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Big Picture

Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to

a. apply fundamental laws of electrical circuit theory; analysis and

applications of mesh, nodal and other network theorems.

Big Picture in Focus:

a. ULO-1a. apply fundamental laws of electrical circuit theory;
analysis and applications of mesh, nodal and other network
theorems.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms in electrical circuit parameters to

demonstrate ULOa will be defined to establish a common frame of reference. You
will encounter these terms as we go through the topics. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the understanding different
electrical basic quantities concepts.

Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical

current flows.
Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were
two or more circuit elements are connected or joined together giving a
connection point between two or more branches. A node is indicated by a
dot.
Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors
or a source which are connected between two nodes.

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Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the fourth and fifth
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge
that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are not
limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize
other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.

THEVENIN’S THEOREM
In the previous lessons we have looked at solving complex electrical circuits using
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws, Mesh Analysis and finally Nodal Analysis. But there are
many more “Circuit Analysis Theorems” available to choose from which can
calculate the currents and voltages at any point in a circuit. In this lesson we will
look at one of the more common circuit analysis theorems (next to Kirchhoff´s) that
has been developed, Thevenin’s Theorem.
Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and
resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single
resistance connected across the load”. In other words, it is possible to simplify any
electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent two-terminal circuit with
just a single constant voltage source in series with a resistance (or impedance)
connected to a load as shown below.
Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery
systems and other interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on
the adjoining part of the circuit.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port” network

consisting of multiple resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced
by one single equivalent resistance Rs and one single equivalent voltage Vs. Rs is

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the source resistance value looking back into the circuit and Vs is the open circuit
voltage at the terminals.

For example, consider the circuit from the previous tutorials.

Firstly, to analyse the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor
connected across the terminals A-B, and remove any internal resistance associated
with the voltage source(s). This is done by shorting out all the voltage sources
connected to the circuit, that is v = 0, or open circuit any connected current sources
making i = 0. The reason for this is that we want to have an ideal voltage source or
an ideal current source for the circuit analysis.
The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the total
resistance looking back from the terminals A and B with all the voltage sources
shorted. We then get the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

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The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the terminals A and B when
there is an open circuit between them. That is without the load
resistor RL connected.

Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and
as VS = VAB the current flowing around the loop is calculated as:

This current of 0.33 amperes (330mA) is common to both resistors so the voltage
drop across the 20Ω resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be calculated as:
VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.
or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.

Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance

of 6.67Ω and a voltage source of 13.33v. With the 40Ω resistor connected back into
the circuit we get:

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and from this the current flowing around the circuit is given as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchhoff’s Circuit
Law in the previous circuit analysis tutorial.
Thevenin’s theorem can be used as another type of circuit analysis method and is
particularly useful in the analysis of complicated circuits consisting of one or more
voltage or current source and resistors that are arranged in the usual parallel and
series connections.
While Thevenin’s circuit theorem can be described mathematically in terms of
current and voltage, it is not as powerful as Mesh Current Analysis or Nodal
Voltage Analysis in larger networks because the use of Mesh or Nodal analysis is
usually necessary in any Thevenin exercise, so it might as well be used from the
start. However, Thevenin’s equivalent circuits of Transistors, Voltage Sources such
as batteries etc, are very useful in circuit design.

NORTON’S THEOREM
Norton on the other hand reduces his circuit down to a single resistance in parallel
with a constant current source.
Norton’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy sources
and resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel
with a Single Resistor“.
As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value
of the resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open
circuited and IS is the short circuit current at the output terminals as shown below.

Norton’s equivalent circuit

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The value of this “constant current” is one which would flow if the two output
terminals where shorted together while the source resistance would be measured
looking back into the terminals, (the same as Thevenin).
For example, consider our now familiar circuit from the previous section.

To find the Norton’s equivalent of the above circuit we firstly have to remove the
center 40Ω load resistor and short out the terminals A and B to give us the following
circuit.

When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are connected in
parallel across their two respective voltage sources and the currents flowing through
each resistor as well as the total short circuit current can now be calculated as:

with A-B Shorted Out

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If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals A and B, the two
resistors are now effectively connected together in parallel. The value of the internal
resistor Rs is found by calculating the total resistance at the
terminals A and B giving us the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal
resistance, Rs this then gives us the following Nortons equivalent circuit.

Norton’s equivalent circuit

Ok, so far so good, but we now have to solve with the original 40Ω load resistor
connected across terminals A and B as shown below.

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Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the

terminals A and B which gives us a total resistance of:

The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is given
as:

Then the current flowing in the 40Ω load resistor can be found as:

Once again and using Norton’s theorem, the value of current for I3 is still calculated
as 0.286 amps, which we found using Kirchhoff’s Current Law in the previous
tutorials.

