Tanker Familiarization

PONDICHERRY MARITIME ACADEMY-TFC COURSE BOOKLET
PONDICHERRY MARITIME ACADEMY

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TANKER
FAMILIARISATION
COURSE
(TFC)
BOOKLET
PONDICHERRY MARITIME ACADEMY-TFC COURSE BOOKLET
INTRODUCTION
SCOPE
This course provides training for officers and ratings assigned specific duties and responsibilities related to
cargo and cargo equipment on tankers. It compromises a familiarization training programme appropriate
to their duties and responsibilities, including characteristics of tanker cargoes, their associated hazards,
safety measures, pollution prevention, emergency operations, cargo equipment and operations.
The course takes account of section A-V/1 of the STCW code adopted by the International Convention on
Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers 1978, as amended in 2010.
OBJECTIVE
Successful completion of this course should enable trainees to serve on Oil/Gas/Chemical tankers in a
capacity other than Master, chief engineer officer, chief mate or second engineer officer, and to perform
specific duties and responsibilities related to those duties in connection with cargo and cargo equipment,
provided that they are not immediately responsible for the loading, discharging, care in transit or handling
of cargo.
1.1 ENTRY STANDARDS

This course is open to seafarers who intend to serve on board Oil/Gas/Chemical tankers as part of the
regular complement with assigned specific duties and responsibilities related to cargo and cargo
equipment on tankers, and who have completed an appropriate approved basic fire-fighting in addition to
the training required by regulation VI/1 as stipulated in STCW regulation V/1, paragraph 1, refer chart on
next page (Flow chart).
The tanker familiarization course must be approved by the Administration, officers and ratings who are
qualified in accordance with regulation V/1, paragraph 1, as appropriate, shall be issued with an
appropriate certificate.
An existing certificate may be suitably endorsed by the issuing Administer

STCW 2010 TRAINING SCEME FOR PERSONNEL ON TANKERS
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PONDICHERRY MARITIME ACADEMY – COMBINED TANKER FEM. BOOKLET
1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF TANKERS

Important stages in development of Oil Tankers
Earlier ships carried oil in barrels and then large tanks. In 1878, lauding Noble of Sweden launched a ship
that was simply one great tank itself. Noble was the brother of Alfred noble founder of famous noble
prizes. His tanker carries oil from Bakin fields in south eastern Russia across the Caspian sea. 1n 1885,
the first ocean going tanker, the Gluckauf, was launched. This ship built in Great Britain for a German oil
company, carried petroleum from the U.S to Europe. It became the model of all later tankers, its hold
space has eight big tankers and its engine room was stern to reduce the danger of fire. The vessel was 90
meters and 11 meters wide. It carried 2090 MT oil sailing at 9 knots. Today, large tanker often called
Supertankers, can measure more than 457 meters and 60 meters wide. They carry more then 450,000
metric tons of oil and can do about 15 knots. Even larger Supertanker is technically possible. But these
giants are useful only for long hauls like transporting Oil from Middle East to Europe and Japan.
Supertankers have various economic advantages over smaller tankers. It cost much less to ship a large
amount of oil in one Supertanker than in many small tankers, But Supertankers have also disadvantages.
Their huge size makes then difficult to navigate and increases the risk of accidents, because of their size,
they require ports as deep as 30 meters in order to unload. If a Supertanker suffers an oil spill, the
pollution that results could be disastrous because of the ship’s huge capacity.
1.3 Oil tanker types (Depending upon the cargo they carry)
Crude Oil carrier: Vessels for carrying Crude oil in bulk
Product tankers: Vessels for carrying petroleum products in bulk
OBO: Ore Bulk Oil carrier vessels can carry ore or oil in bulk. Center cargo holds can be loaded with oil or
with heavy ore concentrates.
Bitumen carrier: Vessels carrying additional heating coils and pumping arrangements to handle high
vicous cargo
Gas carriers: Vessels carrying liquefied petroleum gas, Natural gas. These gases are pressurised and
cooled keeping the product liquefied.
Chemical tanker: Vessels carrying chemicals. These gases are hazardous and are toxic, reactive, corrosive
and flammable products.
Tankers used for liquid fuels are classified according to their capacity.
In 1954 Shell Oil developed the average freight rate assessment (AFRA) system which classifies tankers of
different sizes. To make it an independent instrument, Shell consulted the London Tanker Brokers’
Panel (LTBP). At first, they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under 25,000
tons deadweight (DWT); Medium Range for ships between 25,000 and 45,000 DWT and Large Range for
the then-enormous ships that were larger than 45,000 DWT. The ships became larger during the 1970s,
and the list was extended, where the tons are long tons:
▪ 10,000–24,999 DWT: General Purpose tanker
▪ 25,000–44,999 DWT: Medium Range tanker
▪ 45,000–79,999 DWT: Large Range 1 (LR1)
▪ 80,000–159,999 DWT: Large Range 2 (LR2)
▪ 160,000–319,999 DWT: Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC)
▪ 320,000–549,999 DWT: Ultra Large Crude Carrier (ULCC)
Petroleum Tankers
Class Length Beam Draft Typical Min DWT Typical Max DWT
Seawaymax 226 m 24 m 7.92 m 10,000 DWT 60,000 DWT
Panamax 228.6 m 32.3 m 12.6 m 60,000 DWT 80,000 DWT
Aframax 253.0m 44.2m 11.6m 80,000 DWT 120,000 DWT
Suezmax 16 m 120,000 DWT 200,000 DWT
VLCC (Malaccamax) 470 m 60 m 20 m 200,000 DWT 315,000 DWT
ULCC 320,000 DWT 550,000 DWT
At nearly 380 vessels in the size range 279,000 DWT to 320,000 DWT, these are by far the most popular
size range among the larger VLCCs. Only seven vessels are larger than this, and approximately 90
between 220,000 DWT and 279,000 DWT.
Figure: Important stages in the development of tankers and oil shipping
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Figure: Early design of bulk oil carrier
Important stages in development of Liquefied gas Shipping

Learning Objectives
Lists important stages in the transport of liquefied gas by ships, such as:
• Gas shipping began in the late 1920s
• The earliest ships were designed to carry liquefied gas in pressure vessels at ambient temperature
• The first cargoes on the market were butane and propane
• Development of refrigeration techniques and metal’s suitable for low temperature made it possible to
carry liquefied gas at temperatures lower than ambient
• Defines terminology and explains abbreviations commonly used aboard gas tankers and on gas
terminals
In the late 1920th transportation of liquefied gases in bulk started. In the very beginning it was
transportation of propane and butane in fully pressurized tanks. Around 1959, semi-pressurized ships
entered the market and liquefied gas was now transported under lower pressure, which was made
possible by lowering the temperature. By 1963, fully refrigerated ships for LPG, LNG and certain chemical
gases wore in service, carrying cargo at atmospheric pressure.
Liquefied gas is divided into different groups based on boiling point, chemical bindings, toxicity and
flammability. The different groups of gases have led to different types of gas carriers and cargo
containment system for gas carriers.
The sea transport of liquefied gases in bulk is internationally regulated - with regard to safety through
standards established by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and these standards are set out in
the IMO's Gas Carrier Codes, which cover design, construction and other safety measures for ships
carrying liquefied gases in bulk.
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Important stages in development of Bulk Chemical Shipping

Important stages of the shipment of liquid chemicals in bulk
 Sea transport of chemicals started with the chemical industries rapid growth in the years after World
War Two
 At first chemicals were transported in bottles or drums on dry cargo ships; larger quantities were
shipped in bulk in the deep tanks on these ships.
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 As the world’s demand for chemicals increased, the need for a new type of seagoing ship became
evident. see Fig 1.2.1
 The first chemical tankers were converted war-built American oil tankers (T-2 tankers).
 Conversion work usually included:
▪ Adding bulkheads to provide more and smaller tanks
▪ Extending the line system
▪ Installing additional cargo pumps
 The first conversion of this type was done in 1948 on the “R.E.Wilson” of 9073 tons gross tonnage. See
figure 1.2.2
 In addition to these converted, relatively big chemical carriers, smaller tankers specially designed and
constructed or the carriage of “acids” –i.e. Sulphuric acid – were built during the early 1950’s, the
cargo tanks of which were made of special alloy steel, strengthened for cargo densities upto 2.0 kg\l.
 In order to carry chemicals of high purity and sensitive to contamination, coating techniques for mild
steel cargo tanks were developed.
 The first real chemical tanker specially designed for the carriage of liquid chemicals in bulk was the
Norwegian M\T “Lind”, delivered in 1960; this was the first tanker equipped with stainless steel cargo
tanks. See fig. 1.2.1
 A modern chemical tanker today is a tanker with a large number of cargo tanks and designed for
carriage of a wide variety of cargoes.
 The cargo tank section on these modern ships is normally divided into some stainless steel tanks and
some coated mild steel tanks, each of which is normally equipped with deepwell pumps and a separate
piping system. See below figure
Dedicated service usually means that the tanker is dedicated for a certain type of chemical, thus
transporting the same type of cargo on each voyage.
A chemical tanker engaged in parcel service moves a variety of relatively small lots of chemicals between
a number of ports.
Chemical tankers may be engaged in “dedicated” or “parcel” trades.
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1.3 TANKER TERMINOLOGY

