5

BJT Circuits

Outline

5-1 Introduction
5-2 Biasing and Bias Stability
5-3 Calculation of Stability Factors
5-4 CE, CB Modes and Their Properties
5-5 Small-Signal Low-Frequency Operation of Transistors
5-6 Equivalent Circuits through Hybrid Parameters as a Two-Port Network
5-7 Transistor as Amplifier
5-8 Expressions of Current Gain, Input Resistance, Voltage Gain and Output Resistance
5-9 Frequency Response for CE Amplifier with and without Source Impedance
5-10 Emitter Follower
5-11 Darlington Pair
5-12 Transistor at High Frequencies
5-13 Real-Life Applications of the Transistor

Objectives

This chapter introduces biasing of BJT and bias stability. Biasing ensures that the transistor has
proper gain and input impedance with undistorted output voltage when used as an amplifier. After
the Q-point is established, maintaining the stability of the Q-point with respect to variations in
temperature leads us to the concept of stability.
Next, the small-signal low-frequency operation of the transistor is analysed. Here the circuit
operates in the linear region and the calculations can be done using Kirchoff’s voltage law and
Kirchoff’s circuit law. Transistor circuit models are described and designed using hybrid (h)
parameters.
Finally the frequency response for CE amplifier (with and without source impedance) for
finding the bandwidth of the amplifier and few applications of transistors like emitter follower
and Darlington pair are discussed in detail.
 5-1 INTRODUCTION

The BJT as a circuit element operates various circuits with many major and minor modifications. For
the analysis of such circuits, we obtain the various conditions for proper operation of the device, and
also determine the projected range of operation of the device. A detailed study of the device in a two-
port mode simplifies the circuit analysis of the device to a large extent. Thus, we calculate the
various parameters of the devices' performance, namely voltage gain, current gain, input impedance,
and output impedance. The frequency response of the device is dealt with in detail, and a study of the
various regions of operation in the frequency scale is also explained.
Finally, we will discuss the various configurations of the device and take a look into the high-
frequency operation of the device and its performance in those regions.

5-2 BIASING AND BIAS STABILITY

Biasing refers to the establishment of suitable dc values of different currents and voltages of a
transistor. Through proper biasing, a desired quiescent operating point of the transistor amplifier in
the active region (linear region) of the characteristics is obtained. The selection of a proper quiescent
point generally depends on the following factors:
a. The amplitude of the signal to be handled by the amplifier and distortion level in signal
b. The load to which the amplifier is to work for a corresponding supply voltage

It is desired that the quiescent point be stable irrespective of changes in temperature or transistor
characteristics. With the change in the input signal, the characteristics of the device should also
change keeping the output of the device linear, i.e., undistorted.
The operating point of a transistor amplifier shifts mainly with changes in temperature, since the
transistor parameters—β, ICO and VBE (where the symbols carry their usual meaning)—are functions
of temperature.
The stability of a system is a measure of the sensitivity of a network or the transistor circuit to
variations in parameters (mainly due to change in temperature). In any amplifier employing a
transistor, the collector current IC is sensitive to each of the following parameters:
a. β increases with increase in temperature.
b. ICO doubles in value for every 10 degree Celsius increase in temperature. This is the intrinsic current flowing, which is a strong
function of temperature. The variation of silicon transistor parameters are shown in Table 5-1.

Table 5-1 Variation of silicon transistor parameters with temperature

Any or all of these factors can cause the bias point to drift from the designed or desired point of
operation, thus, limiting the operation of the device in the linear region. This shift in the operating
point may greatly vary the operation of the device and the output rather than changing the undistorted
voltage swing to a distorted voltage swing.

5-2-1 Circuit Configurations

Here we study some of the circuit configurations where we design and analyse these particular
configurations and their stability of operation.

Fixed-bias circuit
The configuration, as shown in Fig. 5-1(a), provides a relatively simple and easy introduction to the
concept of biasing and their analysis. We consider the n-p-n transistor and this method equally
applies to the analysis of p-n-p transistor. In the CE mode, for dc analysis, the circuit is made devoid
of the ac source and the capacitor, as indicated in the equivalent circuit in Fig. 5-1(b). We simply
isolate the input and output, and analyse both of them independently.

Figure 5-1 (a) Representation of fixed-bias circuit (b) Equivalent circuit

RB indicates the resistance connected to the base lead, RC indicates the resistance connected to the
collector leg of the transistor, and the respective currents are indicated as IB and IC.

Base-emitter loop. From Fig. 5-1, applying KVL to the input circuit, we obtain the following
equation:

or,
Solving Eq. (5-2) will result in obtaining the base current for this particular circuit configuration.
Also, we see that the value of IB changes with the change in the value of the base resistor and the
value of the dc voltage source.

Collector-emitter loop. In the emitter–collector loop, i.e., the output loop, applying KVL we obtain
the following equation:

and,

Also,

In this case we have:

VCE = VC

Similarly, for VBE we obtain:

which, is equal to VB, since VE is zero because in Fig. 5-1 there is no resistance between the emitter
terminal and ground.
It is worth mentioning that the voltage is measured with respect to ground. VE is the voltage
between emitter and ground. VB is the voltage between base and ground. VC is the voltage between
collector and ground.
The transistor saturation corresponds to the operation of the transistor in the saturation region. This
stage corresponds to the operation when the collector is shorted to the emitter region and VCE = 0 V.
Thus, from Eq. (5-3) we get:

Substituting VCE = 0 and IC → ICsat, we get:

Fixed bias with emitter resistance

The only modification in the circuit is that an emitter resistor is kept at the emitter lead of the
transistor. The analysis is very simple; only the resistor is kept at the emitter terminal. The circuit is
as shown in Fig. 5-2.
Figure 5-2 shows only a minor change from the previous configuration, i.e., a resistor RE is
connected to the emitter leg of the transistor, and the current flowing through this resistor is given by
IE. All the other circuit components carry their usual meaning.

Base – emitter loop. For the base-emitter loop, we obtain the following equation:

and the emitter current can be written as IE = (β + 1) IB

Figure 5-2 Fixed-bias circuit with emitter resistance

Putting this value of IE in Eq. (5-8) yields:

This circuit is very similar to the previous bias circuit; however, we have the extra term (β + 1)RE as
the only difference.

Collector-emitter loop. Applying KVL to the output loop, we obtain:

with the base current known, IC can be easily calculated by the relation IC = βIB. With this value of
IC, we can obtain the value of the collector current and collector voltage that gives a location on the
output characteristics, and also provides the operating point. This location gives an indication
whether the biasing of the BJT is proper at that point or not.