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

Generally, this source resistance or even impedance if inductors or capacitors are
involved is of a fixed value in Ohm´s.
However, when we connect a load resistance, RL across the output terminals of the
power source, the impedance of the load will vary from an open-circuit state to a
short-circuit state resulting in the power being absorbed by the load becoming
dependent on the impedance of the actual power source. Then for the load
resistance to absorb the maximum power possible it has to be “Matched” to the
impedance of the power source and this forms the basis of Maximum Power
Transfer.
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is another useful circuit analysis method
to ensure that the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load
resistance when the value of the load resistance is exactly equal to the resistance
of the power source. The relationship between the load impedance and the internal

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impedance of the energy source will give the power in the load. Consider the circuit
below.

Thevenins Equivalent Circuit

In our Thevenin equivalent circuit above, the maximum power transfer theorem
states that “the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance if
it is equal in value to the Thevenin or Norton source resistance of the network
supplying the power”.
In other words, the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation must be
equal in value to the equivalent Thevenin source resistance, then RL = RS but if the
load resistance is lower or higher in value than the Thevenin source resistance of the
network, its dissipated power will be less than maximum.
For example, find the value of the load resistance, RL that will give the maximum
power transfer in the following circuit.

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Maximum Power Transfer Example No1

Where:
RS = 25Ω
RL is variable between 0 – 100Ω
VS = 100v

Then by using the following Ohm’s Law equations:

We can now complete the following table to determine the current and power in the
circuit for different values of load resistance.

Table of Current against Power

P P
RL (Ω) I (amps) RL (Ω) I (amps)
(watts) (watts)

0 4.0 0 25 2.0 100

5 3.3 55 30 1.8 97

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10 2.8 78 40 1.5 94

15 2.5 93 60 1.2 83

20 2.2 97 100 0.8 64

Using the data from the table above, we can plot a graph of load
resistance, RL against power, P for different values of load resistance. Also notice
that power is zero for an open-circuit (zero current condition) and also for a short-
circuit (zero voltage condition).

Graph of Power against Load Resistance

From the above table and graph we can see that the Maximum Power
Transfer occurs in the load when the load resistance, RL is equal in value to the
source resistance, RS that is: RS = RL = 25Ω. This is called a “matched condition”
and as a general rule, maximum power is transferred from an active device such as
a power supply or battery to an external device when the impedance of the external
device exactly matches the impedance of the source.
One good example of impedance matching is between an audio amplifier and a
loudspeaker. The output impedance, ZOUT of the amplifier may be given as

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between 4Ω and 8Ω, while the nominal input impedance, ZIN of the loudspeaker may
be given as 8Ω only.
Then if the 8Ω speaker is attached to the amplifiers output, the amplifier will see the
speaker as an 8Ω load. Connecting two 8Ω speakers in parallel is equivalent to the
amplifier driving one 4Ω speaker and both configurations are within the output
specifications of the amplifier.
Improper impedance matching can lead to excessive power loss and heat
dissipation. But how could you impedance match an amplifier and loudspeaker which
have very different impedances. Well, there are loudspeaker impedance matching
transformers available that can change impedances from 4Ω to 8Ω, or to 16Ω’s to
allow impedance matching of many loudspeakers connected together in various
combinations such as in PA (public address) systems.

Transformer Impedance Matching

One very useful application of impedance matching in order to provide maximum
power transfer between the source and the load is in the output stages of amplifier
circuits. Signal transformers are used to match the loudspeakers higher or lower
impedance value to the amplifiers output impedance to obtain maximum sound
power output. These audio signal transformers are called “matching transformers”
and couple the load to the amplifiers output as shown below.

Transformer Impedance Matching

The maximum power transfer can be obtained even if the output impedance is not
the same as the load impedance. This can be done using a suitable “turns ratio” on
the transformer with the corresponding ratio of load impedance, ZLOAD to output
impedance, ZOUT matches that of the ratio of the transformers primary turns to
secondary turns as a resistance on one side of the transformer becomes a different
value on the other.
If the load impedance, ZLOAD is purely resistive and the source impedance is purely
resistive, ZOUT then the equation for finding the maximum power transfer is given as:

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Where: NP is the number of primary turns and NS the number of secondary turns on
the transformer. Then by varying the value of the transformers turns ratio the output
impedance can be “matched” to the source impedance to achieve maximum power
transfer. For example,

Maximum Power Transfer Example No2

If an 8Ω loudspeaker is to be connected to an amplifier with an output impedance
of 1000Ω, calculate the turns ratio of the matching transformer required to provide
maximum power transfer of the audio signal. Assume the amplifier source
impedance is Z1, the load impedance is Z2 with the turns ratio given as N.

Generally, small high frequency audio transformers used in low power amplifier
circuits are nearly always regarded as ideal for simplicity, so any losses can be
ignored.

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In the next tutorial about DC circuit theory, we will look at Star Delta Transformation
which allows us to convert balanced star connected circuits into equivalent delta and
vice versa.

