#1 4.

Growth - living organisms are able to grow and

Plants – useful in cleaning the air we breathe. develop
Algae - part of plant kingdom
Cactus - plant • Grow and development
- has 127 genra/genera - allows the organisms to replace the old and dying
- more than a thousand species cells in the body and perform the different function
- not appear that have leaves but they have modified of different process of cellular differentiations.
leaves - reproduce another linking cells or another plant
Fungi - not a plant
- were listed in the plant kingdom 5. Reproduce
- part of plant kingdom but they are not plants - plants have the different reproduction the: Sexual
- scientist discovered it closer and Asexual Reproduction
relation/characteristics to animals
- unique separate life • Sexual Reproduction
- plant they can make another plant by their own
Part of the plants - new plants are obtained from seeds
- the roots, stems, leaves and flowers
- we can get oils like essential oil and collatil oil to • Asexual Reproduction
make drugs - plants can give rise to new plants without seeds.

conifers 6. Genetic Information - DNA, RNA

- cones instead of flowers from pine trees - biological organization that starts from the cell
- it is a flower but called "cones" because it's shape
- it is also a "cone bearing" (the seeds inside of the 7. Evolved
cones) - change of a population and also adaptation of the
survival of the changes in the environment.
7 Characteristics of living things •Native Plants
•Local Plants
Living things - biological organization
3 Sub Disciplines
1. Complex Organization
- living things are composed of cells  Plant Molecular Biology
- the most and the basic characteristic and shared by - study of molecular basis of plant life
all cell organisms  Plant Cell Biology
- the discovery of the cell was fundamental - focus on structure, the function, the life
understanding of the complex process organisms. processes of the plant cells.
- study of all aspects of plant cells particularly
2. Metabolism concern with the structure, grow, division, death
- part of living organization or living organisms use of the plants.
energy  Plant Physiology
- that is the energy that is primarily in the form of - to understand the mechanism of living things.
ATP - to study the normal functions of living creatures.
 Human Anatomy & Physiology
• 2 types of Metabolism - study the structure of the body and normal
function of the body.
a. Catabolism Ex. Photosynthesis – input & output of Carbon
- releases energy (ATP/ Adenosine Triphosphate) Dioxide and the Oxygen.
- building up - the changes or the union both compound
Plant – consume carbon dioxide, release oxygen.
b. Anabolism - break down  Plant Genetics
- transmission of DNA, RNA, part of heredity &
• Parts of Metabolism variation of the plant.
1. Carbohydrates - more on the hereditary part of the plants and the
2. Protein mechanism and transmission of the plants.
3. Lipids  Plant Ecology
- interrelationship among plants and between
3. Responsive - a living organisms respond to their plants and the environment.
environment - how plants survived/adapt on the weather or in
the environment.
• stimulus - anything in the environment that causes  Ecosystem
a change. - composes/study of abiotic and biotic.
- Living things or nonliving things.
#2 Brief history of botany o scientific classification follows a system of rules
 Early human cultures were hunter/gatherers. that groups successive categories into a
 One of the first professions was botany (plant hierarchy.
taxonomy)
Plants for food/medicine: Kingdom Taxonomy Level
In preliterate societies: Division
 knowledge of what was good or bad was passed Class
on in oral traditions, usually through religious Order
leaders – the ‘medicine man’ or shaman among Family
certain North America Indians and their Genus
counterparts in other societies (e.g. priests, Species – important, scientific name
rabbis, teachers).
Shaman – healer, physician, pharmacist before Biology – 5 Kingdoms
In literate societies: Animal Mammals arthropods sponges 1.3
fish million
- exist scientist, discoverer.
Fungi Mushrooms yeasts molds 72, 000
 information was transmitted by means of the Monera Prokaryotic cells 4,000
written word. Early examples include: Plant Mosses, liverworts, flowering 270,000
 Shen Nung, born 2737 B.C., founder of plants
Chinese agriculture wrote books on drugs and Protista Protozoans Amoebae, brown 80,000
algae, diatoms,
medicines from plants.
 about 300 B.C., the Greek Theophrastus
(father of botany) collected information about Taxonomy of Sego Lily
plants. Books: the “History of Plants” and Kingdom – Plantae – Plants
“Causes of Plants” Subkingdom – Tracheobionta – vascular plants
 Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century A.D, Superdivision – Spermatophyta – seed plants
referred to Theophrastus as the “Father of Division – Magnoliophyta – flowering plants
Botany”. Class – Liliopsida – monocotyledons
 Dioscorides wrote the “Materia Medica” in the Subclass – liliidae
2nd century A.D., Order – Liliales
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) was the Family – Liliaceae – Lily family
first to adapt lenses to the study of living Genus - Calochortus – mariposa lily
organisms. Species – Calochortus nuttallii – sego lily
 In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered that plant
tissues were composed of cells.  Ecology – deals with the mutual relationships
- cork of wine use to see plant tissue composed of and interactions between organisms and their
cells physical environment.