Voltage-divider bias
The study of the previous circuits shows that the quiescent current and the quiescent voltage are
dependent on the current gain β of the transistor. However, knowing that β is a temperature dependent
factor, the design of such a circuit with these factors independent of β is required. Such a design is
provided in Fig. 5-3.
This circuit is also called the self-bias circuit. In this circuit, we find that the voltage at the base is
provided with the help of a voltage divider where, the resistors are indicated by R1 and R2.
The analysis of the input side is made exclusively by representing it through the Thevenins
equivalent circuit. Thus, the Thevenins equivalent voltage for the input side is given by:

Figure 5-3 Voltage-divider bias circuit

The Thevenin resistance is given by:

The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5-4.

The KVL equation for the input circuit [see Eq. (5-9)] is given as:

The KVL equation for the output circuit gives:

IC(RC + RE) + IBRE + VCE = VCC

The output equation results in determining the collector-to-emitter voltage which is given by:
This gives us the quiescent operating point.

Figure 5-4 Simplified voltage-divider circuit

Voltage-feedback biasing
The objective behind discussing these different topologies is to obtain a better stability. In our desire
to obtain a more stable circuit, we end up with the circuit, which has a resistance RB, included in the
path connecting the base and the collector. The circuit for such a case is represented by Fig. 5-5.

Figure 5-5 Representation of Voltage-feedback biased circuit

Base–emitter loop. The analysis for the base–emitter loop is as follows.
Applying KVL for this part, we get:

Neglecting IB for the reasons stated, we obtain:

VCC = IC RC + IBRB + VBE + IERE

Here, it is important to note that the current = IC + IB is the sum of the current entering the base

and the collector terminal of the BJT. But due to the design constraint of the transistor, the value of IC

and far exceed the value of the base current. For a simpler analysis, we equate IC and . Putting the

values of IC and in Eq. (5-15) results in:

Rearranging the terms of Eq. (5-16) will result into:

Thus, the base current can be obtained as:

5-2-2 Stabilization Against Variations in ICO, VBE, and β

Our focus should always be on the operation of the device under varying temperature conditions. In
this regard, the following temperature dependent sources cause instability of the collector current IC.
These include:
i. the reverse saturation current ICO, which doubles itself for every 10°C increase in temperature;
ii. the base-to-emitter voltage VBE, which decreases at the rate of 2.5 mV/°C for both Ge and Si transistors;
iii. ß, which is a strong function of temperature, and increases with an increase in temperature.

We shall neglect the effect of the change of VCE with temperature because this variation is very
small, and we can assume that the transistor operates in the active region where IC is approximately
independent of VCE. Under normal operation this value is near about 0.3 V when the transistor is
operating in the saturation region.
 Transfer characteristic
In this particular characteristic, the output current IC is plotted (see Fig. 5-6) as a function of input
voltage for the germanium transistor. Thus, the word “transfer” is used for this characteristic.

Figure 5-6 Transfer characteristics for germanium p–n–p alloy type transistor

Figure 5-7 Collector current vs. base-to-emitter voltage for a silicon transistor

Transfer characteristic in the case of a silicon transistor is shown in Fig. 5-7

In Fig. 5-7 we can see that there is a shift of the curves towards the left at a rate of 2.5 mV/°C with
constant IC and with an increase in temperature. We now examine in detail the effect of the shift in
transfer characteristics and the variation of β and ICO with temperature. This analysis makes it
simpler for us to analyse the variation of the operating point with all of these factors taken into
consideration. For easy analysis and evaluation of various stability factors, we consider a self-bias
circuit.

Figure 5-8 Self-bias circuit

If the equation obtained from Fig. 5-8—by applying KVL around the base-emitter circuit of the
self-bias circuit—is combined with the equation obtained by applying KVL around the collector
circuit that represents the collector characteristics in the active region, the resultant equation will be:

Equation (5-19) represents a load line in the IC − VBE plane, and is indicated in Fig. 5-9.
The intercept on the VBE axis is V + , where:

β >> 1, therefore, .
 Figure 5-9 Variation of the collector current with temperature because of VBE, ICO and β

If we put T = T1(T2), ICO = ICO1(ICO2) and β = β1(β2), then we have:

And consequently we obtain:

Thus, the intercept of the load line on the VBE axis is found to be dependent on temperature because
ICO increases with T. The slope of the load line as obtained is:

and, as is evident, | σ | increases with T since β increases with T. The transfer characteristic for T =
T2 > T1 shifts to the left of the corresponding curve for T = T1 as VBE (at constant IC) varies with T,
which is indicated above. The intersection of the load line with the transfer characteristic gives us the
collector current IC. We also see that IC2 > IC1 because ICO, β and VBE all vary with temperature.
From Eq. (5-19) it is seen that with IC being a function of ICO, VBE and β, it is possible to introduce
the three partial derivatives of IC with respect to these variables in order to indicate the variation of
IC with respect to each of the independent parameters, taken one at a time. These derivatives are
called the stability factors S, S′ and S″.

5-3 CALCULATION OF STABILITY FACTORS

5-3-1 Stability Factor S

We here define the stability factor S, as the change of collector current with respect to the reverse
saturation current, keeping β and VBE constant. This can be written as:

The larger the value of S, the more likely it is for the circuit to be thermally unstable, i.e., the
operation of the device will be marked by the change in operating temperature. Using the above
definition and Eq. (5-19), we find:

If Rb/Re ≃ 1, S ≈ 1, Rb/Re → ∞ and S ≈ 1 + β, S remains between 1 and 1 + β.

If (β + 1) >> Rb/Re, then Eq. (5-25) reduce to:

Thus, for constant β, VBE and small S, we obtain:

For the typical design Rb /Re > 1, we make the second term in Eq. (5-28) larger than the first term.
The denominator of the second term is the dc voltage drop across Re (since | IC| ≈ | Ie|) and should
always be under the circuit designer’s supervision for its operation to be controlled.

5-3-2 Stability Factor S′

The variation of IC with VBE is given by the stability factor S′ defined by the partial derivative:

where, both ICO and β are considered to be constant.

From Eq. (5-19) we find:

Again, if we assume that β + 1 >> Rb/Re and also that β >> 1, then from Eq. (5-29) we obtain:
or,

From Eq. (5-31) and Eq. (5-27) we find that the dominant factor is stabilising against ICO and VBE is
the quiescent voltage drop across the emitter resistance Re. The larger the drop, the smaller is the
percentage change in collector current because of the changes in ICO and VBE.