Acid
Any chemical compound containing hydrogen capable of being replaced by positive elements or radicals to
form salts.
Acid Value
Vegetable and animal oils and fats are mixtures of esters, glycerol and fatty acids. The acid value is a
measure of the concentration of free fatty acids and numerically is approximately equal to twice the
percentage of free fatty acids, e.g. A.V. 10, F.F.A. 5%.
Alcohols
Organic compounds containing one or more hydroxyl radicals (OH). Alcohols may be mono-, di-, tri-, etc.
according to the number of hydroxyl radicals they contain and primary, secondary or tertiary according to
the position of the hydroxyl radical.
Aldehydes
A group of organic compounds containing the –CHO radical and holding a position between alcohols and
acids. They are produced by the oxidation of hydrocarbons and can be used for the production of alcohols,
e.g. acetaldehyde (CH 3CHO).
Aliphatics
Organic compounds in which the carbon atoms are not arranged in a ring structure.
Alkali
A strong base; a substance whose water solution yields a great volume of hydroxyl ions.
Amines
Substances derived from ammonia where the hydrogen atoms are replaced by one, two or three alkyl
groups.
Animal oil
An oily material obtained from animal substances.
Aromatics
Aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene series), unsaturated, with a 6 carbon ring as the nucleus, e.g. aniline,
naphthalene, benzene, toluene, xylene.
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Boiling
This is the action, which takes place when a liquid changes its state from a liquid into a gas or vapour. The
heat required to bring this change of state about is called Latent Heat.
Boiling temperature
This is the temperature at which a liquid boils. As the boiling temperature rises with an increase in
pressure (see saturated vapour pressure), the boiling temperatures are usually given for atmospheric
pressure. At this pressure, water boils at + 100oC. butane at - ½oC., ammonia at -33oC. and propane at -
43oC.
Brimstone
Another name for sulphur
Carbohydrates
Any one group of compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are neutral compounds
comprising the sugars, starches, celluloses, pentosans, galactans, etc.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
A type of halogenated hydrocarbon; hydrocarbons which have undergone a substitution process whereby
single atoms of hydrogen are replaced by single atoms of chlorine.
Colour determination
Most products shipped in chemical tankers are pure and well defined. The colour is known and any
derivations indicate the presence of contaminants.
Condensation
This is evaporation in reverse. If a vapour becomes supersaturated, condensation takes place and heat is
surrendered. For example, in a seawater-cooled condenser, a compressor has raised the pressure of the
vapour to such an extent that at seawater temperature, it is supersaturated. Condensation takes place,
and the latent heat released heats up the water passing through the condenser tubes; the heated
seawater passing overboard into the sea, to be replaced continuously by fresh cool water. The resulting
condensate will be somewhat warmer than the seawater coolant.
Cracking
The process of breaking up large hydrocarbon molecules in petroleum to produce smaller molecules. The
use of catalysts such as aluminum oxide in catalytic cracking produces increased amounts of desirable
hydrocarbons.
Dew point
The temperature at which the liquefaction of a vapour begins. The term is usually applied to condensation
of moisture from the water vapour in the atmosphere.
Esters
Organic compounds (Salts) formed from an alcohol (base) and an organic acid. Many esters occur in
nature, as fats for instance. Many are important as solvents.
Ether
An organic oxide containing one or more kinds of hydrocarbon radicals, e..g. diethyl ether.
Evaporation
This is the process of converting a liquid into a vapour, and it requires latent heat to do this. If a liquid
(say liquid propane) in a closed container at 10oC. Has a saturated vapour pressure of 5 atmospheres,
and the vapour in the space above the liquid is allowed to escape, the pressure in the container will fall.
As soon as this happens, the vapour in the space above the liquid will be undersaturated and evaporation
will take place (or the liquid boil). Heat will be used up in the boiling process and the temperature of the
liquid will fall. The "boil off" will largely replace the vapour which has been allowed to escape until such
time as the pressure in the container corresponds to the saturated vapour pressure of the liquid at the
new lower temperature. Continuous withdrawal of vapour means continuous evaporation, which in turn
means continuous loss of heat (cooling).
Fatty acids
Organic monobasic aliphatic acids. Palmitic, stearic and oleaic acids are the three acids occurring most
frequently in fats as glycerol esters. Fatty acids are common in animal and vegetable tissue.
Filling of cargo tanks
The correct maximum volume of liquid to load in a cargo tank is such a quantity that after allowance for
the product to warm up and expand to a temperature the saturated vapour pressure of which would lift
the safety valves, 2 per cent. of the space would remain. A tank so filled is described as Full. A tank filled
above this level is described as Overfull. A tank completely filled with liquid is described as one hundred
per cent.
Flammable or Explosive Mixture
Petroleum as a liquid does not burn. At ordinary temperatures, it gives off vapour, which when mixed
within certain proportions with air, will burn. The lowest proportion of petroleum vapour in air mixture,
which will burn, is termed lower explosive limit (L.E.L.) and the strongest mixture that will burn is termed
upper explosive limit (U.E.L.). The flammable mixtures between the lower and upper explosive limits are
called the explosive range. A mixture of vapour in air weaker than the L.E.L. is described as too lean or
over-lean whilst a mixture of vapour in air stronger than the U.E.L. is described as too rich or over-rich.
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Mixtures outside the explosive range will not burn, the words explosive and flammable within this context
being virtually synonymous.
Flammable limits
The range of gas or vapour concentration (percent by volume in air) which will burn or explode if an
ignition source is present. Limiting concentrations are commonly called the “lower explosive limit” (LEL)
and the “upper explosive limit” (UEL). Below the LEL the mixture is too lean to burn and above the UEL it
is too rich.
Flashover
Fire fighting on board ships differs from fire fighting ashore in that allowance has to be made for the fact
that the metal with which a ship is constructed, conducts heat to a far greater extent than normal shore
building materials. The result is that a fire on board ship tends to spread horizontally as well as vertically.
If the temperature of combustible material in a compartment adjacent to one where a fierce fire is
burning, is raised to above its ignition temperature (q.v.), that material will ignite spontaneously (auto
ignition), so spreading the fire from one compartment into another, through a bulkhead, without a spark
or flame being directly involved. Such a means of a fire spreading is termed a flash-over.
Flash Point
This is the lowest temperature at which a flammable mixture of air and vapour will burn when exposed to
a naked flame. The lowest temperature in .c at which a liquid will give off enough inflammable vapour to
be ignited. In practice, the flash point is an important factor indicating at what working conditions an
inflammable vapour-air mixture may be expected. A lowering of the flash point means that the product
has become contaminated with a more volatile product, which is a severe contamination. A re-distillation
of the parcel may become necessary.
Fractional distillation
The separation of distillation of a complex mixture of liquids into several simpler mixtures in the order of
their increasing boiling points.
Fuming Sulphuric Acids
H2S2O7 obtained when concentrated Sulphuric acid absorbs more sulphur trioxide. It is also called “oleum”.
Gas/Vapour
Gas is a substance which has the property of indefinite expansion. In the context of this book, it is above
its critical temperature and cannot be condensed into a liquid. If the temperature of a gas is reduced to
below its critical temperature, it then becomes a vapour, and can be condensed into a liquid. Gases are
frequently referred to as incondensable.
GAS LAWS
Avogadro's Hypothesis: Equal volumes of different gases at the same pressure and temperature contain
the same number of molecules.
Boyle's Law: The volume of a given mass of gas varies inversely with the pressure provided that the
temperature remains constant:
P=
Charles's Law: The volume of a given mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature provided
the pressure remains constant:
Volume = or density =
Clerk Maxwell's Kinetic Theory: A gas may be imagined as a vast number of molecules moving in all
directions at irregular velocities, colliding with one another and with the walls of the containing vessel. The
path of a molecule is zigzag in three dimensions and the mean free path is defined as the average length
between collisions, the denser the gas, the shorter will be the mean free path.
On the assumption that the molecules are microscopic spheres, it can be shown that the pressure and
absolute temperature of a gas are proportional to the mean kinetic energy of translation of the molecules
bombarding the walls of the vessel containing the gas. Thus, at the same temperature the average kinetic
energy of translation of the molecules of any gas are the same whatever its mass-a "large" molecule
having low velocity and a "light" molecule having high velocity.
This theory correlates Avogadro's Hypothesis, Boyle's Law, Charles's Law and Gay Lussac's Law.
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures: The pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures each
would exert if it alone were to occupy the containing vessel.
Gay Lussac's Law: The density of a gas at standard pressure and temperature is proportional to its
molecular weight. This is a corollary of Avogadro's Hypothesis.
Joule's Law: When a perfect gas expands without doing external work and without taking in or giving out
heat and therefore without changing its stock of internal energy, its temperature does not change.
Glycols
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Aliphatic secondary alcohol compounds containing 2-OH groups, e.g. ethylene glycol, a colourless liquid
produced from ethylene oxide.
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons which are the products of a substitution process whereby single atoms of hydrogen are
replaced by single atoms of one of the halogens, i.e. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine.
HEAT
Latent Heat: This is the heat used up in changing the state of a substance without changing its
temperature. In the case of changing the state of a substance from a solid into a liquid (melting), it is
called the latent heat of fusion, and in the case of heat changing the state of a liquid into a gas or vapour
(boiling), it is called the latent heat of vaporisation. It takes 80 calories to change 1 gramme of ice into
water and about 539 calories to change 1 gramme of water into steam at standard atmospheric pressure.
The value of latent heat of vaporisation varies with temperature and pressure (see critical temperature).
Sensible Heat: This is the heat used in raising the temperature of a substance without changing its state.
1 calorie is used to raise the temperature of 1 gramme of water 1oC.
Heavy chemicals
Those that are manufactured industrially on a very large scale (e.g. sulphuric acid, caustic soda), but not
including petrochemicals.
Heel
This is the small quantity of liquid remaining after discharge which it is impossible to pump out, but which
is used to assist in keeping the cargo tank cold during the ballast (unloaded) passage, and is usually
carried over to the next loading. When it is know that the vessel will be changing grades or gas freeing,
every effort should be made to reduce this heel to the absolute minimum.
Hydrogenation
The process of introducing hydrogen into the molecules of a substance, usually with the aid of a catalyst.
The conversion of carbon monoxide to menthol is an example as is the hydrogenation of vegetable oils to
produce fats.
Hygroscopic
A hygroscopic compound is one which absorbs moisture when exposed to air, but does not become wet.
ICS International Chamber of Shipping
Ignition temperature
The lowest temperature at which a vapour-air mixture with ignition properties can be ignited. It
corresponds to the flash point for vapours from liquids.
IMO International Maritime Organization
Inert gas
It’s a non-reactive gas used during chemical synthesis, chemical analysis, or preservation of reactive
materials. Inert gases are selected for specific settings for which they are functionally inert since the cost
of the gas and the cost of purifying the gas are usually a consideration. Neon and argon are the most
common inert gases for use in chemistry and archival settings.
Inert gas generator (IGG)
Refers to machinery on board marine product tankers. Inert gas generators consist distinctively of a
burning and cooling chamber.
Atmospheric air is burned so that it contains less than 5% oxygen, thereby creating "inert gas". This gas is
then delivered to cargo tanks to prevent explosion of flammable cargo.
This generator is sometimes confused with flue gas systems, which draw inert gas from the boiler
systems of the ship. Flue gas systems do not have a burner but only "clean" and measure the air before
delivering it to the cargo hold.
Inhibitors
The general name for a compound which, when added to the cargo has the effect of solving down or
stopping a chemical change, i.e. polymerization, oxidation, corrosion.
Iso- A prefix indicating a similarity.
A class of organic compounds produced by oxidation of secondary alcohols and characterized by the
carbonyl group (CO), e.g. acetone, methyl ethyl ketone.
MARPOL
Marine Pollution. The name by which the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
ships 1973 is referred to.
Liquid carry over
This occurs when vapour moves swiftly over the surface of a liquid and droplets of liquid become entrained
with the vapour and are carried over with it.
It is the entrained droplets of lubricating oil that are recovered in the lubricating oil separator trap of the
compressor, and entrained liquid droplets which cause wet suction on a compressor.
Mineral acids
The inorganic acids, the commonest of which are hydrochloric nitric and sulphuric.
Mole
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This is the quantity of gas the weight of which is equal to its molecular weight in pounds or grammes.
Thus a mole of hydrogen would be 2, a mole of oxygen 32 etc. This is fairly closely related to Avogadro's
Hypothesis, a mole having the same volume for all products at the same pressure and temperature.
n- A prefix indicating “normal”, usually a straight chain.
Odour
An unusual smell is an indication of cargo contamination and should be reported when it is noticed upon
loading. For normally odour-free products such as glycol, odour may be a severe contamination in itself.
Oxidation
The combining of a substance with oxygen
pH
The experimental determination of pH offers valuable information as to the immediate acidity. The pH
value of a neutral solution, such as pure water, is 7. Acidous solutions have a pH lower than 7 and alkaline
solutions higher than 7 (max 14). “p” stands for the power – in the animal oils require the determination
of pH value which indicates the free fatty acid content. This, in turn, is a measure of the oil or the
degradation of the oil during transport.
Plasticizer
A substance which is added to a plastic to soften, increase toughness or otherwise modify the properties
of the binder, e.g. camphor, tricresyl phosphate.
Poisoning
Definitions and classifications of poisons are not uniform throughout the world. The IMO code classifies a
substance as a poison if there is a risk of death or serious bodily harm after oral intake, inhalation or skin
contact. The strength of the poison is expressed in terms of lethal doses (see Toxicity limits). The two
main types of poisoning are acute (a single contact with a high dose or strong concentration) or chronic
(small doses or low concentrations over a long period of time). After absorption by the body the poison
may affect certain organs, tissues, eyes, skin or mucous membranes. In recent years the carcinogenic
properties of some industrial chemicals have been noticed. This has led to significant reductions of hetero-
accepted Threshold Limit Values in some countries. IMO has published “Medical First Aid Guide for Use in
Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods” which lists recommended medicines for the ship’s medicine chest
and gives practical advice dealing with various types of poisoning.
Polymerization
The combining of the molecules of a substance producing a new compound, consisting of repeated
structural units. Polymerization is an undesired process in the storage and transport of chemicals. It is
accelerated by the presence of heat, light, some acids and sometimes rust or other compounds.
Ppm
Parts per million, i.e. as a vapour concentration cm 3 gas or vapor per m3 air or straight forward liquid
concentration, at 760 mm barometric pressure and +25 .c.
Pressure
Absolute Pressure: This is the pressure above a vacuum. Thus a pressure of 7 p.s.i. absolute, is really a
suction pressure of 7.7 p.s.i. at atmospheric pressure (atmospheric pressure equals 14.7 p.s.i.).
Gauge Pressure: This is the pressure above one atmosphere and is the usual method of measuring
pressures and vacuums. Absolute pressure is therefore equal to gauge pressure plus one atmosphere.
Atmospheric Pressure: This is the pressure exerted at sea level. This pressure varies from place to place
and from time to time. The standard atmospheric pressure is 1012.5 millibars, corresponding to 29.90
inches or 760 millimetres of mercury.
Pyrophoric metals
Many metals when produced in a porous condition by reduction at low temperatures are in a state of
considerable activity and are often spontaneously inflammable. On heating these metals the activity
decreases.
Saturated Vapour Pressure (S.V.P.)
All liquids tend to evaporate under normal conditions, but if kept in a closed container, evaporation will
only take place until the atmosphere in the container becomes saturated. In the case of water, the
following experiment can be carried out. Into the top of a barometer some water is introduced. Due to the
evaporation of the water that has been introduced, the level of the mercury will fall. If sufficient water is
introduced, the level will virtually stop falling because the space above the mercury will be saturated with
water vapour, and a little water will show on top of the mercury. The fall in the mercury level converted
into pressure would indicate the absolute S.V.P. at that temperature. By rising the temperature, more
water will evaporate and the level of the mercury fall further. The new level, converted into pressure, will
indicate the new S.V.P. at the new temperature. At 100oC, the level of the barometer will register zero.
The absolute vapour pressure of water at 100oC. is therefore one atmosphere (1.0125 bar). It therefore
follows that under atmospheric conditions, a liquid will, apart from minor evaporation, keep its state until
with the addition of heat, and its absolute S.V.P. reaches one atmosphere. From then on, all the extra
heat will be used to assist evaporation and the temperature will not rise. In other words, the liquid boils. If
the boiling action takes place in a closed container, e.g., a boiler, as the temperature rises, so the
pressure increases. That is, the boiling temperature of the water rises as the pressure increases. The
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pressure in the boiler is an indication of the water temperature and vice versa.
If a thermometer and pressure gauge were fitted to a container holding, say, propane, the temperature
and pressure would be directly related to each other, the pressure rising as the temperature rose and vice
versa.
A sudden release of pressure would result in continuous evaporation, this using up latent heat so cooling
the liquid until the temperature of the liquid reached that appropriate to the S.V.P. of the product at the
new pressure. This means that if warm propane escaped onto the deck, it would immediately evaporate
and refrigerate itself down to approximately –43oC.
Supersaturated Vapour: If the vapour pressure in a container is rapidly increased, condensation will take
place, but until the process of condensation has been completed, the vapour will be supersaturated.
SOLAS
Safety of Life at Sea. The 1960 convention was superseded by the 1974 convention in May, 1980.
Solvent
The name given to products in the chemical industry which are used for dissolving other substances, e.g.
acetone, alcohols, glycols, benzene, naphtha, carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulphide, turpentine,
cyclohexanol, toluene, xylene.
Span Gas
This is a laboratory-measured mixture of gases used for the purpose of calibrating gas detectors. In gas
tankers, the mixture is usually 30 per cent. L.E.L. of the product mixed with pure nitrogen.
Specific gravity
The ratio of the weight of a certain volume of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of water at a
standard temperature, usually 60 .c. for liquids of limited solubility, the specific gravity will predict whether
the product will sink or float on water.
Stratification
This is the layering effect of two gases or vapours with dissimilar densities, the lighter vapour floating
above the heavier.
Superheated Vapour
In the absence of liquid to continue the evaporating process and so keep the vapour saturated, the vapour
temperature can be raised to well above the temperature corresponding to that at which the vapour would
be saturated at the pressure concerned. Any superheated vapour would have no tendency to condense.
This property is used particularly with steam. The saturated steam coming from the boilers is heated
further in the superheater to prevent condensation taking place in the engine.
TEMPERATURE
Absolute Temperature: As a result of studying Charles's Law, it seemed that the volume of a gas would
reduce to nothing at about -273oC. (or absolute zero). (Physicists have never been able to reach this
temperature.) It therefore follows that absolute temperature equals temperature + 273oC.
Adiabatic Changes in Temperature: When a gas (or vapour) is compressed, its temperature rises. When it
expands, its temperature falls. This is the adiabatic process and compression ignition (diesel) engines rely
upon this property for their operation.
Critical Temperature: This is the temperature above which it is not possible to liquefy a gas. Saturated
vapour pressure rises with an increase in temperature. At the same time, the density of a liquid falls with
an increase in its temperature. Therefore, there must come a time when so many atmospheres of
pressure are required to liquefy the vapour that the density of the compressed vapour and the liquid are
the same. When this state is achieved, there is virtually no difference between the liquid and vapour
phases and they freely change into each other. The value of latent heat is reduced to zero and with any
increase in temperature, no amount of increasing the pressure will bring about liquefaction, and the
vapour is then described as a gas. Associated with the critical temperature is the critical pressure.
TLV
Threshold Limit Value. Highest concentration of dust, mist or vapour believed to be harmless and
unobjectionable to most humans when they are continuously exposed for an eight-hour day, five days a
week over a long period of time. Expressed in parts per million (ppm). Previously called Maximum
Allowable Concentration(MAC).
Toxicity Limits
Toxicity limits (TLM) for chemical cargoes or their vapours are given in terms of lethal doses or
concentrations. LD 50 oral is a dose, expressed in mg\kg body weight, which is lethal to 50% of the test
subjects when administered orally. Tests are carried out on various forms of marine life in confined
conditions, such as a small bowl, over a period of 96 hours. LD 50 Skin is a dose which is lethal to 50% of
the test subjects when administered to the skin. LC 50 is a concentration which is lethal by inhalation to
50% of the test subjects. Deprivation of oxygen is a form of toxicity.
Undersaturated Vapour:
This is super-saturation in reverse.
Vaporisation
This is the action of converting a liquid into a vapour.
Batch Vaporisation: This is the method of evaporation whereby vapour is withdrawn from the top of a
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tank, causing the liquid in the tank to boil, with a consequent drop in temperature. With a mixture of
products such as butane and propane, the more volatile element tends to evaporate first, so that the
proportions comprising the mixture will change and after a time one is left with almost pure butane. This
process of altering a mixture in a tank due to the volatile constituent evaporating first is called
"weathering". However, batch vaporisation is the simplest method and because, in L.P.G. tankers, the
vapour which has been withdrawn is condensed into a liquid and returned to the tank, there is no
tendency to alter the constituents of the mixture, so this is used as a method of refrigeration.
Flash Vaporisation: This is the method whereby liquid is withdrawn from the bottom of the tank and
evaporated in a vaporising unit. In this method, the constituents of a mixture remain fairly constant, as
does the temperature of the product in the tank.
Vapour
This is the term used for a "gas" below its critical temperature and therefore capable of being liquefied.
Vapour density
The relative density or the ratio of the weight of a vapour or gas (with no air present) to the weight of an
equal volume of air at the same pressure and temperature. Values less than 1 indicate that the vapour or
gas is lighter than air, while values greater than 1 show that the gas is heavier than air.
Vapour pressure
The equilibrium pressure of the saturated vapour above the liquid expressed in kp\cm2 at a specified
temperature. When the vapour pressure of a liquid exceeds that of the confining atmosphere, the liquid is
said to be boiling.
Vapour Return line
This is a balancing pipeline between the ship when loading (or discharging) and the shore tank, so that
the vapour trapped in the space above the incoming liquid, and therefore being compressed, is returned to
the shore tank from which the product is being discharged.
Vegetable oil
Any oil of plant origin. Usually the volatile (essential) oils are not included in this classification which is
primarily intended to designate the fixed oils (i.e. glycerol esters of various fatty acids).
Viscosity
A measure of the internal friction or the power in resisting a change in the molecular structure of a
substance. Viscosity is important as regards the pump ability of a product. Centrifugal and deep well
pumps are acceptable for the majority of chemical cargoes but high-viscosity products such as molasses
require screw pumps.
Volatility
Liquids which evaporate readily are known as volatile liquids. Any petroleum with a flash point below 60 .c
is classed as volatile.
Wet Suction
This occurs when liquid droplets are carried over into the compressor suction, and get sucked into the
compressor. It can only take place if the vapour at the compressor suction is at or near saturation.
On the compression stroke, the adiabatic increase in temperature is used up evaporating the liquid
droplets which have been sucked into the cylinder, resulting in a dramatic drop in the discharge
temperature. The temperature of the cylinder head falls and in extreme cases can become covered with
ice.
Wet suction frequently causes damage to the compressor suction and discharge valves, and in extreme
cases, where too much unevaporated liquid collects in the cylinder, can cause the cylinder head to be
shattered.
Zero Gas
This is pure nitrogen used to calibrate the zero reading of gas detectors.
1.5 RULES AND REGULATIONS
The most important of the rules covering Oil tankers are:
 International rules and regulations
 National rules and regulations
 Classification society rules
Sea transport of oil is internationally regulated
 As regards safety and pollution aspects
 Through conventions adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
The Convention requirements are supplemented by recommendation, specifications and codes, adopted by
IMO.
IMO conventions covering the carriage of Oil in bulk are-
 The International Convention of Safety of Life at sea (SOLAS), 1974, as amended, Chapter VII.
 The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the 1978
Protocol (MARPOL 73\78), as amended, Annex I.
The most important of the rules covering chemical tankers are:
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Sea transport of liquid chemicals in bulk is internationally regulated
IMO.
IMO conventions covering the carriage of chemicals in bulk are-
 The International Convention of Safety of Life at sea (SOLAS), 1974, amended, Chapter VII.
 The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the 1978
Protocol (MARPOL 73\78), as amended, Annex II.
The most important codes & standards covering the transport of chemicals are-
 The Bulk Chemical Codes (BCH and IBC Codes)
 Standards for Procedures and Arrangements (P & A Standards)
The most important of the rules covering Gas tankers are:
Sea transport of liquid gases in bulk is internationally regulated
IMO.
IMO conventions covering the carriage of liquefied gases in bulk are-
 The International Convention of Safety of Life at sea (SOLAS), 1974, amended, Chapter VII.
The most important codes & standards covering the transport of Liquefied Gases are-
 The International Gas carrier Codes (IGC Codes)
2 CHARACTERSTICS OF CARGO
Cargoes in tankers may be divided into six groups as follows:
 Petroleum (Crude and other products)
 Petrochemical
 Alcohols & Carbohydrates
 Vegetable & Animal oils & Fats
 Inorganic Chemicals
 Liquefied Gas
Crude oils are mixtures of many different substances, often difficult to separate, from which various
petroleum products are derived, such as: gasoline, kerosene propane, fuel oil, lubricating oil, wax, and
asphalt. These substances are mainly compounds of only two elements: carbon (C) and hydrogen (H).
They are called, therefore: hydrocarbons.
Refining crude oil involves two kinds of processes to produce the products so essential to modern society.
First, there are physical processes which simply refine the crude oil (without altering its molecular
structure) into useful products such as lubricating oil or fuel oil. Second, there are chemical or other
processes which alter the molecular structure and produce a wide range of products, some of them known
by the general term petrochemicals.
Liquefied petroleum gas is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating appliances
and vehicles. It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant,
replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. Varieties of LPG bought
and sold include mixes that are primarily propane, mixes that are primarily butane, and - most common -
mixes including both propane C3H8 and butane C4H10, depending on the season — in winter more propane,
in summer more butane. Propylene and butylenes are usually also present in small concentration. A
powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected easily. The international standard
is EN 589. In the United States, thiophene or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants.
LPG is a low-carbon-emitting hydrocarbon fuel available in rural areas, emitting 81% of
the CO2 per kWh produced by oil, 70% of that of coal, and less than 50% of that emitted by coal-
generated electricity distributed via the grid. Being a mix of propane and butane, LPG emits less carbon
per joule than butane but more carbon per joule than propane. As a low-carbon, low-polluting fossil fuel,
LPG is recognised by governments around the world for the contribution it can make towards improved
indoor and outdoor air quality and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. LPG is widely available and can be
used for hundreds of commercial and domestic applications. LPG is also used alongside renewable
technologies, as well as with decentralized electricity generation (Combined heat and power systems —
See Uses - Rural heating) to help reduce carbon emissions on a local level.
LPG is synthesised by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is usually derived from fossil
fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of crude oil, or extracted from oil or gas streams as
they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first
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commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of the energy consumed, and
burns cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions, posing no ground or water pollution hazards.
LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel-oil and
43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline). However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/l is
lower than either that of petrol or fuel-oil
Petrochemicals are organic products derived wholly or partly from crude oil, natural gas or coal. Early
production of petrochemicals depended mainly on coal. The first chemical manufacturing plants using
crude oil as feedstock developed with the first oil refineries in the United States in the 1920s. a large
majority of the products shipped in chemical tankers are petrochemicals. Petrochemicals constitute the
feedstock for plastics, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibres, agricultural chemicals and detergents. The main
source of petrochemicals is formed by the light gaseous hydrocarbons obtained from crude oil processing
in refineries and from natural gas.
The basic petrochemicals are ethylene propylene and butadiene.
Petrochemicals may be divided into three groups:
 Solvents
 Aromatics
 Intermediates or Refined products
The chief uses of solvents derived from petrochemicals processes are in the coatings field (paints,
varnishes and lacquers) industrial cleaners, printing inks & pharmaceuticals. Toluene is a common solvent.
Aromatics derived their name from the fact that substances of this substances of this group have a strong
and not unpleasant odour characteristic. These compounds are rather highly reactive & chemically
versatile. Benzene is a typical member of this group.
Intermediates may be considered as chemical stepping stones between the parent substance and the final
product. Vary often the distinction between an end-product and an intermediate is not well demarcated.
Alcohols and carbohydrates include products which may be produced by fermentation as:
 Liquor
 Wine
 Molasses
Alcohols can be obtained from petroleum derivation or by the fermentation of carbohydrates. Methanol is
the most common alcohol carried as cargo in chemical tankers.
Vegetable & animal fats are products derived from seeds of plants and fat of animals and fish. Soya bean
oil, cottonseed oil, lard oil, beef & mutton tallow, whale oil, sardine oil, cod oil are example of vegetable
and animal fats.
Inorganic chemicals are products which are not of organic origin. Examples of such inorganic chemicals
are:
 Sulphuric acid
 Phosphoric acid
 Nitric acid
 Caustic soda
Most cargoes in chemical tankers belong to the group “petrochemicals”. This term originally meant that
the chemical product was a petroleum derivative. However, today the term denotes all chemicals
produced from crude oil or coal tar.
Very often chemical tankers may carry petroleum products such as those carried on oil tankers.
Examples of cargo names (and synonyms) from the long list of liquid products transported in
chemical tankers
Phenol
Sodium hydroxide solution (caustic soda)
Acrylonitrile
Methyl alcohol (methanol)
Acetic acid
Sulphuric acid
Toluene di-isocyanate (TDI)
Nitric acid
Palm oil
Ethylene glycol
Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)
Carbon tetrachloride (CTC)
Ethylene dichloride (EDC)
Furfural
Acetone
Toluene
Benzene
Xylene
2.1 BASIC PHYSICS
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Oil physics – aggregate conditions
History
Back in the antiquity, about 2500 years ago, oil was mentioned in scripts from Asia. The scriptures
describe hot springs and that oil lamps were known and in use. However, centuries went by before the oil
was in common use. As a matter of fact danger of fire was one reason which prevented utilisation of oil. In
USA, which today is rich in oil sources, did not take the oils in common use until the midst of the last
century. At first the oils were used in medical treatment then to heal such as rheumatism and pneumonia.
The first well was drilled in USA in 1859 and supplied 1500 litres oil every 24 hours. The oil consumption
and development increased dramatically from this time on. John D. Rockefeller founded the «Standard Oil
Company» in 1870. The Dutch « Royal Dutch Oil Company» was founded in 1890. In 1909, the English
founded «Anglo-Iranian Oil Company». This development has continued up to this day where these
companies operate around the world. The need for oil increased at the same speed as the oil discoveries
increased. At the same time, knowledge about oil’s nature, physics and chemistry improved.
The Oil Transportation
As a start, the oil was transported in barrels by ordinary liners. The oil tankers today were first used at the
end of the last century. These tankers have since then changed dramatically through a radical process up
to today’s technically advanced tankers. Due to the world’s oil demand, tank tonnage has increased
enormously, along with the average size of ships.
The personnel (crew) operating the ships provide a wide range of knowledge regarding ship operations
and its specific cargo. To be an educated and qualified “Ship Officer”, it is necessary to have a basic
theoretical knowledge and a lot of practical experience on board the ships. In this part of the
compendium, the oil’s physical properties are reviewed.
Physics is the learning of different substances and property forces and their energy form.
Chemistry is the learning of the substance’s composition and the substantial or permanent changes these
substances may under go.
The theory about atoms and molecules understands that substances are able to divide into smaller parts,
atoms and molecules.
Aggregate States
Solid, fluid and gas form conditions must be seen in connection with the understanding of molecule forces.
An example:
When splitting a piece of wood the molecules separate along the split area. The force being used
corresponds with the force binding the molecules together. If you now wish to force the two pieces
together again, a certain power has to be used. The first power in use will be called the force of cohesion.
The second power in use will be called the force of expansion. Cohesion and expansion summed, is called
intermolecular force.
The cohesion is due to the fact that all substances (elements), including the smallest parts in a substance,
execute a mutual back sweep on each other. We therefore have the same nature as the force of gravity. It
decreases rapidly when the distance between the smallest parts increases.
The expansion is due to the fact that the molecules in all substances, both solid, fluid and gas forms
execute movements or vibrations and therefore fill-up an entire room.
Solid Substances
A solid substance has a fixed form and fixed volume. An iron bar is resists being lengthened or pressed
together. The molecules in the iron bar will try hard to keep a certain mutual distance to each other. The
iron bar is resistant to rubbing and bending. In solid substances the molecules have fixed places according
to each other, and the same applies to the substance’s volume and form. This is because the cohesion and
expansive force is very large.
Fluids
Fluids have a fixed volume, but do not have any fixed form. To squeeze water in a cylinder with tight-
fitting piston is hard without using large power. Similar to the molecules in solid substances, the molecules
in a liquid substance have a certain mutual distance between each other. The liquid molecules on the
other hand have no fixed positions according to each other. Liquid will always be shaped based on where
the liquid is stored. The cohesion force in liquids is not powerful enough to prevent the molecules from
moving freely according to each other. However, the force is still strong enough to maintain the distance
between each of the fixed molecules. The expansion force is equal as in solid substances.
Gases
Gases have no fixed volume or fixed form. A gas will always try to fill as great a volume as possible, and
will therefore fill the room, the tank and so on, where the gas is stored. The cohesion force in gas is too
small to prevent the molecules from changing both the distance and the position in accordance with each
other. The expansion force gets free scope and the gas expansion is total and unlimited. By exposing gas
to forces greater than the expansive force itself, the gas will be compressed.
Phase changes
Any substance can be transformed from one condition to another, by means of temperature changes or
varying temperatures and pressure. Ice, water and water vapour are the same substance in different
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forms. The transformation between cohesion and expansion with water molecules goes through these
three phases - solid substances, liquids and gases.
Melting
When a solid, pure crystal substance is continuously supplied with heat, the substance will melt. For
example:
1 kg of ice with a temperature of -20oC exposed to heat (the pressure is 1 atm). A thermometer placed in
the ice will show a rise in temperature up to 0 oC, which is melting point of the ice. The heat supplied after
the melting point is achieved will have no effect to any temperature rising, as long as the ice is present.
During the melting, the temperature is invariable, and the heat supplied during the melting process is
consumed in melting the ice. When all the ice is melted, the temperature in the water will rise. So, the
amount of heat supplied to 1 kg of the solid substance, in order to reach the melting point where the
change from solid to liquid form occurs, is called the “melting heat”.
The heat needed to transform a solid substance at a given temperature, into a liquid substance with the
same temperature, is called the “specific melting heat”. The unit for specific melting heat is Joule/kg.
The heat necessary to evaporate one kilo of a certain liquid substance is called “specific melting heat”,
abbreviated “r”. The unit for specific evaporation heat is J/k.
Enthalpy
A substance’s total energy consists of the external energy (work) plus the internal energy. Enthalpy is an
expression for a substance’s internal energy abbreviated “h”. This enthalpy is an expression of how much
energy is tied up in one kilo of the substance. The unit for enthalpy is Joule/kg. The comparison of
enthalpy to temperature change of gradients shows how much energy is needed to be supplied to bring
ice through the three different stages.
Evaporation
A liquid change to gas is called evaporation. This may happen by evaporation or boiling. To achieve
evaporation, heat of evaporation is needed. Some liquids evaporate very quickly, such as gasoline and
ether. Other liquid substances evaporate very slowly, such as in crude oil. Evaporation is vapour formed
out of the liquid surface and occurs at all temperatures.
This is explained by some of the liquid’s surface molecules being sent into the air, which is strongest at
high temperatures, dry air and fresh wind. The specific temperature calls the amount of heat needed for
one kilo of liquid with fixed temperature to form into one kilo of steam with the same temperature”. The
heat from evaporation is set free when the steam forms to liquid again, or condenses.
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The heat necessary to evaporate one kilo of a certain liquid is called “specific heat of evaporation”,
abbreviated as (r). The unit for specific heat of evaporation is J/kg.
Boiling
Boiling is steam formed internally in the liquid. The boiling occurs at a certain temperature, called “the
boiling point”. Water is heated in normal atmospheric pressure (1 atm), in an open container. In common,
some parts of air are always dissolved. The rise in temperature is read from a thermometer placed in the
liquid’s surface. When the temperature has reached 100 oC, steam bubbles will form inside the liquid
substance, especially in the bottom of the container. With continuous heat supply, the bubbling will rise
like a stream towards the surface and further up into the air. The water is boiling.
The formation of bubbling steam can be explained as follows:
During the heating, the water molecule’s kinetic energy increases, consequently the molecules deman d
more space. During the boiling, as long as there is water in the container, the temperature will be 100 oC.
The boiling point is dependent upon the pressure. If the steam or the atmospheric pressure increases
above liquid substance, the boiling point will also rise. If the surface temperature is just below the boiling
temperature, then the water steam will evaporate on the surface. The evaporation point and the boiling
point will be the same accordingly.
The pressure from the surrounding liquid is the total amount of pressure above the liquid, Pa, plus the
static liquid pressure.
P = Pa + ( x g x h )
P = pressure in Pascal (100 000 Pa + 1 bar)
Pa = barometer pressure
 = the liquid density in kg/m 3