 Carolus Linnaeus often called the Father of - Ecology or oekologie = Ernst Haeckel 1866
Taxonomy and father of modern botany. He - The physical environment of an organism
created(invented/book) a uniform system includes: biotic and abiotic factors.
naming of plant known as: binomial - the word “ecologic” or “ecological”
nomenclature. environmentally friendly.
 Plants being organized into groups and named  Genetics – how genes operate
by taxonomists. (classified) - the way in which they are transmitted from
parents to offspring.
Branches of Botanical Studies - it is the study of heredity in general and of genes
in particular.
Pure Botany  Physiology (Plant) – study of the functioning of
 Plant Taxonomy - is the science that classifies, living organisms, such as plants, and of the
identifies, and names plants. functioning of their constituent tissues or cell.
- sets up arrangements of the kinds of plants in *fundamental process such as:
hierarchies = superior and subordinate groups. -Photosynthesis (chlorophyll – green pigment)
 Plant Identification -Respiration – input and output (plants release
o determination of identity oxygen – human release carbon)
o comparison with previously collected specimens -Plant nutrition – sexual & asexual reproduction
or with the aid of book or identification -Plant hormone functions
manuals. -Photoperiodism
o identification connects the specimen with a -Environmental stress physiology
published name. -Seed germination
o placing of known plants into groups or -Stomata function (opening part of the plants where
categories. the food stored).
-Transpiration – part of physiology

Phytochemistry
Environmental Interactions Plant Physiology -Cell movement: Chemotaxis, Contraction, cilia and
Plant Morphology (Pure Botany) flagella
Molecular & Cell Biology
Cellular Interactions
-DNA repair and cell death
 Paleobotany – study of fossil plants -Metabolism: Glycolysis, respiration,
- Greek words “paleon” = old and “botany”, photosynthesis
study of plants Autophagy
- The branch of paleontology or paleobiology Mitochondia – powerhouse of the cell.
dealing with:
*recovery and identification of plant remains from D. Histology – the study of the microscopic
geological contexts, biological reconstruction of anatomy of tissues of plants and animals.
past environments, and the evolution of both the - it is performed by examining a thin slice of
plant kingdom and life in general. tissue under a light microscope.
- Paleobotany includes the study of: terrestrial - An essential tool of biology and medicine
plant fossils, prehistoric marine algae and
seaweeds. Specialized Botany
- a closely-related field is palynology, which is the  Phycology – or algology
study of fossilized and extant spores and pollen. - Phykos, “seaweed”, and logos, “knowledge”
Importance - Scientific study of algae
*reconstruction of ancient ecological systems and - Primary producers in aquatic ecosystems
climate - Most are eukaryotic
*study of green plant development and evolution - Photosynthetic organisms that live in a wet
Plant fossils – any preserved part of a plant that has environment.
long since died. - Also includes the study of prokaryotic forms
Prehistoric = many millions of years old bits of known as blue-green algae
charcoal that are only a few hundred years old. - Phycologist is a person who studies algae as
Prehistoric plants - are various groups of plants described.
that lived before recorded history (before 3500 BC)  Mycology – study of fungi, their genetic and
Common kinds of fossil plants biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and
compression fossil their use to humans as a source of:
*fossil pollen and spores from ancient lake beds Medicinals (penincillin)
*less common, but economically more important, is Food (beer, wine, edible, mushrooms)
coal from the plants of Carboniferous swamps. As well as their dangers, such poisoning or
infection.
 Morphology – the study of size, shape, and *Most Comprehensively studied and understood
structure of plants and of the relationships of the fungi are the: yeast and eukaryotic model
parts comprising them. organisms
A. Gross Morphology – study of the large/gross Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
structure of plants and the relationships of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe.
parts comprising them.  Pteridology – study of ferns and related plants
B. Anatomy – field concerned with the  Agrostology - study of grasses and their
identification and description of the body classification
structures of living things (plants). It is also the Importance: maintenance of wild and grazed
study of the organization of plant tissues. -grasslands
C. Cytology -agriculture (crop plants such rice, maize, sugarcane
Cell Biology – (Cellular Biology) or formerly -management of turf grasses
cytology, from Greek kytos, “container” studies:  Dendrology – study of Woody plants = may be
*cells – their physiological properties, their trees, shrub, and lianas.
structure, the organelles they contain, interactions *tends to focus on economically useful woody
with their environment, their life cycle, division and plants, their identification and horticultural or
death. silvicultural properties.
