Research Notes 3

Ethical Aspects of Nursing Research  Principle of beneficence (to do good)

Main Topics:  Principle of justice (fairness/ equality)
 MEANING OF ETHICS & RESEARCH ETHICS
 EXAMPLES OF UNETHICAL MEDICAL RESEARCHES Violations of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment:
 TRUE OR FALSE TRIVIA  Respect for human dignity:
 KEY COMPONENTS OF ETHICAL RESEARCH - Participants were not fully informed in
 FUNDAMENTAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES order to make autonomous decision
 ETHICAL DILEMMAS - Participants were blinded of having syphilis
 PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY and were told just to have “bad blood” that
PARTICIPANTS can be treated if they participate in the
 TYPES OF RESEARCH MISCONDUCT study
 SUMMARY  Beneficence:
- Participants were harmed because
MEANING OF ETHICS & RESEARCH ETHICS treatment was withheld
Ethics - Participants were told not to use penicillin
= study of moral behavior  Justice:
= what is right & wrong / what is good & bad - Only the blacks were selected to participate
in the study
Research Ethics - Discrimination and malfeasance among
= application of ethics in the research process persons of authority
= involves being sensitive to person’s rights (study - Led to the establishment of National
participants) Human Investigation Board as well as the
= concerned on how a particular research abides by the request for the creation of IRBs or
ethical standards Institutional Review Boards / Ethics Review
Committee (ERC)
Why have ethical standards?
 To protect the rights & welfare of participants Nazi Human Experiments (1940s)
 Ensure accuracy of scientific knowledge = series of medical experiments on large numbers of
 To protect intellectual property rights prisoners including children by Nazi Germany in
= Give proper citations to ideas we do not own concentration camps
= came about in the early to mid-1940s during the World War
EXAMPLES OF UNETHICAL MEDICAL RESEARCHES & the Holocaust
Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment = Nazi physicians forced prisoners into participating (they did
= a clinical study conducted between 1932-1972 (40 years) in not willingly volunteer & no consent was given)
Tuskegee, Alabama by the Unites States Public Health Service = Experiments were conducted without anesthesia and
= 400 Afro-American farmers, most were illiterate, were resulted to death, trauma, disfigurement, and permanent
studied to observe the natural progression of untreated disability
syphilis up to their eventual death by the disease = Such experiments were examples of medical torture
= Subjects were:
 Not asked for an informed consent “Unethical research persists; so do efforts to eliminate or at
 Not informed of their diagnosis least limit it. Ultimately, the best safeguard for ethical
 Only told that they were treated for “bad blood” research is the ethical researcher.” - PHREB, 2012
 Told that if they participate, they would be given
free medical care, free transport to a medical TRUE OR FALSE TRIVIA
clinic, free meals, and free burial assistance in  Research ethics is applied exclusively during
case of death implementation of the research.
 Warned TO AVOID PENECILLIN TREATMENT = FALSE. When you begin conceptualizing your
which at that time was already used w/ other px research topic, you should already consider if your
in nearby places in the treatment of syphilis topic will have ethical challenges.
 A research, although not that scientifically-
The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment led to the creation of grounded, may still be ethical under certain
Belmont Reports in 1979. circumstances.
= FALSE. In order for your research to be good &
Belmont Reports in 1979 acceptable, it should be scientifically-approved and
= placed emphasis that health researches must abide the ethically-sound. Absence of one will compromise
following principles: your research. An ethical piece of research must
 Principle of respect for human dignity/autonomy
Research Notes 3