g = force of gravity acceleration (9,81m/s 2)
h = liquid column in meter.
When reducing the pressure above the liquid, the boiling point will also be reduced. A practical use of this
characteristic is the production of fresh water on board (fresh water generator).
Condensation
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. If a gas is to be changed to liquid at the same temperature,
we must remove the heat of evaporation from the gas. A gas can be condensed at all temperatures below
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the critical temperature. By cooling a gas, the molecule speed decreases hence the kinetic speed. The
internal energy decreases, as well as, the molecule units and liquid forms.
Distillation
Distillation is a transferring of liquid to vapour, hence the following condensing of vapour to liquid.
Substances, which were dissolved in the liquid, will remain as solid substance. With distillation it is
possible to separate what has been dissolved from the substance which was being dissolved. When a
mixture of two liquids with different boiling point is heated, will the most volatile liquid evaporate first
while the remaining becomes richer on the less volatile? On board, for instance, seawater is distillated by
use of an evaporator.
Saturated, Unsaturated or Superheated Steam
Let us imagine boiling water, releasing vapour from a container, leading the steam into a cylinder that is
equipped with a tightening piston, a manometer and two valves. The steam flows through the cylinder and
passes the valves, whereon the valves are closing. There now is a limited and fixed volume of steam in
the cylinder. Around this cylinder a heating element is fitted. Vapour from the container is constantly sent
through this heating element to ensure that the temperature is maintained constant.
The piston is pressed inwards, and now the manometer should show a rise in pressure. But, the
manometer shows an unchanged pressure regardless how much the volume is reduced. What’s happening
is, the further the piston is pressed inwards, some parts of the steam is condensed more using less
volume. The vapour from the heating element removes the condensed heat, which is liberated during the
condensation process.
We find that the amount of steam, which is possible to contain per volume unit, remains constant when
the steam’s temperature is equal to the condensation point at the set pressure. The room cannot absorb
more vapour, it is saturated with steam and called “saturated”. If the piston is pressed outwards, the
pressure will still show constant. The conclusion is:
 With temperature equal to the condensation point by set pressure, steam is saturated.
 Steam above boiling water is saturated.
 Saturated steam with a set temperature has a set pressure. This is called saturation pressure.
 With constant temperature saturated steam cannot be compressed.
This also concerns vapour as saturated steam of other gases. Using the same cylinder arrangement as
before.
The cylinder contains saturated steam, no water. The piston is drawn outward. When no water exists over
the piston no new steam will be supplied underneath. The manometer will now show reduced (falling)
pressure as the steam expands. When saturated steam expands without supplying new steam, it is called
unsaturated steam. The room has capacity to collect more steam.
Unsaturated steam contains lower pressure than saturated steam at the same temperature. The
unsaturated steam in the cylinder can be made saturated again in two ways. Either by pushing the piston
inward to the originated position, or let the unsaturated steam be sufficiently cooled down. When the
temperature is reduced, the saturation pressure will reduce. Unsaturated steam will, in other words, have
a too high temperature to be saturated with the temperature it originally had. Therefore, this often is
referred to as superheated steam.
The gas laws
The gas laws are laws that describe the basic facts for ideal gases. Many actual gases under pressure and
temperature that we normally get in touch with can not observe as ideal gases. Calculations based one-
sided of the gas laws, will therefore necessarily often depart from reality.
The gas laws are meanwhile important by that the laws establish simple and clear connections by the
condition changes of the gases.
The Boyles law
Boyles law, of Mariottes law establish that when the gas quantity is confined and the volume varies under
constant pressure, the pressure will vary so that the product of pressure and volume is constant. The law
can also express as:
p x V = constant .One illustrate the law a by thinking a cylinder filled with gas. A well-adjusted piston
closes the gas inside the cylinder.
The pressure in the gas is p, by a volume V, before changing. If the piston is removed so that the volume
alters to V, the pressure p after volume change is:
p1 x V 1= p2 x V2
p2 = (p1 x V1) / V2
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A change of state in the gas where the temperature is constant is called an isotherm alteration.
The Boyles law agrees to good approach for air and hydrogen up to about 100 pressures of the
atmosphere. For other gases as carbon dioxide, the law is only for lower pressure.
If the pressure is 1 bar and the volume 1 litre before alteration, after reducing the volume to half, the
pressure will be:
p2 = (p1 x V1) / V2= (1 x 1) / 0,5 = 2 bar
Gay-Lussacs laws
Gay-Lussacs 1.law establish that the gas volume varies proportionally in condition to the absolute
temperature of the gas when the pressure is constant. The law can also express as:
V1 / T1 = constant
The law can illustrate by thinking a cylinder filled with gas. A good adjusted piston that moves free shuts
the gas inside the cylinder.
The pressure in the gas is constant and determined by the weight of the piston. If you heat the gas so
that the temperature alters from T1 to T2, the volume alters from V1 to V2. The new volume is:
V1 /T1 = V2 /T2
V2 = (V1 x T2) / T1
An alteration of state in the gas under constant pressure is called an isobar change.
Gay-Lussacs 2.law establish that the pressure of a gas quantity is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas when the volume is constant. The law can also express as:
p1 / T1 = constant
One can illustrate the law by thinking a cylinder filled with water. The piston is locked so that the volume
stays the same.
If you heat the gas so that the temperature is altered from T1 to T2, the pressure will alter from p1 to p2.
The new pressure after heating will be:
p1 /T1 = p2 /T2
p2 = (p1 x T2) / T1
A state of proportion in the gas with unaltered volume is called an isochor alteration.
The absolute zero point.
Gay-Lussacs experiment is used to decide the absolute zero point. If you heat a small glass tube in water
where a small mercury droplet fences an air column, the state between the air volume and the
temperature is plotted in a diagram when the temperature changes.
When the temperature rises, the volume increases. The read off values for temperature and volume is
close to a straight line. The differences are so small that they are inside the accuracy. The line that
emerges shows how the volume varies with the temperature under constant pressure. The pressure will at
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all times during the experiment be the total amount of the atmospheric pressure and the weight of the
mercury droplet.
The Avogadros law
The Avogadros law says that equal volumes of two gases with the same pressure and temperature
contains the same amount of molecules.
A conclusion of this statement is that the state between two gases density (p) at the same pressure and
temperature, has to be equal to the state between the masses of the individual molecules in the gases or
the state between the relative molecule masses (M).
□1/□2 = M1/M2
The Dalton Law
The Dalton law say that the total pressure in a gas mixture is equal to the total amount of the partial
pressures (part-pressure), that each of the gases will alone in a room with the same temperature as
the mixture. The law expresses as:
ptotal = p1 + p2 + ............. pn
The Dalton law is logical. Every gas fills all the volume, independent of other gas molecules that are
present. The molecules itself obtains itself an utmost small part of the volume. Therefore every gas will
have a pressure that responds to this.
One can also see the restriction of the law from this explanation. It has no longer any existence when the
pressure is so large that the molecules occupy a perceptible part of the volume. It has also no accuracy
when the gas molecules has influence on one another, and also not if the gases has a chemical reaction
against one another.
The Joules law
The law of Joules say that the inner energy in a precise amount of ideal gas only depend of its
temperature and is independent of the volume. If pressure and volume is changed in a process, the inner
energy will remain constant if the temperature is constant.
According to the kinetic gas theory, the inner energy in an ideal gas is equal the complete kinetic energy
that the molecules have because of its disordered movement. This can express, as the inner energy in a
precise amount of ideal gas is proportional with the absolute temperature. A conclusion of this statement
is if an ideal gas expand (gets a larger room), the temperature and with that the inner energy will remain
unchanged after expansion.
Indirectly, the law is demonstrated by experiments with actual gases. These experiments indicate that the
inner energy of an actual gas is dependent of the gas volume, but this dependence decreases the more
the gas approach to become an ideal gas. In an actual gas the force of attraction works between the
molecules. The force of attraction between the molecules by usual pressure is small, but is not equal zero.
It is therefore necessary to perform work to increase the distance between the molecules and expand the
gas volume. If the expansion is adiabatic, that is without heat exchange between the surroundings. This
work can only be because in expense of the molecule kinetic energy and the temperature of the gas sink.
Joules-Thompson effect
The Joules-Thompson effect describes the divergence from the Joules law of an actual gas. According to
Joules law, the temperature will not change if a gas expand freely without working.
Practical the temperature will fall freely for most gases of hydrogen and helium that is heated during
expansion. When air expand from about 50 bar to the atmospheric pressure, this is cooled with about
13K. It is the result of this effect one can observe or feel when air or another gas is let out from an air
bottle and the delivery valve (expansion valve) is noticeable colder.
Cooling plants that are used on board expand the vaporisation of the gas. The Joules-Thompson effect in
such plants is insignificance and therefor not calculated with.
Diffusion
Bromic gas that has a brown colour is well suited to demonstrate diffusion between gases. If you fill a
glass with bromic gas and a glass filled only with air on top, one can after a while se that the content in
both glasses is gradually brown-coloured. Diffusion has taken place. In despite of that bromic gas has five
times as large density as air diffuses that gas up in the top glass with air.
All gases can mix at diffusion. As the molecules in the gases are accidental and unorganised, a precise gas
molecule will over time come any where in the room that is available (according to the kinetic gas theory).
From the kinetic gas theory it is natural to draw the conclusion that the diffusion velocity is faster the
larger velocity the molecules have. At experimental experiments the Englishman Graham reached
following connections:
The diffusion velocity for a gas is converted with the square root of the density of the gas and directly
proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature.
These can mathematical express as:
v1/v2 = □2/□1
As equal volume of two gases contain, at the same pressure and temperature, that same amount of
molecules (Avogadros law), the state between the density of the gases (p) and the masses of the
individual molecules and the relative molecule masses (M) be:
□1/□2 = M1/M2
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From above mentioned two expressions, gases diffusion velocity can express as:
v1/v2 = M2/M1
This formula can be used to find how fast gases diffuse in proportion to one another. When the molecule
mass to nitrogen is 28 and the molecule mass to hydrogen er 2, we find the relative diffusion velocity for
nitrogen to:
v1/v2 = M2/M1 = 32/2 = 4
that shows that hydrogen diffuse 4 times faster than nitrogen.
2.2 BASIC CHEMISTRY
Chemical nomenclature
Chemical nomenclature is the term given to the naming of compounds. Chemists use specific rules and
"conventions" to name different compounds. This section is designed to help you review some of those
rules and conventions.
Oxidation and Reduction
When forming compounds, it is important to know something about the way atoms will react with each
other. One of the most important manners in which atoms and/or molecules react with each other is the
oxidation/reduction reaction. Oxidation/Reduction reactions are the processes of losing and gaining
electrons respectively. Just remember, "LEO the lion
says GER:" Lose Electrons Oxidation, Gain Electrons Reduction. Oxidation numbers are assigned to atoms
and compounds as a way to tell scientists where the electrons are in a reaction. It is often referred to as
the "charge" on the atom or compound. The oxidation number is assigned according to a standard set of
rules. They are as follows:
 An atom of a pure element has an oxidation number of zero.
 For single atoms in an ion, their oxidation number is equal to their charge.
 Fluorine is always -1 in compounds.
 Cl, Br, and I are always -1 in compounds except when they are combined with O or F.
 H is normally +1 and O is normally -2.
 The oxidation number of a compound is equal to the sum of the oxidation numbers for each atom in
the compound.
FORMING IONIC COMPOUNDS
Knowing the oxidation number of a compound is very important when discussing ionic compounds. Ionic
compounds are combinations of positive and negative ions. They are generally formed when nonmetals
and metals bond. To determine which substance is formed, we must use the charges of the ions involved.
To make a neutral molecule, the positive charge of the cation (positively-charged ion) must equal the
negative charge of the anion (negatively-charged ion). In order to create a neutral charged molecule, you
must combine the atoms in certain proportions. Scientists use subscripts to identify how many of each
atom makes up the molecule. For example, when combining magnesium and nitrogen we know that the
magnesium ion has a "+2" charge and the nitrogen ion has a "-3" charge. To cancel these charges, we
must have three magnesium atoms for every two nitrogen atoms:
3Mg2+ + 2N3- --> Mg3N2
Knowledge of the charges of ions is crucial to knowing the formulas of the compounds formed.
 alkalis (1st column elements) form "+1" ions such as Na + and Li+
 alkaline earth metals (2nd column elements) form " 2+" ions such as Mg2+ and Ba2+
 halogens (7th column elements) form "-1" ions such as Cl- and I-
Other common ions are listed in the table below:
Positive ions (cations) Negative ions (anions)