* this is done both on a microscopic and molecular  Bryology – the branch of botany concerned
level. with the scientific study of bryophytes (mosses,
Other cellular process: liverworts, and hornworts)
-Cell division (PMAT) – prophase, metaphase, *Mosses are small, soft plants that are typically 1-
anaphase, telophase 10 cm tall.
-Cell signaling -commonly grow close together in clumps or mats
-Active transport and Passive transport in damp or shady locations
-reproduction of the plants is against concentration -do not have flowers or seeds, simple leaves cover
gradient (against the gravity need energy). Passive the thin wiry stems
(align). -produce spore
-Adhesion  Lichenology – study of lichens
-Transcription and mRNA splicing - Lichens are living entities
- Single lichen = result of two or more separate
organisms living permanently together How a light microscope works
- All lichens are made up of a fungal partner and 1. Use lenses to make small objects appear larger
either/or an algal partner or a cyanobacterium 2. Compound light microscope: two lenses separated by
a tube
partner, or both
3. Lenses magnify an object by bending the light that
- Useful as food, medicine, for making dyes,
passes through the lens
perfume manufacture, decorations and in 4. Magnification: ability to make things appear larger
science than they are
5. Resolution: fineness of detail that can be seen in an
- In Japan Umbilicaria esculenta image
- Lecanora esculenta was the original Biblical Manna
as it has the habit of coming loose from its substrate How to prepare a slide
and being blown around in the wind. 1. Place side on a flat surface
 Palynology 2. Place a drop of water on the slide. Add the specimen
to the drop of water (at times, you may want to have the
Applied Botany specimen already on the slide before adding the water.)
 Pomology 3. Hold the coverslip by it sides and lay it's bottom edge
 Agronomy on the side close to the specimen. Holding the coverslip
 Horticulture at 45⁰ angle helps.
 Floriculture 4. Slowly lower the coverslip so that it spreads the water
 Pharmaceutical Botany out. If you get air bubbles (looking like little black
 Forestry doughnuts), gently press ok the coverslip to move them
 Agriculture to the edge. If there are dry areas under the coverslip,
add a little more water at the edge of the coverslip. Too
#3 much water can be dabbed off with a piece or paper
Compound Microscope - is a very powerful towel.
magnifying glass.
- helps you see things like cells up close Has 3 structure component
- one of the most important rules of due to micrometer, Head-body
order, magnitude, microorganisms, cell structure Base
-high power compound Arm
- is to achieve higher levels of magnification done as
stereo or local microscope Type of microscope
Simple microscope - consist one lens system
Kinds of microscope Compound Microscope - consist series of lenses use to
The law stereotype magnify smaller specimen
Height power compound microscope - used to view
cell structure, and other microorganisms which cannot Oil immersion - it is applied inaminate or dead subject
be seen at lower levels of magnification/lens matter ex. Tissue

Part of the Compound Microscope Prof. Murry gans (eastfield college in mesquite, Texas)
Microscope
Eyepiece - view the specimen through the eyepiece. - uses a series of lenses that magnify an object.
- by number 10x, 40x hands lens will magnify up 20 to 30 times.
Stage clips - hold the slide in place - microscope magnify 400 times
Low power objective - (the shorter one) is used to focus Eyepiece (ocular lenses) - magnify specimen 10x
the microscope at lower level (oil immersion) - are adjustable
- hold sa sample (glass slide) Objective lenses - mounted on the revolving nosepiece
Ex. Magnification 100x = (multiply eyepiece to which let's you change them easily
objective) 10x use low power objective 10x Low (4x)
High power objective - used to view fine details of a Medium (10x)
specimen. High (40x)
Coarse adjustment - focuses first 3 different adjustments for light (light adjustment)
Fine adjustment - fine tunes & gives detailed focus *power Switch - which turns the light on
(usually smaller than coarse adjustment knob) *Diaphragm - ring mounted of by moving the ring of
- used to clearer image the diaphragm, it control the amount of light that reaches
Base - is where the microscope rests the specimen
Stage - is part where the slide rests *Dimmer adjustment
- stage composes the mirror
Mirror - (or light source) directs light upwards onto the Stage (mechanical stage) - this going to hold the slide
slide and let us move it around.
Diaphragm - the rotating disk located below the stage * To put slide on the microscope, simply pull this arm
- use to control the amount of light reaching to specimen back, slide the slide into the angle and let go of the arm.