demonstrate rigor in the design, conduct, analysis, ETHICAL SOUNDNESS

and reporting of the research. THUS, researches that = concerned on the research being rooted on the
are not scientifically sound are NEVER deemed overarching principle of research ethics: The principle of
ethical. “the person as an end and not a means to an end”
 It is justifiable to sacrifice a life, if in the process, it
saves the lives of millions. Guide questions to note if your research is ethically sound:
= FALSE. Rights and safety of participants should  Will man benefit as an end?
prevail over interests of science & society. (ICH-GCP)  Is the research topic relevant to the needs of the
 Once the participant has volunteered to join the participants, the institution and the wider
study, he/she could not anymore retract consent. community, given the current state of knowledge?
= FALSE. The participant can withdraw from the = Those research topics na daghan na kayo nag
study at any point in time. research unya mangutana nsad ka balik among
 Teachers can act on behalf of the parents and can other bath, that could be considered unethical. Why
grant permission for their students to join in certain would you waste the time & effort of your
kinds of research. participants when you know that there has been a
= TRUE. However, limited to particular kinds of lot of studies on this topic?
research. = When researchers ask you “What has been said
about your topic beforehand, they’re asking for the
KEY COMPONENTS OF ETHICAL RESEARCH Related Literature. Daghan na bag related studies
1. ani? Do they have commonalities in their findings?
Scientific Soundness So you will have to justify your study.”
= concerns the scientific merit of the research: “Will the data  Does the research abide the ethical principles?
be valid or credible?”
FUNDAMENTAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
Requisites: Beneficence
a. Qualified & suitable researcher = making efforts to secure the well-being of
b. Clear, attainable objectives (S.M.A.R.T) participants
c. Prior literature & studies = to do good
d. Feasible, adequate study site, and resources = associated w/ non-maleficence (to do no harm)
e. Rigorous reproducible design & conditions of the
study Associated Rights:
 Adequate representative sample 1. Right to freedom from harm or discomfort
= Your study should not be rare enough to o Non-maleficence  do no harm
only have 2 people as your sample o Risk/Benefit assessment
 Valid, reliable, and objective research tools/ = As researchers, we have to identify the
instruments associated risks (emotional, financial,
 Appropriate statistics mental, physical risks) and benefits
= You should consult a statistician as you go
(personal & environmental)
along with your data
o Qualified researchers
 Meticulous data gathering
= Follow what has been approved on your
research proposal. Ayaw pag kalit2 ug Examples of Harm:
change.  Physical (injury, fatigue)
f. Honest reporting of results  Emotional (stress, fear)
g. Objective interpretation, well-founded conclusions = Refrain from causing/bringing back trauma to
= Sometimes researchers devote a lot of effort, time, participant
finance to the research so they become too attached = Identify the risks & have a mitigating plan (how to
to it. With this subjectivity, bias happens so you have minimize the risks).
to note on that.  Social (loss of social support)
= Refrain from letting data from research be spread
No significant difference in your data to personal relations of participant
= does not mean you failed or you did wrong  Financial (loss of wages)
= Only means that among these variables, wala juy significant = Compensate their wage accordingly if they took a
difference leave & did not receive salary on the day they
participated in your research
2.
Research Notes 3

2. Right to protection from exploitation = equitable distribution of benefits and burdens of

= not placing participants at a disadvantage or research
expose them to damages = participant selection
= Example: You are doing a research on students. = non-prejudicial manner (feeling of dislike or
Part of the research is for you to ask the teacher to prejudge a matter)
conduct a small quiz. If done without preparation = respect
and if recorded by the teacher, students will = keeping promises
experience damage to their academic grades.
2. Right to privacy & confidentiality
Respect for Human Dignity = right to expect that their data will be kept in
= Individuals should be treated as autonomous agent strictest confidence no matter how simple it is
= Persons with diminished autonomy are entitled to (name, address, any data that could pinpoint that
protection person)
= Data Privacy Act of 2012  Protect the
Associated Rights: fundamental human right of privacy, of
1. Right to self-determination communication while ensuring free flow of
o Autonomy  Informed consent information to promote innovation and growth
= Participants have the right to give
voluntary consent or withdraw at any time. ETHICAL DILEMMAS
Even if nakapirma na siya, if he chooses not Ethical Dilemmas
to join anymore, let him go & do not ask for = situations in which participants’ rights & study demands
his personal reasons. Proceed in finding are in direct conflict
another participant. = Dapat imong participants, kasabot jud sila sa ilang gi
o Freedom from coercion sudlan before sila mu participate. They should know the
= Participants should not be forced to pros, risks, and benefits associated with their participation.
participate
= If researchers are in authority or are Example:
superior to their participants, coercion may You would like to know if you have to conduct a study in a
happen because of the fear/uwaw. low-social economic status group in a particular
 To mitigate such scenario: community. You have to note that since they have a low-
Researcher can just post an socioeconomic status they are considered to be vulnerable.
announcement/poster for
Their decision to provide consent will be greatly affected on
recruitment saying “We need this
various aspects like bribery. Their yearning for such things
kuan… If you fit the criteria, kindly
call us” Let them call you so you affects their capacity to think thoroughly of the pros and
know that they really are willing. cons of joining the study.