1+ 1-
+
ammonium (NH4 ) acetate (C2H3O2-)
copper(I) (Cu+) azide (N3-)
Hydrogen (H+) chlorate (ClO3-)
silver (Ag+) cyanide (CN-)
dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-)
2+ hydride (H-)
-
Cadmium (Cd2+) bicarbonate (HCO3 )
cobalt(II) (Co2+) hydroxide (OH-)
copper(II) (Cu2+) nitrate (NO3-)
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nitrite (NO2 - )
iron (Fe2+)
lead (Pb2+) perchlorate (ClO4-)
manganese(II) (Mn 2+) permanganate (MnO4-)
mercury(I) (Hg22+) thiocyanate(SCN-)
mercury(II) (Hg2+)
nickel (Ni2+) 2-
tin (Sn2+) carbonate (CO32-)
chromate (CrO4 2-)
zinc (Zn2+)
dichromate (Cr2O72-)
3+ hydrogen phosphate (HPO42-)
Aluminium (Al3+) oxide (O2-)
2-
Chromium(III) (Cr3+) peroxide (O2 )
sulfate (SO4 2-)
iron(III) (Fe3+)
sulfide (S2-)
2-
sulfite (SO3 )
3-
nitride (N3-)
phosphate (PO43-)
phosphide (P3-)
NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