- allow light in We're going to move the slide around by moving these 2
Nosepiece - is the rotating device that holds the knobs. (Knob moves the slide up and down, left and
objectives (lenses) right)
Arm - is the part where you carry the microscope To focus the image, 2 focusing knobs
Coarse focus knob - outside
- the stage moves a lot 100x (image)
Fine focus knob - inside Trichome
- it moves in very small increments Midrib
400x (image)
Mount things in water Nuclei
Wet mount slide (mounting in Water) - use a technique Cell wall of trichome
*Microscope slide *Cell wall
(Specimen) cut piece of paper out, use little bit of water *Vacuole occupies most volume of cell
(distilled water) Drop of water, use cover slips ( o make *Chloroplast
a good slide not have air bubbles) *Cytoplasmic bridge
* Take you cover slips and move it toward the water, *Cytoplasmic steaming
then the water spreads just drop the cover slips Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic
*Getting ready focus image
Start with low power - because it has the largest Field of The first cells to appear on Earth were prokaryotic cells.
view (we can see more you can find what you're looking A prokaryote is an organism made of a single
for). Bring the stage all the way up, it will stop, look in prokaryotic cell. The earliest prokaryotes may have
the eyepieces and turn the coarse adjustment knob away arisen more than 2.5 billion years ago. Bacteria are
from me until image into focus. Use fine adjustment prokaryotes. They are very small cells with a simple
knob to get sharp focus. Use diaphragm to adjust the structure. Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus. This
light (turning the light down just a little bit will let you means that their DNA is not enclosed in a membrane
see a lot more details inside the cell. Instead, prokaryotes have a single loop of
*we want to do is center the specimen and go to medium DNA that floats in the cell’s cytoplasm. Protein-making
power (to go medium power simply click the medium bodies called ribosomes also form part of the cytoplasm.
power lenses into place) look through eyepiece use Like all cells, prokaryotes have a cell membrane. All
coarse adjustment, fine focus, and use diaphragm (to get prokaryotes also have a cell wall surrounding the cell
good details) membrane. The cell wall helps provide support and
*Mechanical stage going to center again go to high protection for the cell. Some prokaryotes are enclosed by
power (the focal length, the distance between the lenses an additional layer. This layer is called the capsule. The
and the slide very short with high power. Thinking your capsule has a sticky surface area, so it allows
going to hit the slide, watch from the side and it should prokaryotes to cling to surfaces, such as your skin and
click into place. (It focus on low power and medium your teeth.
power, the high power objective should actually clear Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic
the slide just fine.) cells. They all have a cell membrane, ribosomes, and
Focus and center - important you center the specimen DNA as prokaryotic cells do. However, the DNA of
before you increase the magnification eukaryotic cells does not float freely in the cytoplasm.
Instead, it is found in the nucleus, an internal
Remember: compartment bound by a cell membrane. The nucleus is
*Remove slide and lower stage - take off your slide (the one kind of organelle found in eukaryotic cells.
cover slip is disposable) the slide should be washed and Organelles are structures that perform specific
return to the side box. Turn the light off on scope. functions. Most organelles are surrounded by a
Unplug and wrap, cover, get back to place) membrane. Some organelles have membranes that form
Grab with the arm support from the base. channels which help transport substances from one part
You should know: of the cell to another part of the cell.
* Parts Eukaryotes are organisms made of one or more
*Carry eukaryotic cells. The earliest eukaryotes, like the first
* Set it up prokaryotes, were single-celled organisms. They arose
* How make a wet mount slide about 1 billion years later than the earliest prokaryotes.
*How to focus your specimen (low power>medium Later, multicellular eukaryotes arose. Every type of
power>high power) multicellular organism that exists is made up of
*Magnification eukaryotic cells.
(All the lenses) eyepiece and all 3 objectives
Read the chapter before class Move list: Antibiotic
Read the lab procedure before lab Reproduction Destruction
Cell wall demolition
Making wet mount slides of elodea Protein Production Sabotage
(Intro of plant cells) Melanie link-Perez, pH.D
Prokaryotes – bacteria, archaea
Materials Tissues - Unicellular (single – celled)
Mountant Work surface - Bacterium
Cover slips Forceps Eukaryotes – (eukarya) protists, plants, animals, fungi
Slides Dissecting needles - Unicellular or multi cells
- Made up many cells
Elodea - easiest of the west mounts to make you want
slide ready. (Select a leaf from too of elodea plant. Different
- elodea leaves are 2 cell layers thick Prokaryotes
- often purchased at pet stores in the aquarium section, - Rhymes w/ “no”
were commonly sold under the synonym Anacharis. - cell wall (most)
- no nucleus (no nucleus) free floating DNA 1. Prokaryotic - do not have structures surrounded by
- no membrane-bound organelles membranes