5-3-3 Stability Factor Sʺ

The variation of IC with respect to β is represented by the stability factor, S'', given as:

where, both ICO and VBE need to be considered constant. From Eq (5-19):

From Eq. (5-20), V′ may be taken to be independent of β. After differentiation and algebraic
manipulation we obtain:

The change in the collector current due to a change in β is given by:

where, Δβ = β2 − β1 may represent a large change in β. Thus, it is not clear whether to use β1, β2 or
some average value of β in the expressions for S″. This difficulty is avoided if S″ is obtained by
taking finite differences rather than by evaluating a derivative. Thus:

From Eq. (5-33) we have:

Subtracting 1 from both sides of Eq. (5-33) yields:

or,

where, S2 is the value of the stabilizing factor S when β = β2, as given by Eq. (5-24). This equation
gets reduced to Eq. (5-34) as Δβ = β2 − β1 → 0.
If we assume S2 to be small so that the approximate value given in Eq. (5-25) is valid, then from
Eq. (5-39) with β >> 1, we find:

It is clear that Rb/Re should be kept small. Also, for a given spread in the value of β, a high-β circuit
will be more stable than one using a lower-β transistor.

5-3-4 General Remarks on Collector Current Stability

The stability factors have been defined earlier keeping in mind the change in collector current with
respect to changes in ICO, VBE and β. These stability factors are repeated here for simplicity.

Each differential quotient is calculated with all other parameters kept constant. If we desire to obtain
the total change in collector current over a specified temperature range, we can do so by expressing
this change as the sum of the individual changes due to the stability factors calculated from the
variation of ICO, VBE and β. Thus, by taking the total differential of IC = f (ICO, VBE, β), we obtain:

Equation (5-44) gives the summary of all the explanations given earlier regarding change in collector
current or in other words, the essence of stability factors. The stability factors may be expressed in
terms of the parameter M defined by:

In this case we assume β >> 1. Note that if, βRe >> Rb, then M ≈ 1. Substituting Eqs. (5-22), (5-26)
and (5-36) in Eq. (5-39) for the fractional (minute) change in collector current we get:

where M1(M2) corresponds to β1(β2). As T increases, ΔICO/IC1 and Δβ increase, and ΔVBE/IC1
decreases. Hence all the terms in Eq. (5-42) are positive for an increase in T and negative for a
decrease in T.

5-4 CE, CB MODES AND THEIR PROPERTIES

5-4-1 Common-Emitter (CE) Mode

Input characteristics
The input characteristiscs are as shown in Fig. 5-10. Here IB is the input current, VBE is the input
voltage and VCE is the output voltage. The variation of the base current IB with respect to the base-to-
emitter voltage VBE, considering VCE as a constant is shown in Fig. 5-10. This set of curves
represents the CE input characteristics. The characteristics are similar to that of a forward-biased
diode. However, for a constant VBE, the magnitude of the base current decreases with an increase in
VCE. This is because, with an increasing VCE the effective base width decreases and thus, the
recombination base current also decreases.
 Figure 5-10 Input characteristic for common-emitter configuration

Output characteristics
The output characteristics are as shown in Fig. 5-11(a).
Here the collector current IC is plotted against the collector-to-emitter voltage VCE with base
current IB as parameter. The characteristics can be divided into three regions:

Active region. In this region the transistor works in a mode where the emitter–base junction is
forward-biased and the collector-base junction reverse-biased. A transistor when operated in the
active region can be used to amplify signals almost faithfully, as this region corresponds to the linear
region or rather the device bears a linear relationship between the input and the output signals. In this
region the characteristics of the device change according to the changes in the input signal, thus
keeping the output a faithful replication of the input signal. The output characteristics in the active
region are not horizontal lines. This is because, for a fixed value of the base current IB the magnitude
of the collector current increases with VCE (due to Early effect).

Figure 5-11(a) Plot of the collector current against the collector-to-emitter voltage

Cut-off region. For operation in the CE mode, only by making the base current IB = 0, the cut-off
collector current or ICO is not obtained. It is also necessary to reverse-bias the emitter–base junction
only for it to be zero; the collector current can be equal to ICO (applicable only for germanium
transistors). Thus, this region of operation corresponds to the operation of the device in which the
both the emitter–base and the collector-base junctions are reverse-biased, and the current is solely in
the reverse saturation region. Its magnitude is very small.

Saturation region. A transistor operating in this particular region has both the collector-base and the
emitter–base junctions forward-biased by at least the cutin (Vγ) voltage. Under this condition the
collector current becomes approximately independent of the base current, and the current at the
collector attains an overall saturation value.
Table 5-2 provides the four different transistor states under four different combinations of biasing,
and Fig.5-11(b) illustrates the operating modes.

Table 5-2 Definitions of transistor states

Junction Biasing
Transistor State or Operating Mode
Base–Emitter Base–Collector
Forward active Forward Reverse
Reverse active Reverse Forward
Cut-off Reverse Reverse
Saturation Forward Forward

Figure 5-11(b) Transistor states defined by junction biasing

5-4-2 Common-Base Mode

This configuration corresponds to the arrangement in which the base is common to both the input and
the output of the circuit concerned.

Input characteristics
The input characteristics are as shown in Fig. 5-12. In this case, the emitter current is the input
current, and the emitter–base voltage is the input voltage. The collector-base voltage is the output
voltage. The variation of the emitter current with respect to the emitter-to-base voltage is equivalent
to the situation in a forward-biased p-n junction. But due to Early effect, an increase in the magnitude
of the collector voltage VCB causes the emitter current to increase for a definite VEB.

Output characteristics
The output characteristics are as shown in Fig. 5-13. Here the current flowing in the collector is the
output current, and the collector-to-base voltage is the output voltage. The emitter current is the input
current in this case. Again there are three regions in the characteristic curve that can be clearly
distinguished.

Figure 5-12 Input characteristics

Figure 5-13 Output characteristics

Active region. In this region the collector junction is biased in the reverse direction and the emitter
junction in the forward direction. Let us first assume that the emitter current is zero. Then, as is
evident, the collector current is small and equals the reverse saturation current ICO (microamperes for
Ge and nanoamperes for Si) of the collector junction, which might be considered as a diode. Now,
suppose that the forward emitter current IE is made to flow in the emitter circuit. Then a fraction of –
αIE of this current will reach the collector, and the actual value of the collector current IC is thus
given by:

In the active region the collector current is mostly independent of the collector voltage and depends
on the emitter current. However, because of Early effect there is actually a change and thus, an
increase in |IC| with respect to |VCB|. Because a is less than but almost equal to 1, the magnitude of the
collector current is slightly less than the emitter current. Physically, it can be clearly realised that a
part of the emitter current goes on to recombine with the carriers in the base region.