The outline below provides the rules for naming ionic compounds:
Positive Ions
1. Monatomic cations (a single atom with a positive charge) take the name of the element plus the
word "ion"
Examples:
o Na+ = sodium ion
o Zn+2 = zinc ion
2. If an element can form more than one (1) positive ion, the charge is indicated by the Roman
numeral in parentheses followed by the word "ion"
Examples:
o Fe2+ = iron(II) ion
o Fe3+ = iron (III) ion
Negative Ions
1. Monatomic anions (a single atom with a negative charge) change their ending to "-ide"
Examples:
o O2- = oxide ion
o Cl- = chloride ion
ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS
In naming ions, it is important to consider "isomers." Isomers are compounds with the same molecular
formula, but different arrangements of atoms. Thus, it is important to include some signal within the name
of the ion that identifies which arrangement you are talking about. There are three main types of
classification, geometric, optical and structural isomers.
Geometric isomers refers to which side of the ion atoms lie. The prefixes used to distinguish geometric
isomers are cis meaning substituents lie on the same side of the ion and trans meaning they lie on
opposite sides. Below is a diagram to help you remember.
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1. Optical isomers differ in the arrangement of four groups around a chiral carbon. These two
isomers are differentiated as L and D.
2. Structural isomers differentiate between the placement of two chlorine atoms around a
hexagonal carbon ring. These three isomers are identified as o, m, and p.Once again we have given
you a few clues to help your memory.
NAMING BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Molecular compounds are formed from the covalent bonding between non-metallic elements. The
nomenclature for these compounds is described in the following set of rules.
1. The more positive atom is written first (the atom which is the furthest to the left and to the bottom
of the periodic table)
2. The more negative second atom has an "-ide" ending.
3. Each prefix indicates the number of each atom present in the compound.
Number of Atoms Prefix Number of Atoms Prefix
1 mono 6 hexa
2 di 7 hepta
3 tri 8 octa
4 tetra 9 nona
5 penta 10 Deca
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NAMING INORGANIC ACIDS
1. Binary acids (H plus a nonmetal element) are acids that dissociate into hydrogen atoms and anions in
water. Acids that only release one hydrogen atom are known asmonoprotic. Those acids that release
more than one hydrogen atom are called polyproticacids. When naming these binary acids, you merely
add "hydro-" (denoting the presence of a hydrogen atom) to the beginning and "-ic acid" to the end of
the anion name.
Examples:
HCl = hydrochloric acid
HBr = hydrobromic acid
2. Ternary acids (also called oxoacids, are formed by hydrogen plus another element plus oxygen) are
based on the name of the anion. In this case, the -ate, and -itesuffixes for the anion are replaced
with -ic and -ous respectively. The new anion name is then followed by the word "acid." The chart
below depicts the changes in nomenclature.
Anion name Acid name
hypo ite hypo ous acid
ite ous acid
ate ic acid
per ate per ic acid
3. Example:
ClO4- to HClO4 => perchlorate to perchloric acid
ClO- to HClO => hypochlorite to hypochlorous acid
NAMING COMPOUNDS
A detailed treatise on naming organic compounds is beyond the scope of these materials, but some basics
are presented. The wise chemistry student should consider memorizing the prefixes of the first ten organic
compounds:
Number of Carbons Prefix
1 meth-
2 eth-
3 prop-
4 but-
5 pent-
6 hex-
7 hept-
8 oct-
9 non-
10 dec-
There are four basic types of organic hydrocarbons, those chemicals with only carbon and hydrogen:
1. Single bonds (alkane): suffix is "ane", formula CnH2n+2
2. Double bonds (alkene): suffix is "ene", formula CnH2n
3. Triple bonds (alkyne): suffix is "yne", formula CnH2n-2
4. Cyclic compounds: use prefix "cyclo"
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom is the smallest building block of matter. Atoms are made of neutrons, protons and electrons. The
nucleus of an atom is extremely small in comparison to the atom. If an atom was the size of the Houston
Astrodome, then its nucleus would be the size of a pea.
INTRODUCTION TO THE PERIODIC TABLE
Scientists use the Periodic Table in order to find out important information about various elements.
Created by Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907), the periodic table orders all known elements in accordance to
their similarities. When Mendeleev began grouping elements, he noticed the Law of Chemical
Periodicity. This law states, "the properties of the elements are periodic functions of atomic number." The
periodic table is a chart that categorizes elements by "groups" and "periods." All elements are ordered by
their atomic number. The atomic number is the number of protons per atom. In a neutral atom, the
number of electrons equals the number of protons. The periodic table represents neutral atoms. The
atomic number is typically located above the element symbol. Beneath the element symbol is the atomic
mass. Atomic mass is measured in Atomic Mass Units where 1 amu = (1/12) mass of carbon measured in
grams. The atomic mass number is equal to the number of protons plus neutrons, which provides the
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average weight of all isotopes of any given element. This number is typically found beneath the element
symbol. Atoms with the same atomic number, but different mass numbers are called isotopes. Below is a
diagram of a typical cells on the periodic table.
There are two main classifications in the periodic table, "groups" and "periods." Groups are the vertical
columns that include elements with similar chemical and physical properties. Periods are the horizontal
rows. Going from left to right on the periodic table, you will find metals, then metalloids, and finally
nonmetals. The 4th, 5th, and 6th periods are called the transition metals. These elements are all metals
and can be found pure in nature. They are known for their beauty and durability. The transition metals
include two periods known as the lanthanides and the actinides, which are located at the very bottom of
the periodic table. The chart below gives a brief description of each group in the periodic table.
 Known as Alkali Metals
Group  Very reactive
1A  Never found free in nature
 React readily with water
 Known as Alkaline earth elements
 All are metals
Group
 Occur only in compounds
2A
 React with oxygen in the general formula EO (where O is oxygen and E is
Group 2A element)
 Metalloids
Group
 Includes Aluminum (the most abundant metal in the earth)
3A
 Forms oxygen compounds with a X 2O3 formula
 Includes metals and nonmetals
Group
 Go from nonmetals at the top of the column to metals at the bottom
4A
 All oxygen form compounds with a XO 2 formula
Group  All elements form an oxygen or sulfur compound with E2O3 or
5A E2S3 formulas
Group  Includes oxygen, one of the most abundant elements.
6A  Generally, oxygen compound formulas within this group are EO2 and EO3
 Elements combine violently with alkali metals to form salts
Group
 Called halogens, which mean "salt forming"
7A
 Are all highly reactive
 Least reactive group
Group  All elements are gases
8A  Not very abundant on earth
 Given the name noble gas because they are not very reactive
CHARGES IN THE ATOM