- chloroplast - few internal structures
Eukaryotes - one-celled organism, bacteria
- Rhymes w/ “do” - no true nucleus
- Cell wall (some) plant cell and fungal cell - lack of organelles
- Don’t have animal cells - have flagella (locomotion) tail movement
- More complex - no mitochondria
- have 70S ribosomes
- Have nucleus (DNA has nucleus) to contain DNA
- development on how replicate prokaryotic cells (cell
- Membrane-bound organelles (Nucleus,
wall composed of Peptidoglycan)
Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
- how reproduce prokaryotic by binary fission
apparatus)
- has single organisms/chromosomes (haploid) half
- Not have chloroplast chromosomes
Common Amoxicillin (antibacterial) antibiotic - Inhibit/kill cell
DNA – genetic material wall synthesis (slow the replication of bacteria another to
Ribosomes – an organelle (tiny organ) the cell wall)
- Important job making proteins - takes 3 times a day
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane/ plasma membrane - controls in and *2 types of bacteria
out of the cell, maintains homeostasis. Bacteriostatic - Inhibit only grows of bacteria
Pasaka - exert force or (ATP) active carrier/energy Bactericidal - kill the bacteria
Unit of Measurements Does virus are prokaryotic/eukaryotic? - no both, virus
Length (Si) international system known as metric system not cell at all
Other countries - miles 2. Eukaryotic - contain organelles surrounded by
Philippines - kilometers measure distance membranes
Bonifacio - oroquita 100km - complete set of organelles
1 mile = 1.6km - most living organisms
1km = 100m - has nucleus
1m = 100cm - reproduce/reproduction/divided (mitosis/meiosis)
1 cm = 10 inch - has ATS ribosomes (80S)
2.54cm - composed cell wall "sterol"
1kg = 1200g - ex. Algae, protozoa, fungi, bacteria
8 oz = 214 ml 1 glass - hard to treat/cure (creams/ointment)
1 oz = 29.57 ml
1 gallon = 3785 ml or 3.7ml Cell Parts (Organelles)
Temp Surrounding of the Cell
other countries Fahrenheit 1. Cell Membrane - outer membrane of cell that
Ph- Celsius controls movement in and out of the cell
37c - double layer semi-permeable (channel and carrier
Room 25 -20 proteins are responsible for active and passive transport.
Cool temp *Plant - hexa
Col 8c *Animal - circular
Aircon 17c ex. Protein, carbohydrates absorb in and out
Active Transport - carrier mediated (carry
#4 PARTS OF THE CELL carbohydrates, proteins need ATP able them to go inside
Cell theory the cell membrane the course that exert to the active
*All living things are made up of cells. transport is against gravitational gradient (energy) ATP
(slcheiden&schwann 1838-39) Passive Transport - passing along (Travel inside cell
*Cells are the smallest working units of all living thing. membrane no energy needed)
(slcheiden&schwann 1838-39) - enable plants or animals cell keep toxic substance out
*All cells come from preexisting cells through cell the cells
division (Virchow1858) - provides protection of a cell
Cell - is the smallest unit that is capable of performing
life functions. 2. Cell Wall - most commonly found in plant cells &
- basic structural functional and biological unit of all bacteria
known organisms - supports & protects cells
Ex. *Cell wall components between adjacent plant cells
Amoeba Proteus(water) Bacteria Plasmodesma - intercellular channel
Plant Stem Nerve Cell Secondary wall - cellulose and lignin
Red blood cell Primary wall - cellulose (hemicellulos, pectin)
Robert Hooke - scientist saw dead cell wall of the Middle lamella – pectin
plants saw in cork - prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells has cell wall but
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - Observe the bacteria and prokaryotic no cell membrane
protozoa in the microscope - protection
- father of microbiology DNA (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine)
Two types of cells RNA (Uracil, Guanine, piratine)
3. Plasmodesma - (singular), Plasmodesmata (plural) Why not green leaves some are orange, red, yellow
- holes in the wall that act as channels for protoplasm leaves because of plastids (carotenoid) present in carrots
movement between cells. vitamin A. Orange depends type of the plants, depends
on season
*Inside the cell Green plants present chlorophyll
4. Nucleus - directs cell activities Chloroplast - associated with photosynthesis
- separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane - usually found in plant cells
- countians genetic material (DNA) - contain green chlorophyll
5. Nuclear membrane - surrounds nucleus - where photosynthesis takes place
- made of two layers Leucoplast - starch (amyloplasts) or oil storage
- opening allow material to enter and leave nucleus (elaioplasts)
6. Chromosomes - in nucleus Chromoplast - carotenoid-containing
- made of DNA 15. Peroxisomes - membrane-bound vesicles which
- contain instructions for traits & characteristics contain enzymes for the breakdown of organic
-passed from the parents to the offspring compounds
The DNA - contains the specific instruction that make - have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides
each type of living diff DNA 16. Cytoskeleton - helps maintain the cell shape the
- 23 pairs 46 chromosomes eternal organization provides the mechanical support
Male - (xy) chromosomes that enable cells to carry out the essential function like
Female - (xx) chromosomes division or the movement of the Cell.