Saturation region. This region is located to the left of the line VCB = 0 and above the output
characteristic of IE = 0. This region is realised by forward-biasing of both the emitter–base and the
collector-base junctions. Forward-biasing of the collector-base junction results in an exponential
variation in the collector current, and thus, accounts for a large change in the collector current with
VCB in the saturation region.

Cut-off region. The region to the right of the line VCB = 0 and below the characteristic for IE = 0 is the
cut-off region of the transistor. In this region the operation of the transistor is realised by reverse-
biasing both the emitter–base and the collector-base junctions.

Solved Examples
Example 5-1 For the circuit shown in the diagram:
a. Calculate IB, IC, and VCE if a silicon transistor is used with β = 100.
b. Specify a value for Rb so that VCE = 7 V.
Solution:
a. Applying KVL around the loop VCC – C – B – E, we have:

or,

But the transistor is in the active region, hence, IC = 100IB and VBE = 0.70.
Substituting these values yields:

or,

and
IC = 100 × 0.031 mA = 3.1 mA

Then
VCE = VCC − (IB + IC)RC = 3.74V
 b. Given VCE = 7V
We apply KVL in the collector-emitter circuit and we have:

or,

and
IC = 100 IB = 1.485 mA

Applying KVL around the loop VCC – C – B – E, we have:

VCC = RC(IB + IC) + IBRb + VBE

or,

Example 5-2 (a) In Fig. 5-8 verify the stability factor

(b) Show that for the circuit of Example 5-1, S is given by:
Solution:

a. From Fig. 5-8, solving for IB we get:

From Eq. (5-19) we have:

or,

Then,

b. Applying KVL around Vcc – C – B – E, we have:

VCC = ICRc + (Rb + Rc)IB + VBE

But,
IC = βIB + (1 + β)ICO

Thus, we have:

Differentiating the equation for VCC with respect to ICO, we obtain:

or,

Example 5-3 For the two-battery transistor circuit as shown in the diagram, prove that the
stabilization factor S is given by:
Solution:
Neglecting VBE we obtain from the base circuit:

V1 = IERe − IBRb

But IE = −(IB + IC); thus, V1 = −(IB + IC)Re − IBRb

or,

or,
Example 5-4 Assume that a silicon transistor with β = 50, VBE(active) = 0.7 V, VCC = 22.5 V and Rc =
5.6 K is used in the given diagram. It is desired to establish a Q-point at VCE = 12 V, IC = 1.5 mA,
and stability factor S ≤ 3. Find Re, R1, and R2.

Solution:
The dc equivalent of the given diagram is as shown.
The current in Re is IC + IB ≈ IC. Hence, from the collector circuit, we obtain:

or,
Re = (7.0 − 5.6)kΩ = 1.4 kΩ. Solving for Rb /Re, we get:

or,
Rb /Re = 2.12

Hence,
Rb = (2.12 × 1.4)kΩ = 2.96 kΩ

If Rb < 2.96 then S < 3.

The base current is:

Solving for R1 and R2, we find:

But we have:
V = 0.030 × 2.96 + 0.7 + (0.03 + 1.5) × 1.4 = 2.93 V

Thus,
Example 5-5 (a) A germanium transistor is used in the self-biasing arrangement, as shown in the
following figure, with VCC = 20 V and Rc = 1.5 K. The quiescent point is chosen to be VCE = 8 V and
IC = 4 mA. A stability factor S = 12 is desired. If β = 50, find R1, R2 and Re.
(b) Repeat part (a) for S = 3.

Solution:

a.

Hence,

or,

The base-to-ground voltage:

 VBN = VBE − IERe = 0.2 V + 4.08mA × 1.47 kΩ = 5.91 V

The Thevenin voltage is:

V = VBN + IBRb = 5.91 V + 0.08 mA × 21.17 kΩ = 7.60 V

We have:

Then,

and
IR2 = IR1 − IB = 0.173 mA

Hence,

b. Re = 1.47 kΩ

or,

Then,
V = 5.91 V + 0.08 mA × 3.13 kΩ + 6.16 V

Thus,

∴
 IR2 = 1.387 mA − 0.08 mA = 1.307 mA

Example 5-6 In the transformer coupled amplifier stage, as shown, VBE = 0.7 V, β = 50, and the
quiescent voltage is VCE = 4 V. Determine (a) Re (b) the stability factor S.

Solution:
a. Collector–emitter circuit:

VCC − VEE = RcIC + Re(IC + IB) + VCE

or,

Base–emitter circuit:
−VEE = (IC + IB)Re + VBE

or,

Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, we get IC = 2 mA and Re = 2.74 K

b. Comparing the circuit given with that in the following diagram:
we see that they are similar except here Rb = 0. The equation for S, therefore, is valid with Rb = 0.
Under this condition S = 1.

5-5 SMALL-SIGNAL LOW-FREQUENCY OPERATION OF TRANSISTORS

The small signal model of a transistor operates with reasonable linearity and consequently, requires a
small-signal linear model that can represent the operation of the transistor in the active region. This
small-signal model is required for the analysis of the system where the input signal has amplitude,
which is small in relation to the proximity of the region in the output characteristics where the device
operates linearly. One such important model is the h-parameter model that makes the analysis of these
particular types of transistors excessively easy and lucid.

5-5-1 Hybrid Parameters and Two-Port Network

For the hybrid equivalent model to be described, the parameters are defined at an operating point that
may or may not give an actual picture of the operating condition of the amplifier. The quantities hie,
hre, hfe and hoe are called the hybrid parameters and are the components of a small-signal equivalent
circuit.
The description of the hybrid equivalent model begins with the general two-port system as shown
in Fig. 5-14.

Vi = h 11Ii + h 12Vo

Figure 5-14 is a black box model realization of the whole circuit. The parameters relating the four
variables are called h-parameters, derived from the word “hybrid”. The term hybrid was chosen
because the mixture of variables (V and I) in each equation results in a “hybrid” set of units of
measurement for these h-parameters.