The charges in the atom are crucial in understanding how the atom works. An electron has a negative
charge, a proton has a positive charge and a neutron has no charge. Electrons and protons have the same
magnitude of charge. Like charges repel, so protons repel one another as do electrons. Opposite charges
attract which causes the electrons to be attracted to the protons. As the electrons and protons grow
farther apart, the forces they exert on each other decrease.
DETERMINING ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
One of the skills you will need to learn to succeed in freshman chemistry is being able to determine the
electron configuration of an atom. An electron configuration is basically an account of how many electrons
there are, and in what orbitals they reside under "normal" conditions. For example, the element hydrogen
(H) has one electron. We know this because its atomic number is one (1), and the atomic number tells
you the number of electrons. Where does this electron go? The one electron of hydrogen goes into the
lowest energy state it possibly can, which means it will start at "level" one and goes into "s" orbitals first.
We say that hydrogen has a "[1s1]" electron configuration. Looking at the next element on the Periodic
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Table --helium, or He -- we see it has an atomic number of two, so two electrons. Since " s" orbitals can
hold up to two electrons, helium has an electron configuration of "[1s2]".
What about larger atoms? Let's look at carbon, with an atomic number of 6. Where do its 6 electrons go?
 First two: 1s2
 Next two: 2s2
 Last two: 2p2
We can therefore say that carbon has the electron configuration of "[1s 22s22p2]".
The table below shows the subshells, the number of orbitals, and the maximum number of electrons
allowed:
Maximum
Number of
Subshell Number
Orbitals
of Electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
WHAT IS A LEWIS DIAGRAM?

Lewis diagrams, also called electron-dot diagrams, are used to represent paired and unpaired valence
(outer shell) electrons in an atom. For example, the Lewis diagrams for hydrogen, helium, and carbon are
where the symbol represents the element (in this case, hydrogen, helium, and carbon) and the dots
represent the electrons in the outer shell (in this case, one, two, and four). These diagrams are based on
the electron structures learned in the Atomic Structure and Periodic Table chapters.
The Abridged (shortened) Periodic Table below shows the electron configurations of the elements.
WHAT IS A LEWIS STRUCTURE?

The Lewis structure is used to represent the covalent bonding of a molecule or ion. Covalent bonds are a
type of chemical bonding formed by the sharing of electrons in the valence shells of the atoms. Covalent
bonds are stronger than the electrostatic interactions of ionic bonds, but keep in mind that we are not
considering ionic compounds as we go through this chapter. Most bonding is not purely covalent, but is
polar covalent (unequal sharing) based on electro negativity differences.
The atoms in a Lewis structure tend to share electrons so that each atom has eight electrons (the octet
rule). The octet rule states that an atom in a molecule will be stable when there are eight electrons in its
outer shell (with the exception of hydrogen, in which the outer shell is satisfied with two electrons). Lewis
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structures display the electrons of the outer shells because these are the ones that participate in making
chemical bonds.
HOW TO BUILD A LEWIS STRUCTURE?
For simple molecules, the most effective way to get the correct Lewis structure is to write the Lewis
diagrams for all the atoms involved in the bonding and adding up the total number of valence electrons
that are available for bonding. For example, oxygen has 6 electrons in the outer shell, which are the
pattern of two lone pairs and two singles. If the electrons are not placed correctly, one could think that
oxygen has three lone pairs (which would not leave any unshared electrons to form chemical bonds). After
adding the four unshared electrons around element symbol, form electron pairs using the remaining two
outer shell electrons.
Incorrect Structure Correct Structure

are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The Lewis structure of each of these atoms would be as
follows:
One good example is the water molecule. Water has the chemical formula of H 2O, which means there
We can now see that we have eight valence electrons (six from oxygen and one from each hydrogen).
With few exceptions, hydrogen atoms are always placed on the outside of the molecule, and in this case
the central atom would be oxygen. Each of the two unpaired electrons of the oxygen atom will form a
bond with one of the unpaired electrons of the hydrogen atoms. The bonds formed by the shared electron
pairs can be represented by either two closely places dots between two element symbols or more
commonly by a straight line between element symbols:
2.3 Physical properties of oil carried in bulk