2. Right to full disclosure PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY PARTICIPANTS

= fully describe the: 1. INFORMED CONSENT
 Nature of the study (What it is about) 2. CONFIDENTIALITY PROCEDURES
 Person’s right to refuse participation 3. DEBRIEFING AND REFERRAL
 Likely risks and benefits 4. TREATMENT OF VULNERABLE GROUPS
= In studies where blinding is needed, research
5. INSTITIONAL REVIEW BOARDS (IRBs)
should inform the participant that they were blinded
(observed w/o their knowing)
= Let participants get hold of the data that you took I. Informed Consent
from them A. Content
= Covert data collection (Concealment) = “Were ALL information about the study communicated to
= Deception the participants?”
= When you make changes in your informed consent, you
Justice have to do reconsenting
= fairness in distribution & that equals to be treated fairly
The Informed Consent must include the ff. information:
Associated Rights:
1. That the individual is invited to participate in the
1. Right to fair treatment
research
Research Notes 3

2. The reason for considering the individual suitable sources of funding (also mention if the research is
for the study (inclusion criteria) a school requirement)
3. The number of participants invited in the research o Research grant = given by big companies
4. The participation is voluntary or government organizations like CHED,
5. That the individual is free to refuse to participate DOST, DOH to fund research
& is free to withdraw from the research at any 20. That treatment will be provided free of charge for
time without penalty or loss of benefits to which specified types of research-related injury or for
he or she is entitled complications associated with the research, the
6. The purpose of research nature and duration of such care, the name of the
7. The procedures to be carried out by the organization or individual that will provide
investigator treatment, and whether there is any uncertainty
8. The expected duration of the individual’s regarding the funding of such treatment
participation (including number & duration of = If your research causes anxiety to participant,
visits and the total time involved) you have the duty to have a psychologist on call.
9. The possibility of termination of the individual’s You have to take note how long you are going to
participation in the study shoulder the sessions with the psychologist. If you
10. Any foreseeable risks, pain or discomfort, or do harm, it is your responsibility to mitigate that.
inconvenience to the individual associated with 21. In what way & by what organization the research
participation in the research participants or the family will be compensated for
11. The direct benefits, if any, expected to manifest disability or death resulting from such injury (or,
to individuals from participating in the research when indicated, that there are no plans to provide
12. The expected benefits of the research to the such compensation)
community at large, or contribution to scientific 22. Name & contact details of the researchers,
knowledge (in line with the significance of the affiliated institution and pertinent individuals
study) (research director, clinical psychologist, physician)
13. Compensation for participation (whether money 23. Other information that will affect the participant’s
or other forms of material goods). If so, indicate decision
kind & amount
o Undue inducement B. Comprehension
= happens when you give excessive = “Is it written & verbally explained in a medium or
gifts/benefits like usa ka sako na bugas language understandable to the participants?”
14. That after the completion of the study, the = “Is your informed consent understandable?”
individual will be informed of the findings, if he
desires (disclosure of results) C. Documentation
15. That the research will be published or presented = “Was a personal copy given to the participant?”
before a scientific community = “Was ample time given to the participant in reviewing the
16. The possible use of participants’ data by other form before signing?” After you explain to the participant
researchers (meta-analysis and meta-synthesis, what the research is about, do not get their signature right
systematic reviews) there & then. Give them time to think. Encourage them to
17. The provisions that will be made to ensure consult their families and friends to help with their
respect for the privacy of research participants & decision.
the confidentiality of records in which they are = “Were vulnerable participants afforded alternative means
identified (Where will data be stored? How will of documenting consent?” Example: Indigenous people
you erase the data? How long will you keep the who are not well-adapt with English language. Dapat ang
data?) mu hatag sa informed consent kabaw jud sa ilang language.
18. The limits, legal or other, to the investigator’s
ability to safeguard confidentiality, and the II. Confidentiality Procedures
possible consequences of breaches of I. Anonymity
confidentiality = most secure means of ensuring confidentiality
19. The sponsor of the research, the institutional II. Other measures in the absence of Anonymity:
affiliation of the researchers, and the nature and  Using fictitious names
Research Notes 3