Figure 5-14 Two-port system representation (Black model realisation)

Now, setting Vo = 0 (short circuit the output terminals) and solving for h11 we obtain:

Since h11 is the ratio of the input voltage to the input current with the output terminals shorted, it is
termed as the short-circuit input-impedance parameter. The subscript 11 of h11 defines the fact that the
parameter is determined by a ratio of quantities measured at the input terminals.
If Ii is set to zero, i.e., by opening the input leads and replacing this condition in Eq. (5-49), we get
the value of h12 as:
 It has no units since it is a ratio of voltage levels and is called the open-circuit reverse transfer
voltage ratio parameter. The subscript 12 of h12 reveals the fact that the parameter is a transfer
quantity determined by the ratio of input to output measurements.
Now, we set Vo = 0 by shorting the output terminals. The following will result for h21:

It is also a unit less since it is the ratio of the current levels. It is formally called the short-circuit
forward transfer current ratio parameter. The subscript 21 indicates that it is a transfer parameter
with the ratio of output to input quantity.
The last parameter h22, which can be found by again opening the input leads to set Ii = 0. Thus, by
replacing this condition in the basic sets of equations, we obtain:

Since it is the ratio of output current to the output voltage, it is the output conductance parameter,
and is measured in siemens (S). It is called the open-circuit output admittance parameter. The
subscript 22 reveals that it is determined by a ratio of output quantities. Therefore, we have:
i. h 11 → input impedance → h i
ii. h 12 → reverse transfer voltage ratio → h r

Figure 5-15 Complete hybrid equivalent model

iii. h 21 → forward transfer current gain → h f

iv. h 22 → output admittance → h o

Figure 5-15 shows the complete hybrid equivalent circuit.

5-6 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS THROUGH HYBRID PARAMETERS AS A TWO-PORT NETWORK

For the transistor, even though it has three basic configurations, they are all four-terminal
configurations, and thus, the resulting equivalent circuit will have the same format as shown in Fig. 5-
15. The h-parameter will however change with each configuration. To distinguish which parameter
has been used or which is available, a second subscript has been added to the h-parameter notation.
i. For the common-base configuration: the lower case letter b
ii. For the common-emitter configuration: the lower case letter e
iii. For the common-collector configuration: the lower case letter c

The hybrid equivalent network for the common-emitter and common-base is shown in Fig. 5-16. For
common-emitter Ii = Ib, Io = Ic, and through an application of Kirchoff’s current law we have:

For the common-base configuration, Ii = Ie, Io = Ic with Veb = Vi and Vcb = Vo

5-7 TRANSISTOR AS AMPLIFIER

A load resistor RL is in series with the collector supply voltage Vcc, as shown in Fig. 5-17.
A small voltage change, ΔVi, between the emitter and the base causes quite a large emitter-current
change, given by ΔIE. We define by the symbol α as the fraction of this current change or the effective
current which is collected at the collector and passes through RL or ΔIC = α′ ΔIE, i.e., that which
reaches the collector region. Consequently the change in output voltage across the load resistor can be
given by:

Figure 5-16 Common-emitter and common-base configuration: (a) graphic symbol (b) hybrid equivalent circuit
 Figure 5-17 An n–p–n transistor in the common-base bias mode

and this may be many times the change in input voltage Vi. Under these circumstances, the voltage
amplification A ≡ ΔVL/ΔVi will be greater than unity and thus, the transistor acts as an amplifier. If
the dynamic resistance of the emitter junction is given by re, then corresponding change in the input
voltage ΔVi = reΔIE, and thus, the gain is given by:

We know that the resistance of the emitter is the forward resistance of a diode, i.e, re = 26/IE
where, IE is the quiescent emitter current (in milliamperes). For example, if re= 40 Ω, α′ = −1 and RL
= 3,000 Ω, we have A = +75. This calculation has been simplified a lot, but in essence it gives a
physical explanation as to why the transistor acts as an amplifier. The transistor provides power gain
as well as voltage or current amplification. From this explanation we reach the conclusion that the
current in the low-resistance input circuit is transferred to the high-resistance output circuit which
occurs mainly because the emitter junction has a very low dynamic resistance. The word “transistor”
originated as a contraction of “transfer resistor” and is based upon the physical nature of the device
outlined here.

5-7-1 The Parameter α′

The parameter α′ is defined as the ratio of the change in the collector current to the change in the
emitter current at constant collector-to-base voltage and is called the negative of the small-signal
short-circuit current transfer ratio or gain. Qualitatively, it gives us a figure of the amount of current
carriers that move from the emitter and are collected at the collector. More specifically:

where, VCB = constant.

 5-8 EXPRESSIONS OF CURRENT GAIN, INPUT RESISTANCE, VOLTAGE GAIN AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE

Figure 5-18 shows the h-parameter equivalent circuit of a transistor amplifier having a voltage source
Vg, with its input resistance Rg connected to the input terminals and a load resistance RL connected to
the output terminals.
Now we will derive expressions for the current gain (AI), the input resistance (RI), the voltage gain
(AV) and the output resistance (RO).

5-8-1 Current Gain (AI)

Current gain is defined as the ratio of the output current to input current. If the load current is IL and it
is assumed to flow from the top to the bottom through RL, as shown in Fig. 5-18, then:

Figure 5-18 h-Parameter equivalent circuit of a transistor

Again, applying Kirchoff’s current rule for the output circuit we get:

where,

From Eqs. (5-58) and (5-59) we get:

I2 = −h o I2RL + h f I1

or,
I2(1 + h o RL) = h f I1

or,
or,

5-8-2 Input Resistance (RI)

Input resistance is defined as the ratio of the input voltage across the input terminals of the amplifier
to the current I1. Therefore:

From the input circuit we get by applying KVL:

or,

Hence,

Substituting the value of AI from Eq. (5-60) we get:

5-8-3 Voltage Gain (AV)

Voltage gain or voltage amplification is defined as the ratio of the output voltage V2 to the input
voltage V1.
Since,

we get,

or,

where,
Δh = h ih o − h f h r

5-8-4 Output Resistance (RO)

The output resistance is defined as the ratio of V2 and I2, where I2 is the current delivered by the
generator V2. In order to find this, we set the source voltag Vg to zero and replace the load resistance
RL by a voltage generator V2. Therefore:

Considering the output circuit of Fig. 5-18 we obtain:

From the input mesh, we can write:

or,

Hence,
or,

Thus, the expansion for Ro finally becomes:

5-9 FREQUENCY RESPONSE FOR CE AMPLIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT SOURCE IMPEDANCE

At different frequencies of the input signal, the performance of the device is different. The analysis
till now has been limited to the mid-frequency spectrum. Frequency response of an amplifier refers to
the variation of the magnitude and phase of the amplifier with frequency. A plot of gain vs. frequency
for a CE amplifier is shown in Fig. 5-19(a) and phase angle vs. frequency for a CE amplifier is
shown in Fig. 5-19(b).
 Figure 5-19 (a) Gain vs. frequency for a CE amplifier (b) Phase angle vs. frequency for a CE amplifier