7. Nucleolus - inside nucleus (Mitosis/meiosis/locomotion)
- contains RNA to build proteins - Microtubules
8. Cytoplasm/Protoplasm - gel-like structure - Microfilaments
- surrounded by cell membrane the site where most - network of protein fibers that help anchor organelles
cellular activities are done = cell expansion, growth and and help give the cell it's shape.
replication fluid matrix that organelles are embedded in
largely made of water and dissolved substances #5 CELL THEORY
(proteins, sugars, salts, etc...) Some Random Cell Facts
- also contains the cytoskeleton  The average human being is composed of around
9. Endoplasmic Reticulum - moves materials around in 100 Trillion individual cells
cell  It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the area of
- Smooth type: lacks ribosomes a dot on the letter “i”
- where the synthesis of lipids, fats, detoxification Discovery of Cells
- Rough type: ribosomes embedded in surface channels  1665 – English Scientist, Robert Hooke, discovered
of membranes involved as site of protein and lipid cells while looking at a thin slice of cork.
synthesis and movement of protein products. - He described the cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb
10. Ribosomes - each cell contains thousands - He thought that cells only existed in plants and fungi
- make proteins
- found on ER & floating throughout the cell
 1838 – German Botanist, Matthias Schleiden,
- site protein synthesis happens
concluded that all parts are made of cells.
- where macromolecular stored in the ribosomes
 1839 – German physiologist, Theodor Schwann,
- factory of making the proteins
who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all
11. Mitochondria - produces energy through chemical
animal tissues are composed of cells.
reactions - breaking down fats & carbohydrates
 1858 – Rudolf Virchow, German physician, after
- Aerobic respiration
extensive study of cellular pathology, concluded that
- controls level of water and other materials in cell
cells must arise from preexisting cells.
- recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and
Modern Cell Theory (4)
carbohydrates
- powerhouse of the cell  The cell contains hereditary information (DNA)
- generate the most of the cell supply of ATP which is passed on from cell to cell during cell
- source of the energy or chemical energy part of the cell division.
- where glucose and oxygen to make ATP or cellular  All cells are basically the same in chemical
energy/ aerobic respiration composition and metabolic activities.
12. Golgi Body/Apparatus - dictyosomes storage of  All basic chemical and physiological functions are
proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. carries out inside the cells. (movement, digestion,
- move materials within the cell etc.)
- move materials out of the cell  Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-
13. Vacuoles - membrane-bound sacs for storage, cellular structures within the cell (organelles,
digestion, and waste removal nucleus, plasma membrane)
- contains water solution
- helps plants maintain shape How has the Cell Theory been used?
- bounded by a membrane, the tonoplast,  The basic discovered truths about cells, listed in the
- and often contain crystals and soluble pigments Cell Theory, are basis for things such as:
- empty space help in the storage and disposal or Disease/Health/Medical Research and Cures (AIDS,
removal of the various substances cancer, vaccines, cloning, stem cell research, etc.)
- store waste product and prevent the entire cell can
contamination. Mitosis and Cell Cycle = USC COP
14. Plastids - vitamin A good in the eyes
Plant cells - development into tissues to perform a - Control of cell division occurs in G1: a cell that isn’t
complex function when this happen, new characteristics destined to divide stays in G1, while a cell that is to
arise called emergent properties. divide enters the S phase.
In order for cells to become tissue they need to undergo S phase (Synthesis) – is the time when the DNA is
a cellular reproduction - processes that all organisms replicated.
undergo a locomotion, respiration, reproduction, cycle of - The chromosomes goes from having one chromatid
cell. Like meiosis and mitosis because that their cellular to having 2 chromatids held together at the
level all Characteristics of life are manifested. centromere.
*important growth cell employed which made them in G2 – is the period between S and mitosis. The
doored the eon. chromosome have 2 chromatids, and the cell is getting
ready to divide.
Life Cycle = Cell Cycle (Initiation, Growth, Death) - Chemicals are needed for the production of
Why Cells must divide? microtubules.
 In multi-celled organism (like humans) cell
specialized for specific functions thus the original cells Mitosis = P, M, A, T
must divide to produce different kind of cells.  The chromosomes are pulled apart by the Spindle,
Mitosis vs Meiosis Which is made of microtubules.
1. Mitosis (M phase) – is normal cell division in all  The spindle fibers are attached to each centromere
parts of the body (which is part of the chromosomes), and anchored on the
- where cytokinesis and karyokinesis happened other end to a centrosome (which is the organizing
Karyokinesis - cell nucleus divides (PMAT) center
Cytokinesis - cell itself divides into daughters’ cells. for the spindle).
Aims Mitosis: chromosomes must be precisely divided  There are two centromeres
so that each daughter cell gets the exactly the same
 The chromosomes are lined up between the poles
DNA.
of the spindle.