 Not disclosing identifying information  Indigenous people

 Using ID nos.
 Placing identifying information to a Special guidelines
locked file 1. CHILDREN/ MINORS
 Not encoding identifying information = Informed consent from a parent or LAR (Legally
onto computer files Authorized Representative)  required for them
 Password protection of research data to participate in the research
 Destroying identifying information as = Legally capacitated third party  additional
quickly as practical permission required if child’s parents are minors;
 Making research personnel sign EMANCIPATED MINORS (not over 18 but are the
confidentiality pledges bread winner/decisionmaker of the family)
 Reporting research information in the = In the absence of parents or judicially declared
aggregate (Report data in a group. Do not guardians (in order):
specify details that could individualize it. o Grandparents
Make sure that it will not pinpoint to any o Oldest sibling over 21 yo
personal data of participant) o Actual custodian over 21 yo
o State (Duly appointed officials of the
Examples of Personal Identifiers (things you should not DSWD in case of orphan street children)
share in your research paper as you present your data): = Teachers  may give consent in loco parentis
 Name for educational research with minimal risk
 Birth date = Assent  a child’s affirmative agreement to
 Social security number participate in research; must be obtained if the
 Home address child is 7-17 years old
 Phone number
 E-mail address Assent Guidelines:
 Photographs (blur)  15-17 years old: Child co-signs on the informed
 Other ‘leading’ information consent form of parents
 12-15 years old: Child signs on a simplified assent
III. Debriefing & Referral form different from the ICF which the parent or
= process of receiving an explanation of a study or guardian signs (2 forms: Assent from the child &
investigation after participation is complete Formal Consent Form from the parents)
= You do debriefing after you applied some concealment  7-12 years old: Verbal assent (Naa gihapon ang
(Mu ingon naka na mao diay ni among study about) parent’s consent form; Inig pa sign nmo sa parent,
= making referrals to appropriate health, social, or imong sturyaan ang bata na “Mao ni atong
psychological services (to mitigate risks involved) buhaton” and mu ingon sha “Okay rako” without
= NOTE: Debriefing is mandatory most especially when the tantrums)
research study involves deception. It provides participants  < 7 years old: No assent needed (You only need
with a full explanation of the hypothesis being tested, parents consent; nothing from the child since di pa
procedures to deceive participants and the reasons why it sila kasabot)
was necessary to deceive them. Researchers learn how the
participants viewed the procedures. True or False?
 The parents of a 12-year-old boy consented to
IV. Treatment of Vulnerable Groups have their child join the research but the boy
Vulnerable Groups: refused to join & does not want to sign the assent
 Children/Minors form. Because the parents have consented, the
 Mentally Ill researchers could still insist on the child joining.
 Those with sensory deficits or impairments = FALSE. Both the child & the parent should sign &
 Terminally Ill give their consent.
 Institutionalized people  The parents of a 6-year-old girl agreed to have
 Pregnant women their child join a research on the effects of giving
 Members of the LGBTQ Community daily iron supplements on students’ school grades.
Research Notes 3

But the girl clearly refused to join and cried. In this = tasked to do a 2nd line of looking into the ethical aspects
case, the researchers may still insist on her joining. as well as scientific soundness of the paper
= TRUE. For 6 years old, you don’t need assent. = Ex. Research Ethics Committee
Only parent’s consent. This research also brings
more benefits to the child. Pero dapat ipa kalma sa
ang bata, dili force jud. TYPES OF RESEARCH MISCONDUCT
1. Fabrication = making up data results
“In the absence of assent, a child’s dissent must always be 2. Falsification
respected unless they directly benefit from the study and = manipulating research materials, equipment, or
the parents have consented.” the process
= changing or omitting data, or distorting results
2. COGNITIVELY INCAPACITATED ADULTS 3. Plagiarism = appropriation of someone’s ideas,
= adults who have mental illness, na stroke, slow results, or words without giving due credit
thought-processing, naay dementia
= decisional capacity is determined by cognitive SUMMARY
assessment such as:  Research has to scientifically sound & has to
o Folstein’s Mini-Mental State Examination adhere with ethical principles to be truly ethical.
(27/30 or higher)  The researcher has an ethical obligation to the
o Rapid assessment (Understanding of info participants, to the institution, and to the larger
given & justifying reason for decision) society and scientific community.
= Surrogate decision-makers (next of kin & in  A person has an inherent dignity and is:
order): o Self-determining (autonomous)
o Spouse o Equal to other persons
o Children of legal age o Protected against harm and wrong
o Parents o Treated with respectful manner
o Brothers and sisters o An END and not a means
o Court- appointed guardian
“While truth is good, respect for human dignity is better.”
Cognitive assessment
= must be done by a person who is trained “Have the courage to do what’s right not because you have
to but because it’s the right thing to do. After all what is
True or False? said & done, remember that ETHICS is doing the right
 Consent was sought from the spouse of a thing ... even if nobody is watching.”
participant with dementia. She agreed to have her
husband be part of the research which involves Quiz QnA:
observing his household behaviors. The researcher Debriefing and referral = process of receiving an
could still push through with the study even explanation of a study or investigation after participation is
though the participant is agitated & restless with complete
the researcher present in their home. Falsification = changing or omitting data, or distorting
= FALSE. If your presence had triggered agitation results
to the participant, you are bringing more risk for Ethical dilemma = situations in which participants’ rights &
that person in relation to his health status. study demands are in direct conflict
7-12 yrs old = needs verbal assent
Ethics review board in the phils? =
“The surrogate decision maker and/or researcher must be
Informed consent = human dignity principle
sensitive to signs of dissent from the participant & must be
If parent is also a minor who will sign for the child =
respected.”
Grandparents of child
Vulnerable Groups:
V. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
 Children/Minors
= formal committees for reviewing proposed research plans
 Mentally Ill
in terms of its ethical dimensions
 Those with sensory deficits or impairments
Research Notes 3