5-9-1 Conclusions
I. The frequency response can be divided into three ranges.
i. High-frequency range: The magnitude of voltage gain decreases slowly with the increase in frequency and the phase
angle decreases below 180 degrees.
ii. Mid-frequency range: Both gain and phase remain nearly constant.
iii. Low-frequency range: The magnitude of voltage gain increases slowly with the increase in frequency and the phase
angle increases up to 180 degrees but below 270 degrees.
II. Bandwidth of the amplifier is the difference between upper and lower cut-off frequency range:

III. Upper cut-off frequency: For which voltage gain is 0.707 time of its maximum gain at upper frequency range, as shown in Fig.
5-19(a). It is also known as half-power frequency.
IV. IV. Lower cut-off frequency: For which voltage gain is 0.707 time of its maximum gain at lower frequency range, as shown in
Fig. 5-19(a). It is also known as half-power frequency.

5-10 EMITTER FOLLOWER

The emitter follower transistor is a design which is basically a CC amplifier. As seen from Fig. 5-20,
the output signal is taken from the emitter with respect to ground and the collector is connected
directly to Vcc. Since Vcc is at signal ground in the ac equivalent circuit, we have the name common-
collector. This is further illustrated in Fig. 5-20.
From Fig. 5-20, we find that the direction of the emitter current for the transistor is opposite to the
reference (stipulated) direction. Again, we see that with an increase in the base voltage, the emitter–
base junction becomes more forward-biased, giving rise to an increase in the emitter current. The
output emitter voltage, follows the input base voltage, with zero phase shift; thus, the significance of
the name emitter follower. The expressions for current gain, input resistance, voltage gain and output
resistance of the CC amplifier are as follows. The detailed derivation is left for the reader to perform
as they can be obtained by a simple h-parameter model of the respective circuit.

Figure 5-20 An emitter follower configuration with biasing

i. Current gain:

ii. Input resistance:

iii. Voltage gain:

iv. Output resistance:

Also, in Fig. 5-20, we find that the there are two capacitors which solve the purposes of coupling.
The emitter follower is used for impedance matching.

Solved Examples
Example 5-7 Consider an emitter follower. Neglect hre and show that as Re → ∞

a.

Explain the result physically.

b.

Evaluate AV using h-parameter values given in the following table.

h-parameters Values
h ie 1.1 kΩ

hre 2.5 × 10−4

h fe 50

1/h oe 40 kΩ

Solution:
a. From the equation for current amplification for a emitter follower connection,

From equation of input resistance:

But,

Hence,

b. where, use of its voltage gain and result in part (a) has been made.

Example 5-8 For the emitter follower with Rs = 0.5 K and RL = 5 K, calculate AI, Ri, AV, AVS, and
Ro. Assume hfe = 50, hie = 1 K, hoe = 25 μA/V.

Solution:
From the equation for current gain:

From the equation for input resistance:

From the equation for voltage gain:

Example 5-9 (a) Design an emitter follower having Ri = 500 K, and Ro = 20 Ω. Assume hfe = 50, hie
= 1 K, hoe = 25 μA/V.
(b) Find AI and AV, for the emitter follower of part (a).
(c) Find Ri and the necessary RL so that AV, = 0.999.

Solution:
a. From input resistance, Ri = h ie+AIRL
or,
AIRL = 499 K

From the equation of current gain

or,
 Substituting the given values in Eq. (1) we obtain:

AI + 499 × 103 × 25 × 10−6 = 1 + 50

or,
AI = 38.5.

Hence

Using of the equation for output conductance we have:

or,
Rs = 20 Ω

b. We found AI in part (a), A1 = 38.5. From the equation for voltage gain we obtain:

c. From the equation for voltage gain with AV = 0.999:

From the equation for input resistance Ri = h ie + AIRL = 106

For h ie = 103, AIRL ≈ 106 =

106 + 25RL = 51 RL; RL = 38.4 K

Example 5-10 For the transistor circuit of a transistor in hybrid mode show that:
a. AIS(max) = −h f (if RL = 0 and Rs = ∞)
b. Ri = h i (if RL = 0)
 c.

d.

e.

f. Y0 = h o (if RS = ∞)

Solution:
a. For current gain, taking into account the source resistance:

Since RL = 0, AIS = −h f = AIS(max)

b. For input impedance, Ri = h i + h rAIRL = h i for (RL = 0)

c.

d.

So, since RS = 0 but for RL = ∞

Hence

e. Also since RS = 0 or

f. Using previous result, if RS = ∞, Y0 = h o

 Figure 5-21 Darlington pair: (a) basic circuit (b) darlington amplifier

5-11 DARLINGTON PAIR

The Darlington pair is achieved by connecting the collectors of the transistors where, the emitter of
one transistor is connected to the base of the other transistor. Figure 5-21 gives the essence of the
Darlington connection.
Input resistance of the second transistor is (hie + hfeRL). This is the load resistance of the first
stage. Overall current gain is the product of the current gains of the two transistors. As a result, the
overall current gain is very high. This is the prime advantage of this type of connection. The effective
input resistance of the Darlington connection is higher and the output value is lower. In digital circuits
such as the “totem-pole” connection, often the diode following the emitter of a transistor at the output
stage can be replaced by an arrangement of a Darlington pair. This helps in increasing the current gain
and also the input impedance—the two desired features.

5-12 TRANSISTOR AT HIGH FREQUENCIES

Till now we have considered the fact that the carriers responded at once to changes in the input
signal. Also, we had neglected the junction capacitance of the transistor for simplicity. These were
the approximations that we made for the transistor at low frequencies. But at higher frequencies these
capacitances have profound effect and must be included in the analysis of the circuits. Also, at higher
frequencies, the time delay between the emitter and the collector currents introduced by the movement
of the charges is important and has to be taken into account. The time delay that occurs causes a phase
shift between the emitter and the collector currents. Further, the transit time is different in many cases
which, in turn, increases such distortion.
At high frequencies a significant amount of current carriers injected into the base fail to reach the
collector as the polarity of the input signal reverses by the time the carriers reach. Consequently, a
number of carriers can get trapped in this process and take an enormously long time to reach and get
cleared from the base region. As the carriers remain in the base region for such a long time, a
considerable fraction of current is lost. The current gains of the transistors decrease. This puts an
upper limit to the proper operation of the device and results in it behaving in an unexpected manner.
Also, there is an increase in the noise which has to be well taken care of.