Humans = 46 chromosomes (every cell has)
 When the spindle fibers contract, the chromosomes
 Each species has a characteristic number of
are pulled to the opposing poles,
chromosomes: corn has 20, house flies have 10,
 The cell then divides to separate the two poles.
chimpanzees have 48.
 Chromosomes – (Telomere, Centromere)
Prophase
2. Meiosis – is the special cell division that creates the
1. The chromosomes condense. The proteins = cause the
sperm and eggs, the gametes
chromosomes to go from long thin structures to short fat
one.
Chromosomes
2. The nuclear envelope disappears. The double
 Before replication, chromosomes have one membrane that surround the nucleus dissolves freeing
chromatid. the chromosomes to use the whole cell for division.
 After replication chromosomes have 2 sister 3. In prophase the pair of centrosomes separate and
chromatids, held together at the centromere. move to opposite ends of the cell.
 Each chromatid is one piece of DNA with its 4. The spindle starts to form, growing out of the
supporting proteins. centrosomes towards the chromosomes.
 In mitosis, the two chromatids of each chromosomes
separate, with each chromatid going into a daughter Metaphase
cell. - Is a short resting period where the chromosomes ate
lined up on the equator of the cell
Cell Cycle - Centrosomes are the opposite ends and the spindle
 Some cells divide constantly: cells in the embryo, fibers attached to the centromeres.
skin cells, gut lining cells, etc. - center of the cell
 Other cells divide rarely or never - chromosomes appear as a sister chromatid.
 Actively dividing cells go through a cycle of events
- Spindle fiber appear and attached to the kenito
that results in mitosis.
course
So, the chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
G1  S  G2  M  G1…
Anaphase
G0 (Gap 0) – the resting phase/stage (quotients)
- Centromeres divide
- The cells are not divided yet
- Each individual chromosome goes from:
1. Chromosome with 2 chromatids to
Interphase (G1&G2)
2. Chromosomes with one chromatid each
- The none dividing stage of the cell cycle
- Then the spindle fibers contract, and the
 During interphase the cell increases in size, but the chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles, towards
chromosomes are invisible. the centrosomes.
 The 3 stages of interphase are called G1, S and G2
G1 (Gap) - synthesis of amino acids and other Telophase
biochemical needed for S phase. - Cell actually divides
- is the period when each chromosome has 1 - The chromosomes are at the poles of the spindle.
chromatid.
- The spindle disintegrates
- The nuclear envelope reforms around the two sets of
chromosomes.
- The cytoplasm is divided into 2 separate cells, the  Phloem
process of cytokinesis. - composed of living cell that moves the
carbohydrates
Cytokinesis from the production site to where they are either used or
- The organelles (other than the chromosomes) get stored
divided up into the 2 daughter cells passively.
- Plant and animal cells divide the cytoplasm in EX. VASCULAR PLANTS (seedless vs with seeds)
different ways  Seedless
- In plant cells, a new cell wall made of cellulose Club mosses and Ferns are seedless vascular plants.
forms between the 2 new nuclei. Club mosses belongs to phylum Lycophyta
- Cell membranes form - not true mosses
- oldest living group of vascular plants
DNA - composed of 20 amino acids found in the body Ferns and their relatives belong to phylum Pterophyta
- 2 types Essential and Non-essential amino acids. (11 - whisk ferns and horsetails are close relatives of ferns
essential acid and 9 non-essential acid) that have large leaves called fronds.
- No uracil Seed plants - include cone-bearing plants and flowering
- Thymine- only nucleic acid present on the DNA plants
- Uracil - nucleic acid only present on RNA - have several advantages over their seedless
ancestors.
- Purine – nucleic acid
(can reproduce without free-standing water, via
- Adenine Pollination - grow by their own because of seed that
- Guanine falls)
- Each nucleic acid present on DNA convert into - Seeds nourish and protect plant embryo
amino acid - Seeds allow plants to disperse to new places
- Protein building block for amino acid.
PARTS OF THE SEED
#6 Classification of Plants 1. Food Store/Storage- the center, food storage
Plant 2. Seed Coat
- a living organism that grows in the ground, usually has 3. Embryo
leaves or flowers that need sun and water to survive. TWO TYPES OF SEED
- a eukaryotic cell, eukaryotes 1. Monocotyledon - 1 surface of the seed
- are multicellular 2. Dicotyledon- 2 surface of the seed
- plants cells are surrounded by cell wall
- plants cells contain green chloroplast which contain Gymnosperms do not have seen enclosed in fruit.
chlorophyll - most gymnosperms are cone-bearing.