Petroleum-based oil describes a broad range of natural hydrocarbon-based substances and refined
petroleum products, each having a different chemical composition. As a result, each type of crude oil and
refined product has distinct physical properties that affect the way oil spreads and breaks down, the
hazard it may pose to marine and human life, and the likelihood that it will pose a threat to natural and
man-made resources. For example, light refined products, such as gasoline and kerosene, spread on
water surfaces and penetrate porous soils quickly. Fire and toxic hazards are high, but the products
evaporate quickly and leave little residue. Alternatively, heavier refined oil products may pose a lesser fire
and toxic hazard and do not spread on water as readily. Heavier oils are more persistent, however, and
may present a greater remediation challenge.
The rate at which an oil spill spreads will determine its effect on the environment. Most oils tend to spread
horizontally into a smooth and slippery surface, called a slick, on top of the water. Factors which affect
the ability of an oil spill to spread include surface
tension, specific gravity, and viscosity.
Surface tension is the measure of attraction between the surface molecules of a
liquid. The higher the oil's surface tension, the more likely a spill will remain in place. If the surface
tension of the oil is low, the oil will spread even without help from wind and water currents. Because
increased temperatures can reduce a liquid's surface tension, oil is more likely to spread in warmer waters
than in very cold waters.
Specific gravity is the density of a substance compared to the density of water.
Since most oils are lighter than water, they lie flat on top of it. However, the specific gravity of an oil spill
can increase if the lighter substances within the oil evaporate.
Viscosity is the measure of a liquid's resistance to flow. The higher the viscosity of
the oil, the greater the tendency for it to stay in one place.
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHEMICALS CARRIED IN BULK
RHEOLOGY
RHEOLOGY describes the deformation of a material under the influence of stresses. Materials in this
context can be solids, liquids or gases. When liquids are subjected to stress they will deform irreversibly
and flow. The measurement of this flow is the measurement of VISCOSITY. IDEAL liquids are very few,
whereas non-ideal examples abound. Ideal liquids are : water and pure paraffin oil. Non-ideal examples
would be toothpaste or cornflour mixed with a little water.
VISCOSITY
VISCOSITY is expressed in Pascal seconds (Pa.s) and to be correct the conditions used to measure the
VISCOSITY must be given. This is due to the fact that non-ideal liquids have different values of VISCOSITY
for different test conditions of SHEAR RATE, SHEAR STRESS and temperature.
A graph describing a liquid subjected to a SHEAR STRESS (y axis) at a particular SHEAR RATE (x axis) is
called a FLOW CURVE. The shape of this curve reveals the particular type of VISCOSITY for the liquid
being studied.
What is a NEWTONIAN LIQUID ?
NEWTONIAN LIQUIDS are those liquids which show a straight line drawn from the origin at 45 degrees,
when graphed in this way. Examples of NEWTONIAN liquids are mineral oil, water and molasses. (Isaac
NEWTON first described the laws of viscosity) All the other types are NON NEWTONIAN.
What does NON NEWTONIAN mean ?
a. PSEUDOPLASTIC liquids are very common. These display a curve starting at the origin again and
curving up and along but falling under the straight line of the NEWTONIAN liquid. In other words
increasing SHEAR RATE results in a gradual decreasing SHEAR STRESS, or a thinning of viscosity with
increasing shear. Examples are toothpaste and whipped cream.
b. DILATANT liquids give a curve which curves under then upward and higher than the straight line
NEWTONIAN curve. (Like a square law curve) Such liquids display increasing viscosity with increasing
shear. Examples are wet sand, and mixtures of starch powder with small amounts of water.
There are other terms used which include :
THIXOTROPY - this describes special types of PSEUDOPLASTIC liquids. In this case the liquid shows a
YIELD or PLASTIC POINT before starting to thin out.
What this means is the curve runs straight up the y axis for a short way then curves over following ( but
higher and parallel to ) the PSEUDOPLASTIC curve.
This YIELD POINT is time dependant. Some water based paints left overnight develop a FALSE BODY
which only breaks down to become useable after rapid stirring. Also: the curve describing a THIXOTROPIC
liquid will be different on the way up (increasing shear rate) to the way down (decreasing shear rate).
The area inside these two lines is a measure of it's degree of THIXOTROPY.
This property is extremely important in industrial products, e.g to prevent settling of dispersed solids on
storage. A RHEOPECTIC liquid is a special case of a DILATANT liquid showing increasing viscosity with a
constant shear rate over time. Again, time dependant but in this case _increasing_ viscosity.
Why do some liquids become solid ?
A few special liquids (dispersions usually) display extraordinary DILATANT properties. A stiff paste slurry
of maize or cornflour in water can appear to be quite liquid when swirled around in a cup. However on
pouring some out onto a hard surface and applying extreme shear forces (hitting with a hammer) can
cause a sudden increase in VISCOSITY due to it's DILATANCY. The VISCOSITY can become so high as to
make it appear solid. The "liquid" then becomes very stiff for an instant and can shatter just like a solid
material.
It should be noted that the study of viscosity and flow behaviour is extremely complex. Some liquids can
display more than one of the above properties dependant on temperature, time and heat history.
What are Electrorheological Fluids?
Electrorheological (ER) fluids change their flow properties when an electric field is applied, and are usually
dispersions of polarizable particles in an insulating base fluid [5]. Their apparent viscosity can change by
orders of magnitude in milliseconds when a fews watts of electrical power are applied.
The shear stress versus shear rate properties of ER fluids vary as a function of the applied electric field,
When an electric field is applied, the fluid switches from a liquid to semisolid. The particles are usually
irregularly-shaped 0.5-100um and present at concentrations of 10-40% by mass. ER fluids are dielectric
particles in an insulating medium ( such as silicone oil ), along with additives ( such as surfactants,
dispersants, and possibly a polar activator ). ER fluid effectively function as leaky capacitors. The electric
field can be either AC, pulsed DC, or DC, with AC producing less electrophoresis of particles to electrodes.
There are two categories of ER particulate materials, extrinsically polarizable materials ( which require a
polar activator ), and intrinsically polarizable materials. Extrinsically polarizable materials can be polar
nonionic compounds ( such as silica, alumina, or polysaccharides ), or polar ionic materials ( such as the
lithium salt of polymethacrylic acid ), Intrinsically polarizable materials provide simpler systems - because
a polaractivator is not required, and they have a lower thermal coefficient of conductance. The most
common examples are the ferroelectrics like barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) and polyvinylidene difluoride,
however their performance has been poor, as has been that of metal powders ( such as iron and
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aluminium - even when coated with an insulating layer ), and research is concentrating on conducting
polymers ( such as polyanilines and pyrolysed hydrocarbons ).
The ability to utilise computer-based electrical switching to control ER fluid properties has resulted in
vehicle suspension and industrial vibration control as major target applications for ER fluids.
Demonstration systems have been built, and they match performance predictions, however cost and
durability issues still have to be solved.
Flammability properties and terminology
There are several properties of flammable materials that are frequently reported. It should be
remembered that most discussions concerning flammable liquids usually consider air as the oxidant, but
oxygen and fluorine can also be used as oxidants for combustion, and they will result in very different
values.
The flammability limits in air are usually reported as the upper and lower limits ( in volume percent at a
certain temperature, usually 25C ), and represent the concentration region that the vapour ( liquid HCs
can not burn ) must be within to support combustion. Hydrocarbons have a fairly narrow range, ( n-
hexane = 1.2 to 7.4 ), whereas hydrogen has a wide range ( 4.0 to 75 ).
The minimum ignition energy is the amount of energy ( usually electrical ) required to ignite the
flammable mixture. Some mixtures only require a very small amount of energy (eg hydrogen = 0.017mJ,
acetylene = 0.017mJ ), whereas others require more (eg methanol = 0.14mJ, n-hexane = 0.29mJ, diethyl
ether = 0.20mJ, acetone = 1.15mJ, dichloromethane = 133mJ @ 88C), and some require significant
amounts, (eg ammonia = >1000mJ ).
The flash point is the most common measure of flammability today, especially in transportation of
chemicals, mainly because most regulations use the flash point to define different classes of flammable
liquids. The flash point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid will emit sufficient vapours to
ignite when a flame is applied. The test consists of placing the liquid in a cup and warming it at a
prescribed rate, and every few degrees applying a small flame to the air above the liquid until a "flash" is
seen as the vapours burn. Note that the flame is not applied continuously, but is provided at prescribed
intervals - thus allowing the vapour to accumulate.
There are a range of procedures outlined in the standard methods for measuring flash point ( ASTM, ISO,
IP ) and they have differing cup dimensions, liquid quantity, headspace volume, rate of heating, stirring
speed, etc., but the most significant distinction is whether the space above the liquid is enclosed or open.
If the space is enclosed, the vapours will be contained, and so the flash point is several degrees lower
than if it is open. Most regulations specify closed-cup methods, either Pensky-Martens Closed Cup or Abel
Closed Cup. It is important to remember that these methods are only intended for pure chemicals, if there
is water or any other volatile non-flammable compounds present, their vapours can extinguish or mask
the flash. For used lubricants, this may be partially overcome by using the TAG open cup procedure -
which is slightly more tolerant of non-flammable vapours. A material can be flammable, but may not have
a flash point if other non-flammable volatile compounds are present. For alkane hydrocarbons, flash point
increases with molecular weight.
There is an older measure, called the fire point, which is the temperature at which the liquid emits
sufficient vapours to sustain combustion. The fire point is usually several degrees above the flash point for
hydrocarbons.
The minimum autoignition temperature is the temperature at which a material will autoignite when it
contacts a surface at that temperature. The procedure consists of heating a glass flask and squirting small
quantities of sample into it at various temperatures until the vapours autoignite. The only source of
ignition is the heat of the surface. For the smaller hydrocarbons the autoignition temperature is inversely
related to molecular weight, but it also increases with carbon chain branching. Autoignition temperature
also correlates with gasoline octane ratings (which lists octane ratings and autoignition temperatures for a
range of hydrocarbons.)
Flash Point Auto ignition Flammable Limits
Temperature Lower Upper
(C) (C) ( vol % at 25C)
methane -188 630 5.0 15.0
ethane -135 515 3.0 12.4
propane -104 450 2.1 9.5
n-butane -74 370 1.8 8.4
n-pentane -49 260 1.4 7.8
n-hexane -23 225 1.2 7.4
n-heptane -3 225 1.1 6.7
n-octane 14 220 0.95 6.5
n-nonane 31 205 0.85 -
n-decane 46 210 0.75 5.6
n-dodecane 74 204 0.60 -
n-tetradecane 99 200 0.50 -
Supercritical properties and terminology?
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Supercritical fluids have some very unusual properties. When a compound is subjected to conditions
around the critical point ( which is defined as the temperature at which the gas will not revert to a liquid
regardless how much pressure is applied ), the properties of the supercritical fluid become very different
to the liquid or the gas phases. In particular, the solubility behaviour changes. The behaviour is neither
that of the liquid or that of the gas. The transition between liquid and gas can be completely smooth.
The pressure-dependant densities and corresponding Hildebrand solubility parameters show no break on
continuity as the supercritical boundary is crossed. Physical properties fall between those of a liquid and a
gas. Diffusivities are approximately an order of magnitude higher than the corresponding liquid, while
viscosities are an order of magnitude lower. These properties ( along with low surface tension ) allow SCFs
to have liquid-like solvating power with the mass transport characteristics of a gas.
Potential Supercritical Fluids
Compound Critical Critical Density
Temperature Pressure
(C) ( bar ) (g cm^-3)
Ammonia 132.4 112.8 0.235
Carbon dioxide 30.99 73.75 0.468
CFC-12 111.8 41.25 0.558
Dimethyl ether 126.9 52.7 0.271
Ethane 32.4 49.1 0.212
HCFC-22 96.15 49.90 0.524
HCFC-123 183.68 36.62 0.550
HFC-116 19.7 29.8 0.608
HFC-134a 101.03 40.57 0.508
Methanol 240.1 83.1
Nitrous oxide 36.4 72.54 0.453
Propane 96.8 42.66 0.225
Water 374.4 227.1
Xenon 16.6 58.38 1.105
Nitrous oxide is seldom used because early researchers reported explosions.
Note that using liquid CO2 at pressure ( as for the commercial extraction of hops ) is still just liquid CO2
extraction, not supercritical CO2 extraction. There are several good general introductions to supercritical
fluids.
2.3 Physical properties of liquified gases carried in bulk
States of matter
Most substances can exist in either the solid, liquid or vapour state. In changing from solid to liquid
(fusion) or from liquid to vapour (vaporisation), heat must be given to the substance. Similarly in
changing from vapour to liquid (condensation) or from liquid to solid (solidification), the substance must
give up heat. The heat given to or given up by the substance in changing state is called latent heat. For
a given mass of the substance, the latent heats of fusion and solidification are the same. Similarly, latent
heats of vaporisation and of condensation are the same, although different from the latent heat of fusion
or solidification. Fusion or solidification occurs at a specific temperature for the substance and this
temperature is virtually independent of the pressure. Vaporisation or condensation of a pure substance,
however, occurs at a temperature which varies widely dependent upon the pressure exerted on the
substance. The latent heat of vaporisation also varies with pressure. Figure 2.1 illustrates these
temperature/heat relationships as a substance is heated or cooled through its three states; the
temperatures of fusion or solidification (A) and of vaporisation or condensation (B) are all well defined. For
liquefied cases, we are not concerned with the solid state since this can only occur at temperatures well
below those at which the liquefied gas is carried. Temperatures, pressures and latent heats of
vaporisation, however, are of fundamental importance. This data may be presented in graphical form
such as Figure 2.2 which gives curves for vapour pressure, liquid density, saturated vapour density and
latent heat of vaporisation against temperature for methane. Similar graphical presentation of these
properties are available for all the principal liquefied gases carried by sea and some of these presentations
are reproduced in the Data Sheets of Appendix 1 of the ICS Tanker Safety Guide (Liquefied Gas).
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Figure 2.1 Temperature/heat energy relationship for the various states of matter
It is convenient here, against the background of the preceding, paragraphs, to consider what happens
when a liquefied gas is spilled. Firstly, consider the escape from its containment of a fully refrigerated
liquid. The liquid is already at or near atmospheric pressure but, on escape, it is inevitably brought
immediately into contact with objects such as structures, the ground or the sea, which are at ambient
temperature. The temperature difference between the cold liquid and the objects it contacts provides an
immediate transfer of latent heat to the liquid, resulting in rapid evolution of vapour. The abstraction of
heat from contacted solid objects cools them, reducing the temperature difference and stabilising the rate
of evaporation to a lower level than initially until the liquid is completely evaporated. In the case of
spillage on to water, the convection in the upper layers of the water may largely maintain the initial
temperature difference and evaporation may continue at the higher initial rate. Spillage from a
pressurised container is initially different in that the liquid on escape is at a temperature not greatly
different from ambient temperature but the liquid is released from its containment pressure down to
ambient pressure.
Figure 2.2 Vapour pressure (P), liquid density (у’), saturated vapour density (у’’) and heat of vaporisation
(r) for methane.
Extremely rapid vaporisation ensues, the necessary latent heat being taken primarily from the liquid itself
which rapidly cools to its temperature of vaporisation at atmospheric pressure. This is called flash
evaporation and, depending upon the change in pressure as the liquid escapes from its containment, a
large proportion of the liquid may flash off in this way. The considerable volume of vapour produced
within the escaping liquid causes the liquid to fragment into small droplets. Depending upon the change
in pressure as the liquid escapes, these droplets will be ejected with a considerable velocity. These
droplets take heat from the surrounding air and condense the water vapour in the air to form a white
visible cloud and vaporise to gas in this process. Thereafter any liquid which remains will evaporate in the
same way as for spilled fully refrigerated liquid until the spillage is wholly vaporised. Apart from the
hazards introduced by the generation of vapour which will become flammable as it is diluted with the
surrounding air, the rapid cooling imposed upon contacted objects will cause cold burns on human tissue
and may convert metallic structure to a brittle state.
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Saturated vapour pressure