5-13 REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS OF THE TRANSISTOR

Transistor circuits are the basic component of any convenient electronics circuit. They are widely
used in the case of signal amplification, switching, microprocessor and microcontroller designing,
etc. These are the most common applications of transistors that go a long way in building powerful
microprocessors and other appliances. Microprocessors are the real brains of most electronic
appliances around us and a vital role is played by their grey cells—the transistors. The full potential
of these transistors is realized through the various appliances they revolutionized, from the simplest
of digital watches to the most complex computer hardware.
The first devices that were invented as a direct result of the transistor were phone receivers and
broadcasters. Without phones, phone lines would never have come into existence. This, in turn,
would have rendered impossible the invention of the Internet or the e-mail or the fax. The lack of
signal receivers in phones meant that there would have never been any cell phones that today play a
large role in the working world. The ability of a transistor to act as a semiconductor or as an insulator
helped solve many problems that inventors had to face while working with the various crystal
elements.
Of all the military appliances, the handheld radio was probably the most frequently used when
troops went out to the battlefield. It was necessary for them to remain in contact with their
commanders, with the base and with the other members of their troop. The transistor was instrumental
in the development of this radio. Because of its broadcasting and receiving qualities, the transistor
was used in the same manner as it is now used in telephones. In the hi-tech world that we live in
today, the global positioning system, better known as GPS, would not have existed were it not for the
transistor. The GPS is used extensively in the military to track their naval and air forces, and
provides assistance in air-traffic control. In addition to this, the GPS also assists in mapping better
routes for the different types of road transport. This technology is now also used in expensive luxury
cars. Speaking of cars, car ignition would not have been possible were it not for the invention of the
transistor. It’s all well and good to build a car, but the most important thing is that it works, and to do
that, you have to start it!
The world of computers is probably the largest and most expansive area that the invention of the
transistor has graced. There are so many different sub-sections to this one, but we will name a few. A
computer is basically made up of only transistors. Computers use small devices like microprocessors
and integrated circuits. These hold millions of transistors, and in fact, an entry-level Intel chip
(microprocessor) consists of about 10 million transistors, so you can just imagine how many there are
in the entire computer. From graphics cards that run the latest games to 800 W speakers, anything that
has a circuit has transistors.
Another huge form of entertainment is the radio. Hi-fi’s, radios and car radios would definitely not
be in existence were it not for the transistor. In fact, one of the first transistorized inventions—the
fully transistorized radio—was released in 1954, just a year after the first transistor device—the
hearing aid—was invented. We all realise how much the radio is used, and not just for entertainment.
Undoubtedly this was an invention much needed for the progress of mankind.
The press, the most widely used media format, would also not be in existence, because the
mechanical devices that are used today (computers, printing machines, etc.) would not have been
invented. We would be getting a weekly or monthly newspaper telling us what happened two weeks
earlier, and even this would not be possible due to the lack of machinery to print this. And finally,
one of the most widely used tools today, the Internet, would not have existed for obvious reasons.
What all this tells you, and we are sure you are aware, is that without the invention of the transistor
basically everything that contains a circuit would either not be in existence, or they would definitely
not be as developed as they are today. Computers, probably the most important device used in the
world today, would not be around and it could have been very detrimental to the development of our
world. As you can see, behind every electronic device that we use is a tiny, microscopic
semiconductor device—the transistor.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. Biasing is the establishment of suitable dc values of different current and voltages of a transistor by connecting it to an external
voltage source through suitable circuits.
2. Proper biasing renders a desired operating point in the operating region of the device; either in the active or in the saturation or
in the cut-off region.
3. The selection of the Q-point depends on (a) the amplitude of the signal to be handled by the amplifier, (b) the load to which the
amplifier is to work, (c) the available supply potentials, and (d) the allowable distortion in the signal.
4. The Q-point of the transistor should be stable irrespective of changes in temperature or transistor characteristics.
5. The operating point mainly shifts due to changes in temperature. The temperature depends on the β, ICO and V. β increases
with increase in temperature. |VBE| decreases about 7.5 mV per degree Celsius increase in temperature. ICO, which is the
reverse saturation current, doubles in value for every 10 degree Celsius increase in temperature.
6. Stability factor determines the stability of the collector current due to the changes in β, ICO and VBE.
7. The h-parameter gives a two-port model of a transistor.
8. Gain decreases in the low-frequency region because of parasitic capacitances of the network and frequency dependence of the
gain of the transistor.
9. In an emitter follower circuit, the output at the emitter follows the input signal and thus, the name.
10. Darlington pair is a special type of connection where the collectors of the transistors are connected together and the emitter of
one is connected to the base of the other.
11. Input resistance of Darlington pair circuit increases and the overall gain of the system is high.
12. Typical h-parameters of a transistor (at IE= 1.3 mA).
 IMPORTANT FORMULAE

1. The value of the stability factor when the variation is taken w.r.t ICO:

2.

3. For constant β, VBE, and small S, we have:

4.

5. The collector current is given by:

6. The variation of the collector current w.r.t β is given by:

7. By taking the total differential of IC = f(ICO, VBE, β), we obtain:

8. The current gain of a transistor amplifier using h-parameters is given by:

9. The voltage gain is given by:

 where, Δh = h ih o − h f h r
10. The input resistance of the amplifier is given by:

11. The output resistance is given by:

12. For emitter follower:

a. Current gain,

b. Input resistance:

c. Voltage gain:

From these expressions of current gain, and also by making approximations that h fe >> 1 and h oe ≈ 0, Av =
h feRL/h ie + h feRL
d. Output resistance:

Ro = RG + h ie/(1 + RGh oe + h ieh oe + h fe)

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. For good stabilized biasing of the transistor of the CE amplifier of figure. We should have:

a.

b.

c.

d.
 2. Current stability of a CC amplifier can be increased by:
a. Reducing both emitter and base resistance
b. Increasing both emitter and base resistance
c. Reducing emitter resistance and increasing base resistance
d. Increasing emitter resistance and decreasing base resistance
3. Which of the following statements are correct for basic transistor amplifier configuration?
a. CB amplifier has low input impedance and a low current gain
b. CC amplifier has low output impedance and a low current gain
c. CE amplifier has very poor voltage gain but very high input impedance
d. The current gain of CB amplifier is higher than the current gain OF CC amplifier
4. Which of the following configuration ifs normally used in cascading?
a. Common-emitter configuration
b. Common-base configuration
c. Common-collector configuration
d. None of the above
5. A transistor has h fe = 27, then its h fe will be:
a. −0.96
b. 0.96
c. −27
d. −28
6. In the BJT amplifier, the transistor is biased in the forward active region putting a capacitor across RE will:
a. Decrease the voltage gain and decrease the input impedance
b. Increase the voltage gain and decrease the input impedance
c. Decrease the voltage gain and increase the input impedance
d. Increase the voltage gain and increase the input impedance
7. In a common emitter BJT amplifier, the maximum usable supply voltage is limited by:
a. Avalanche breakdown of base–emitter junction
b. collector–base breakdown voltage with emitter open (BVCBO)
c. Collector–emitter breakdown voltage with base open (BVCEO)
d. Zener breakdown voltage of the emitter–base junction
8. The transconductance g m is defined as g m = ∂io /∂VBE Its value in terms of h-parameters is:

a.