- the cone is reproductive structure of most
Key Concept gymnosperms
Plants can be classified into nine phyla/divisions. - Pollen is produced in male cones
9 Division of Plants - Eggs are produced in female cones
*Land Plants are classified by the presence or absence - seeds develop on scale of female cones
of vascular tissue and how they reproduce (with or - ex. Pinetree
without seeds)
Cycads are gymnosperms in phylum Cycadophyta
“Classification of Plants” - look like a palm tree with large cones
True Plants Divide in Two - grow in tropical areas

1. Vascular - transport system Ginkgos are gymnosperms in phylum Ginkgophyta

- have Xylem and Phloem, plant that has a tube - only one species alive today, Ginkgo biloba grown
- transporting the nutrient in the plants
in
- tube like structure that carries the water the nutrients
gardens and used in urban landscaping
and other substances throughout the plant
- have leaves and true roots, can grow tall, live in dry
Conifers are gymnosperms in phylum Coniferophyta
places, has no hole
- most common gymnosperms alive today
Ex.
- includes pines, spruce, cedar, fir, and juniper
People: relating to vessels, especially those that carry
blood.
Angiosperms, or flowering plants, belong in phylum
Plants: relating to plant tissues that conduct water, sap,
Anthophyta
and nutrients.
- have seed enclosed in some type of fruit.
A flower is the reproductive structure of angiosperms.
Part of the Structure of the Plant
A fruit is a mature ovary of a flower
- are useful in transporting the nutrients in the plants
that’s why the plant grows.
2. Nonvascular Plants - Non-Transport System
 Xylem
- no roots (rhizoids)
- carries the water and minerals from the roots to the
- has no tube-like structure in the plant structures or the
rest of the plant.
structure there is used to move water and substances
- usually composed of dead cells but it’s still alive
- that’s why they're small
because of transportation of the minerals all over the
Ex. Lumot
structure of the plants
- they rely on the food directly attached to the water, 4. Halophytes - those are the plants that survive in a salt
usually live in a moist area. Grow close to the ground to tolerant or high salinity water, Ex. seaweeds
absorb water and nutrients Based in their habitat
- they are smaller compare to vascular plants 1. Aquatic plants - those are the plants that live in
- has no Xylem or Phloem water.
- still have photosynthesis (similarities of vascular 2. Terrestrial plants - those are the plants that live on
plants) the land.
- presence of chloroplast (chlorophyll is the green 3. Aerial plants - those are the plants that live above the
pigment) ground and attach to other plants. Ex. orchids

NONVASCULAR PLANTS EXAMPLE  Based on their life duration

1. Mosses and their relatives are seedless nonvascular 1. Annual plants - those are the plants that live for 1
plants Brophyta or Bryophyta year, only 1 growing session. Ex. rice, corns, beans,
- belong to phylum Bryophyta watermelon
- most common seedless nonvascular plants 2. Biennial plants - those are the plants that live for two
- sphagnum moss commonly used by humans as “peat” years, 1st year is the main limited for vegetable growth
2. Liverworts belong to phylum Hepatophyta or growth, 2nd year is reproductive year. Ex. carrots,
- often grow on wet rocks or in greenhouses onion
- can be thallose or leafy 3. Perennial plants - those are the plants that leave year
3. Hornworts belong to phylum Anthocerophyta to year or more than 2 years. Ex. apple, mango,
- found in tropical forests and along streams eggplant, banana, etc.
- flat, lobed body with the green “horns”
Seaweeds (color green, red, brown)  Based on their habit on the body appearance
1. Trees - those are the woody plant with a single main
Plant Classification Lab stem, which is commonly above 20ft. Ex. trees, banana,
 Goal: Identify plants as either vascular or mango.
nonvascular based on microscope analysis. 2. Shrubs - those are woody plants in relatively short.
 This lab does not need to be a formal write up…. not lapas 20 ft.
Only include the Title, Goal, and components listed 3. Herbs - those are plants with soft or succulent stems,
below: can be putol through kamot. Ex. Sambong,
- Draw image and label transport system components 4. Vines - those are the climbing or twining plants with
- Record slide name and number stems with maybe tender or tough. Ex. Ampalaya
- Record as either vascular or nonvascular.
Autotrophs - are known as producers because they are
Vascular Plants vs Nonvascular Plants able to make their own food from raw materials and
Vascular energy. Examples include plants, algae, and some types
 Transport System of bacteria.
Heterotrophs - are known as consumers because they
- Leaves, true roots, xylem, phloem, stems
consume producers or other consumers. Dogs, birds,
 Can grow tall
fish, and humans are all examples of heterotrophs
 Live in dry areas
Nonvascular
 No Transport System (no roots) rhizoids
 Grow close to the ground to absorb water and
nutrients
 Live in moist areas

 Based on the water requirements of the plants

1. Mesophytes - those are the plants that need moderate
supply of water. Ex. Grasses, tulips
2. Xerophytes - those are the plants that live in dry
places, in dessert. Ex. cactus
3. Hydrophytes - those are the plants that needs a moist
and watery abundant supply of water. Ex. water lily