger intermolecular forces of attraction have higher melting points
compared to those with weaker intermolecular forces of attraction

Boiling Point
• Boiling point is the temperature at which the substance changes from liquid to gas
• Stronger intermolecular forces means greater amount of energy is needed to break the
attracting forces between molecules
• substances with stronger intermolecular forces have higher boiling points compared to those
with weaker intermolecular forces of attraction

Surface Tension
• surface tension is the tendency of a fluid to acquire the least possible surface area
• molecules with stronger intermolecular forces will exert greater cohesive forces and acquire less
surface area or higher surface tension than those with weaker intermolecular forces of
attraction

Viscosity
• viscosity is the measure of a fluid's resistance to flow
• molecules with stronger intermolecular forces have greater resistance to flow and thus higher
viscosity compared to those with weaker intermolecular forces of attraction

Vapor Pressure
• vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid phase in a closed
system
• molecules with stronger intermolecular forces have less tendency to escape as gas and thus
lower vapor pressure compared to those with weaker intermolecular forces of attraction
Electron Configuration Diagrams
The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are distributed in its atomic
orbitals. Electron configurations of atoms follow a standard notation in which all electron-containing
atomic subshells (with the number of electrons they hold written in superscript) are placed in a
sequence.

The Lewis structure was named after Gilbert N. Lewis, who introduced it in his 1916 article The
Atom and the Molecule. Lewis structures extend the concept of the electron dot diagram by adding lines
between atoms to represent shared pairs in a chemical bond.

The trial-and-error method for writing Lewis structures can be time consuming. For all but the simplest
molecules, the following step-by-step process is faster.
Step 1: Determine the total number of valence electrons.
Step 2: Write the skeleton structure of the molecule.
Step 3: Use two valence electrons to form each bond in the skeleton structure.
Step 4: Try to satisfy the octets of the atoms by distributing the remaining valence electrons as
nonbonding electrons.