MILLMAN’S THEOREM
Through the application of Millman’s theorem, any number of parallel voltage
sources can be reduced to one. In Fig. 9.97, for example, the three voltage sources
can be reduced to one. This permits finding the current through or voltage across
RL without having to apply a method such as mesh analysis, nodal analysis,
superposition, and so on. The theorem can best be described by applying it to the
network in Fig. 9.97. Basically, three steps are included in its application.

Step 1: Convert all voltage sources to current sources as outlined in Section 8.2.
This is performed in Fig. 9.98 for the network in Fig. 9.97.

Step 2: Combine parallel current sources as described in Section 8.2. The resulting
network is shown in Fig. 9.99, where

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Step 3: Convert the resulting current source to a voltage source, and the desired
single-source network is obtained, as shown in Fig. 9.100.

In general, Millman’s theorem states that for any number of parallel voltage
sources,

The plus-and-minus signs appear in Eq. (9.8) to include those cases where the
sources may not be supplying energy in the same direction. (Note Example 9.19.)

The equivalent resistance is

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Because of the relatively few direct steps required, you may find it easier to apply
each step rather than memorizing and employing Eqs. (9.8) through (9.11).

Example 1: Using Millman’s theorem, find the current through and voltage across
the resistor RL in Fig. 9.101.

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The minus sign is used for E2 /R2 because that supply has the opposite polarity of
the other two. The chosen reference direction is therefore that of E1 and E3. The
total conductance is unaffected by the direction, and

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Example 2: Let us now consider the type of problem encountered in the

introduction to mesh and nodal analysis in Chapter 8. Mesh analysis was applied to
the network of Fig. 9.103 (Example 8.14). Let us now use Millman’s theorem to find
the current through the 2 Ω resistor and compare the results.

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SOURCE TRANSFORMATION THEOREM

Consider the two circuits below. In particular, look at the current and voltage of RL
in each circuit. Using any of the techniques we seen so far, it is easy to find iRL and
vRL for each case.

Interesting: From the point of view of the resistor RL, the series combination of the
voltage source and resistor RS gives the exact same result as the parallel
combination of current source and resistor RP.

The series combination seems to behave identically to the parallel combination.

This suggests that we may, in the right circumstances, replace one configuration for
the other. Making this switch is known as a source transformation.

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These are perfectly viable substitutions. From the point of view of whatever circuitry
is attached to the two terminals, the result will be exactly the same for the two
source configurations.

If you are trying calculate something about the two components (VS-RS or IP-RP),
you cannot transform them. In transforming them, you lose the ability to calculate a
specific property.

This is an example of bigger, more important idea known as the Thevenin

equivalent of circuit. We will introduce this later, and make extensive use of it in
discussing amplifiers, etc.

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Example 1: Find iR4 in the circuit.

Use a source transformation to put everything in parallel.

IS = VS/R1 = 50 V/25Ω = 2A.

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Example 2: Find iR2 in the circuit.

Transform the voltage source / resistor combo.

IST = VS/R1 = 20 V/5 Ω = 4 mA.

Combine the two current sources, IP = IST + IS = 6 mA…

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…and use the current divider then once again.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further

understand the lesson.

1. Nilsson, James W. (2015). Electric circuits (10 th Edition),Boston :Prentice

Hall
2. Brid, J. O. (2014), Electrical circuit theory and technology (5 th Edition),
London: Routledge,Taylor & Francis Group
3. Nahvi, Mahmood. (2014). Schaum’s outlines electric circuits (6 th edition),
New York: McGraw-Hill Education
4. Kubala, Thomas S. (2013). Electricity 1 : devices, circuits, and materials (10th
Edition),Clifton Park, NY :Delmar Cengage Learning
5. Dorf, Richard C. (2011). Introduction to electric circuits (8 th Edition), New
Jersey :John Wiley & Sons

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Let’s Check

1. It is used to compute the voltage at the ends of a circuit made up of only branches
in parallel.

a. ST Theorem b. Millman’s Theorem c. MPT Theorem d. All

2. It is the process of simplifying a circuit solution, especially with mixed sources, by

transforming voltage sources into current sources, and vice versa

a. ST Theorem b. Millman’s Theorem c. MPT Theorem d. All

3. It is a method of transferring the maximum power from the source to the load
when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance.

a. ST Theorem b. Millman’s Theorem c. MPT Theorem d. All

4. The effective resistance of an electric circuit or component to alternating current,

arising from the combined effects of ohmic resistance and reactance.

a. Reactance b. Resistance c. Conductor d. Impedance

5. If the source impedance is complex, then the condition for maximum power
transfer is?

a. ZL = ZS b. ZL = ZS* c. ZL = -ZS d. ZL = -ZS*

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Let’s Analyze

1. Using Millman’s Theorem

Find: VEQ =?

REQ =?

IL =?

In a Nutshell

1. Using Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Find: RL =?

IL =?

PL =?

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