 Terminally Ill  nursing research involving higher level of evidence

 Institutionalized people
 Pregnant women Anonymity
 Members of the LGBTQ Community = right of individuals that must be ensured when the
researcher cannot link the information given by the
 Indigenous people
respondent from the source of the information
Cognitive assessment = should be done in order to assess
decisional capacity Related literature & studies
Birthdate = does not observe confidentiality = strengthens the analysis and interpretation of research
findings as well as suggests clues for the treatment and
LE #1 QnA: measurement of data
Identify which specific purpose linked to evidence-based
practice (EBP) the research titles below are indicative of. Research utilization
Write TREATMENT if treatment, therapy or = refers to when nurses synthesize, disseminate, and use
intervention; DIAGNOSIS if diagnosis or research-generated knowledge in order to make an impact
to nursing practice
assessment; PROGNOSIS if prognosis; PREVENTION OF
HARM if prevention of harm; CAUSATION if causation or Quantitative Paradigm:
etiology; MEANING if meaning or process.  Seeks generalizations
1. Graduated Compression Stockings as Prophylaxis
for Flight-Related Venous Thrombosis Qualitative Paradigm:
= Prevention of harm  Ideal of research is the natural setting of the study
2. Predictors of Distress in Caregivers of Persons with participants.
a Primary Malignant Tumor  Views reality as multiple and mentally constructed
= Prevention of harm by individuals.
3. Canine Visitation (Pet) Therapy: Pilot Data on  Subjectivity is ideal; biases are inevitable
 Has a flexible design
Decreases in Child Pain Perception
 Makes use of narrative information
= Treatment
4. The Effects of Watermelon Slices on the Eye Stress Determining if studying the problem will lead to results
of BSN Students of Cebu Doctor's University that are applicable to nursing practice is essential when
= Treatment analyzing the significance of the problem.
5. The Effect of Music Therapy on Preoperative
Anxiety in Day Surgery Why does an ethical research environment assist with
= Treatment ensuring scientific integrity?
6. Predictors of Use of Complementary and = Within this environment, expectations for scientific
Alternative Therapies among Patients with Cancer integrity are laid out
= Treatment
Outcomes research
7. Development and Validation of a Geriatric
= Research which explores the result of care and changes in
Depression Screening Scale: A Preliminary Report the health of the client
= Diagnosis
8. The Mini-Cog: A Cognitive 'Vital Signs' Measure for Ethics is the primordial concern of the nurse researcher
Dementia Screening in Multi-Lingual Elderly because of the following except:
= Diagnosis  The rights of the researcher take precedence over
9. Interaction Patterns of Adolescents with the rights of the subject
Depression and the Important Adults in their lives  Protect the rights of the subjects against undue
impositions
= Meaning
 Research uses human beings as subjects
10. Illness Experiences of Homeless Youth
 No one should become a subject without giving its
= Meaning free consent
Evidence-based practice involves all of the following Evidence-based practice
except: = refers to the conscientious use of current best evidence
 organizational structure in making decisions about patient care
 clinical expertise 
 patient preference
Research Notes 3