b.

c.

d. None of the above

9. Introducing a resistor in the emitter of a common emitter amplifier stabilizes the dc operating point against variations in:
a. Only the temperature
b. Only the β of the transistor
c. Both temperature and β
d. None of the above
10. In a CE transistor amplifier, if collector-emitter voltage increases the instantaneous operating point:
a. Moves up the load line
b. Moves down the load line
c. Moves at right angle to the load line
d. Remains stationary
11. The h-parameter equivalent circuit of a junction transistor is valid for:
a. High-frequency, large-signal operation
b. High-frequency, small-signal operation
c. Low-frequency, small-signal operation
d. Low-frequency, large-signal operation
12. In a transistor h fe = 50, h ie = 830 ohms, h oe = 10−4 mho. When used as in the CB mode, then its output resistance will be:
a. 2 mohms
b. 500 K
c. 2.5 mohms
d. 780 K
13. The small-signal input impedance of a transistor when the output is shorted for the measuring signal, is: (where the symbols
have then usual measuring)

a.

b.

c.

d.

14. For obtaining hybrid parameters of a transistor:

a. Variable Vbe and Ie are taken as independent variables
b. The two independent variables are the ones that are most easily measurable for a CE configuration
c. Variable ib and vce ie are taken as dependent variables
d. Variable vbe and ie are taken as dependent variables
15. The condition necessary to calculate h oe of a transistor:
a. DC base current is to be zero
b. Base to emitter voltage is to be constant
c. Collector current is to be constant
d. Base current is to be constant
16. The approximate value of input impedance of a common-emitter amplifier with emitter resistance Re is given by:
a. h ie + A1Re
b. h ie + (1 + h fe) Re
c. h ie
d. (1 + h fe) Re

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by the quiescent point of a transistor?

2. Draw the circuit diagram of a common emitter transistor amplifier and explain its operation graphically.
3. What do you mean by the term load line? Explain its significance.
4. What do you mean by distortion in amplifiers? Discuss the origin of the input and outputnonlinearities in transistor amplifiers.
What is the desired position of the Q-point for minimum distortion and why?
 5. Explain the term transistor biasing. What are the factors affecting the position of Q-points?
6. Is the operating point of the transistor fixed? If not, what are the factors responsible for its change or shift?
7. What are the factors responsible for affecting the bias stability of a transistor?
8. Define the stability factors with respect to the changes in ICO, VBE and β.
9. Why is stability with respect to changes in VCE not considered?
10. What is thermal runaway?
11. Draw the circuit for fixed bias by considering an n-p-n transistor in the CE mode. Derive the expressions for stability factors.
What are the functions of the coupling capacitors?
12. Draw the circuit diagram for the collector to base arrangement for an n-p-n transistor. Obtain the stability factors and mention
the demerits of the circuit.
13. What is self bias? Draw the circuit showing self bias of an n–p–n transistor in the CE mode. Explain physically how the self
bias improves stability.
14. What is bias curve? How is the Q-point in a self bias circuit determined with and without the help of bias curve?
15. Derive the expressions for stability factors in the case of self bias of a CE mode transistor.
16. How is the transistor represented as a two-port device?
17. Define the hybrid parameters for a basic transistor circuit in any configuration and give its hybrid model.
18. Draw the low-frequency h-equivalent circuit of a transistor amplifier operating in the CE mode. Why is this circuit not valid for
high frequencies?
19. Draw and label the circuit diagram of a small-signal single stage low-frequency transistor amplifier in the CE mode. Using h-
parameters obtain expression for current gain, input impedance, voltage gain and output impedance.
20. Show that the power gain in the above problem is the product of the current gain and the voltage gain.
21. Draw the circuit diagram of an emitter follower. Why is the circuit called so? Obtain the expressions for current gain, voltage
gain, input impedance and output impedance.
22. Draw the approximate hybrid model for any transistor configuration at low frequencies. Show that only h ie and h fe are
important in the model. Is the approximation justified?
23. What is Darlington pair? Compare between Darlington pair and emitter follower.
24. Explain how the model of transistor changes in high frequency. What are the prime reasons for such a change?

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. The transistor, as shown in the following diagram has a very high β.

Find VE and VC for VB equal to:

a. 3 V
b. 1 V
c. 0 V
2. The transistor, as shown in Problem 1, has a very high β. Find the highest value of VB for which the transistor still operates in
the active mode.
3. Consider the circuit, as shown in the following diagram with the base voltage VB obtained using a voltage divider across the 9 V
supply.
 Assuming that the transistor has a very high value of β, design the voltage divider to obtain VB = 3 V. Design for a 0.2 mA
current in the voltage divider.
4. For the circuits, as shown in the following diagrams, find the values of the labeled node voltages and branch currents.
5. Repeat the analysis of Problem 4, considering β =100. Assume VBE = 0.7 V.
6. The n–p–n transistor in the circuit of the diagram has β = 50. Find the value of RC required to obtain VC=5 V. What happens
if the transistor is replaced with another having β = 100?

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Grove, A. S. 1967. Physics and Technology of Semiconductor Devices. New York: Wiley.
2. Sze, S. M. 1981. Physics of Semiconductor Devices. New York: Wiley.
3. Singh, J. 1994. Semiconductor Devices: An Introduction. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
4. Streetman, B. G. and S. Banerjee. 2000. Solid State Electronic Devices. New Delhi: Pearson Education.
5. Millman, Jacob and Christos C. Halkias. 1986. Integrated Electronics: Analog and Digital Circuits and Systems. New
Delhi: McGraw Hill Book Company.
6. Pierret, R. F. and G.W. Neudeck. 1989. Modular Series on Solid State Devices Boston, MA: Addison Wesley.
7. Singh, B. P. and Rekha Singh. 2006. Electronic Devices and Integrated Circuits. New Delhi: Pearson Education.