The protection of the vulnerable subject The Tuskegee Syphilis Study lasted many years, and none
= the greatest concern when developing a research project of the human subjects were properly informed about the
study's conduct. Which ethical principle was deliberately
MSN ignored in this study?
= have undergone the educational preparation to critically = Autonomy
appraise and synthesize findings from studies to revise or
develop protocols, algorithms, or policies use in practice Which of these forms of evidence carries the highest
degree of credibility?
True/False:  Randomized controlled trials
Evidence-based practice is a problem-solving approach that  Grounded Theory
considers the context of the nurse’s current clinical  Nonexperimental Study
experience  Descriptive correlational studies
= True
The following are research competencies of a DNP,
Why is informed consent a crucial issue in research EXCEPT:
projects?  research focused
= The consenting subject will understand what the research  patient focused
is about and will have the choice to participate or not.  participate in evidence-based guideline
development
Which of the following is NOT a priority area in the Velez  conduct clinical studies, usually in collaboration
College Research Agenda 2021-2025? with other researchers
 Biotechnology
 Health Research EBP:
 Curriculum Development = designed to test relationships between variables
 Community Extension = generates new knowledge
= starts with a research question
Obstacles to using nursing research in practice include
lack of: Facilitators in the EBP implementation:
= education, beliefs / attitudes, and support / resources  newsletters
 annual research symposium
Identify the source of data as described: "Unit Culture"  integrating EBP philosophy to job description
= tradition  in-service trainings on research

Nurse’s clinical experience Positivist paradigm

= source of evidence for nursing practice is often colored = measures quantitative information
with biases = deductive process
= statistical analysis
Disciplined research = fixed, prespecified design
= knowledge derived from carefully planned studies based
on systematic observation by people with long experience Archie Cochrane
relevant to the field of study = founder of the EBP movement

The following are expected research competencies of a Nursing research is now mandated in the nursing
BSN, EXCEPT: curriculum in order for nurses to develop the following
 Collaborator of research projects except:
 Helps in data collection = stay with status quo and traditional practice
 Assist with problem identification
 Possess expected knowledge, skills, and attitude When developing a nursing research subject, why is it
towards research important to remember the ethical constraints?
= The protection of human subjects underlies all human
The following are true about the Positivist paradigm in research projects.
nursing research, EXCEPT:
 Hypotheses generation When a nurse desires to conduct an investigation about
 Emphasis on specific variables decreasing the level of noise in his critical care units due
 Reality is caused by natural causes to family complaints, what type of study best serves the
 Application of statistical analysis purpose of this institutional problem?
Research Notes 3

= Quantitative Study
Assemble information
Nursing emerged as a profession when nurses started = Identify the source of information as described
using: = Benchmarking data from local, national, and international
= more on research than traditional practice sources

Client advocate Knowledge translation

= the role that the nurse assumes when she ensures that = refers to the synthesis, exchange, and application of
ethical consideration is strictly observed to a patient who is knowledge by relevant stakeholders to accelerate the
one of the subjects of an ongoing clinical trial in her unit benefits of global and local innovation in strengthening
health systems and improving people's health
BSN
= assists in the implementation of EBP guidelines,
protocols, algorithms, and policies in practice with
guidance

Knowledge
= the outcome or product of research

Arrange from lowest to highest level of evidence

1 - Expert opinion
2 – Descriptive studies
3 - Mixed methods
4 - Correlational studies
5 - Quasi-experimental
6 - Randomized control trial
7 - Systematic review

RA 8293
= this law protects the intellectual property rights of
authors and artists with respect to his or her personal
relationship with their work and use of these by others

When the researchers deliberately plan the sampling

design for his research to ensure equitable inclusion of all
possible participants to be included in the study, what
ethical considerations are being practiced?
= Justice and fairness

The growth of nursing practice was greatly influenced by

= Continuing research

Right to self-determination
= refers to the right of the prospective participants to
voluntarily participate or refuse to participate in the study

Evidence comes in any forms. Examples of the data that

could be best be utilized for EBP are:
= quality improvement data and integrated reviews

Freedom from exploitation

= refers to the right of the participants to be safe from
situations that will expose them to threats or liabilities

Sources for nursing research come primarily from two

sources
= Academic and health care settings