Vapour in the space above a liquid is not static since liquid molecules near the surface are constantly
leaving to enter the vapour phase and vapour molecules are returning to the liquid phase. The space is
said to be unsaturated with vapour at a particular temperature if the space can accept more vapour from
the liquid at that temperature. A saturated vapour at any temperature is a vapour in equilibrium with its
liquid at that temperature. In that condition the space cannot accept any further vapour from the liquid,
although a continuous exchange of molecule, between vapour and liquid takes place.
The pressure exerted by a saturated vapour at a particular temperature is called the saturated vapour
pressure of that substance at that temperature. Various methods exist for measurement of saturated
vapour pressures and one is illustrated in Figure 2.3. This apparatus consists of a barometer tube (C)
which is filled with mercury, inverted and immersed in a mercury reservoir (A). The space above the
mercury is a vacuum (B) though not perfect because of the presence of mercury vapour in that space.
The height of mercury (X) is a measure of atmospheric pressure. A small amount of the liquid under test
is introduced into the mercury barometer and rises to the vacuum space where it immediately vaporises
and exerts a vapour pressure. This vapour pressure pushes the
mercury down in the barometer tube to a new level (Y). The saturated vapour pressure exerted by a test
liquid is the difference between the heights of the mercury column X and Y, usually expressed in mm of
mercury.
If the mercury column containing the small amount of liquid under test is now suitably heated, then the
mercury level will fall indicating that the saturated vapour pressure has increased with increasing
temperature. It is possible by this means to determine the saturated vapour pressure for the liquid under
test at various temperatures.
Whereas evaporation is a surface phenomenon where the faster moving molecules escape from the
surface of the liquid, boiling takes place in the body of the liquid when the vapour pressure is equal to the
pressure in the liquid. By varying the pressure above the liquid it is possible to boil the liquid at different
temperatures. Decreasing the pressure above the liquid lowers the boiling point and increasing the
pressure raises the boiling point. The curve marked P in Figure 2.4 illustrates the variation in saturated
vapour pressure with temperature for propane. It will be noticed that an increase in the temperature of
the liquid causes a non-linear increase in the saturated vapour pressure. Also shown on Figure 2.4 are the
variations of propane liquid densities and saturated vapour densities with temperature.
Figure 2.3 Barometer methods for measuring saturated vapour pressure (SVP)
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Figure 2.4 Saturated vapour pressure (P), density of saturated vapour ( V ") and density of liquid ( P') for
propane Different liquefied gases exert different vapour pressures as can be seen from Figures 2.5 and
2.6. The vertical axis in these two figures gives the saturated vapour pressure on a logarithmic scale
which changes the shape of the curves from that of P in Figure 2.4. Figure 2.5 shows that for the
hydrocarbon gases, smaller molecules exert greater vapour pressures than large ones. In general the
chemical gases shown in Figure 2.6 exert much lower saturated vapour pressures than the small
hydrocarbon molecules. The point of intersection of these curves with the horizontal axis indicates the
atmospheric boiling point of the liquid (the temperature at which the saturated vapour pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure). This is the temperature at which these cargoes would be transported in a fully
refrigerated containment system.
Figure 2.5 Pressure/temperature relationships for saturated and unsaturated liquefied hydrocarbon gases
Figure 2.6 Pressure/temperature relationships for liquefied chemical gases
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Whereas the bar is now the most frequently used unit in the gas industry for the measurement of
pressure, other units such as kgf/cm2, atmospheres or millimetres of mercury are frequently encountered.
The conversion factors for these units of pressure are given in Table 2.6.
All gauges used for the measurement of pressure measure pressure difference. Gauge pressure is
therefore the pressure difference between the pressure to which the gauge is connected and the pressure
surrounding the gauge. The absolute value of the pressure being measured is obtained by adding the
external pressure to the gauge pressure. Vapour pressures, though they may be often determined by
means of a pressure gauge, are a fundamental characteristic of the liquid and are essentially absolute
pressures. Tank design pressures and relief valve settings, however, like pressure gauge indications, are
physically the differences between internal and external pressure and thus are gauge pressures. For
consistency throughout this book all such pressures are given in bars but to avoid confusion the unit is
denoted as "barg" where a gauge pressure is intended.
A liquefied gas has been defined in terms of its vapour pressure as being a substance whose
vapour pressure at 37.8o C is equal to or greater than 2.8 bar absolute (IMO definition).
3.1 TOXICITY
The human body is composed of billions of living cells, all of which need oxygen if they are to survive. The
cells derive energy from food, which is burned in a rather similar way to fuel in an engine, hence the
expression "the fire of life". When oxygen is consumed, carbon-di-oxide is produced and this has to be
removed, as it will poison the cells if it accumulates.
In order to obtain oxygen and lose carbon-di-oxide, the body is provided with two systems
‹ The Respiratory System, of which the lungs are the most important part. The lungs function like bellows,
moving air in and out, and gas exchange occurs at the same time. The body takes up oxygen from
the air, which is breathed in and gets rid of carbon-di-oxide in the air which is breathed out.
‹ The Circulatory System, which is formed by the heart and blood vessels. The blood picks up
oxygen from the lungs and carries it to the cells, which take up the oxygen they need and release carbon-di-
oxide in its place. The blood the carries this Carbon-di-oxide to the lungs where the carbon-di-oxide is
removed and fresh supplies oxygen are obtained, so starting the cycle again.
The cells of the body vary in their oxygen requirement. Brain cells need the most, so they are the first to
suffer when there is lack of oxygen (anoxia).
Toxicity is the ability of a substance to cause damage to living tissue, including impairment of the nervous
system. Illness or, in extreme cases, death may occur when a dangerous gas or liquid is breathed, taken orally
or absorbed through the skin, (in general, the terms 'toxic' and 'poisonous' can be considered synonymous.)
Many substances can act as poisons and a person can be exposed to their effects by various methods.
As a result, toxicology has branched into several specialized areas, one of which is industrial toxicology.
In this area the effects of chemicals in the air or on the body are evaluated. Toxic substances are often ranked
according to a system of toxicity. One such scale is show below.
Unknown, for products with insufficient toxicity data available;
No toxicity, for products causing no harm (under conditions of normal use) or for those that produce toxic
effects only because of overwhelming dosage;
Slight toxicity, for products that threaten life or cause permanent physical impairment or
disfigurement from acute or chronic exposure.
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Moderate toxicity, for products producing moderate effects on the skin or mucous membranes or
other body organs from either acute or chronic exposure; and,
Severe toxicity, for products that threaten life or cause permanent physical impairment or
disfigurement from either acute or chronic exposure.
In summary, toxic substances may result in one or more of the following effects.
 Permanent damage to the body: with a few chemicals such serious ill - effects may occur.
Vinyl chloride is a known human carcinogen and butadiene is suspected of having similar effects.
 Narcotics: A patient suffering from exposure to a narcotic product can be oblivious to the
dangers around him, Narcosis results in ill -effects to the nervous system. The sensations are
blunted, clumsy body movements are noticeable and distorted reasoning occurs. Prolonged
exposure to a narcotic may result in loss of consciousness.
 Corrosion / Irritation of the skin, lungs, throat and eyes.
Threshold Limit Values (TLV)
Research into toxicity considers such factors are:-
 The length of exposure
 Whether contact is by inhalation, ingestion or through the skin
 The stress on the person, and
 The toxicity of the product
As a guide to permissible vapour concentrations in air, such as might occur in terminal operations,
various government authorities publish systems of Threshold Limit Values ( TLVs). These systems cover
many of the toxic substances handled by the gas industry. The TLVs, as published, are usually quoted
in ppm (parts per million of vapour -in - air by volume) but may be quoted in mg/m (milligram of
substance per cubic metre of air).
TLVs - TWA (see definitions below) for the main liquefied gases are given in Table 3.1. These are
provided for purposes of illustration and help to identify the relative toxicity of vapours. However, it must
be appreciated that the application of a specific TLV to the workplace is a specialist matter. It is not just the safe
level, which must be known; it is also the resultant effect on the body that must be understood.
The most widely quoted TLV system is that of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH). TLV systems promulgated by advisory bodies in other countries are generally similar in
structure. The TLVs in most systems are republished annually and updated in light of new knowledge.
The latest revision of theses values should be made known to operating personnel by their
management.
The ACGIH system contains the following three categories of TLVs, which describe the concentration in
air to which it is believed personnel may be exposed, under certain specific circumstances,
without adverse effects.
 TLV-TWA. This is known as the Time Weighted Average. It is the concentration of vapour -in-air that
may be experienced for an eight-hour day or 40 -hour week throughout a person's working life. It is the
most commonly quoted TLV. It shows the smallest concentration ( in comparison to (2) and (3) below)
and is the value reproduced in Table 3.1.
 TLV-STEL. This is known as the Short Term Exposure Limit. It is the maximum concentration of vapour
- in - air allowable for a period of up to 15 minutes provided there are no more than four exposures per
day and at least one hour interval between each such exposure. It is always greater than (1) above but
is not given for all vapours.
 TLV-C. This is what is known as the Ceiling concentration of the vapour -in air which should
never be exceeded. Only those substances which are predominantly fast-acting are given a TLV- C . Of
the main liquefied gases only the more toxic products, such as ammonia and chlorine, have been
ascribed such a figure.
 The IGC Code (Chapter 19) gives a list of the more hazardous products. This indicates the
types of cargoes where a toxic alarm (as well as a flammable alarm) is required to be fitted on ships
that carry such cargoes.
TLVs should not be regarded as absolute dividing lines between safe and hazardous
conditions. It is always good operating practice to keep all vapour concentrations to an
absolute minimum so limiting personal exposure.
3.1 Toxicity of Petroleum Gases
The main effect of petroleum gas on personnel is to produce narcosis. The symptoms include
headache and eye irritation, with diminished responsibility and dizziness similar to drunkenness. At high
concentrations, these lead to paralysis, insensibility and death.
The toxicity of petroleum gases can vary widely depending on the major hydrocarbon constituents of
the gases. The human body can tolerate concentrations somewhat greater than the TLV for short
periods. The following are typical effects at higher concentrations:
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Most Liquefied petroleum gases are odourless. Propane and Butane are "stenched" with chemicals like
Ethyl mercaptan to aid in case of leaks. However some times the cargo is not stenched depending on
the receiver's requirements. Most hydrocarbon gases dull the sense of smell after some period.
The absence of smell should, therefore, never be taken to indicate the absence
of gas. Dangerous concentration levels could be some times considerably below the
lower flammable limit and combustible gas indicators cannot be expected to measure
concentrations of this order accurately
Toxicity of Chemical Gases:
Chemical gases have different degrees of danger as far as toxicity is concerned.
Short-term effects and long term effects could be present with some cargoes. For example Ammonia is a
corrosive alkali gas. VCM is known to be a carcinogen.
Table 3.1 lists the main liquefied gases together with their flammable and toxic hazards. Where
appropriate, asphyxiant hazards are also noted in the column headed 'TLV'. However, this applies only
when the gas has asphyxiant hazards and is not recorded as having any toxic effects or where the toxic effects
are limits.
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Isoprene and products listed above it in the table are hydrocarbon liquefied gases and those below
the line are mainly chemical gases. It should be noted that the chemical gases tend to have stronger
toxic effects.
The last two columns of the table show how a liquefied gas may affect a person. Broadly, the initial toxic effects
on the human body can be corrosive or narcotic (effects on the nervous system). In certain cases both may
apply. In the case of a corrosive compound, depending on exposure and toxicity, its effects may be
minor or major. In the case of may be that debilitating effects on the lungs are experienced. In the case of
exposure to a narcotic gas the major initial effect is on the body's nervous system. In such cases
severe disorientation and mental confusion can result. The corrosive and narcotic effects are worthy of
note. They are of help in identifying the gas to which a person has been exposed and, additionally, they help in
identifying proper medical treatment.
Hazards of Inert Gas
Inert gas in a gas tanker is used in a different way from an oil tanker. On some types of vessels
the void space is kept inerted. Inert gas is also used during cargo changing operations. The main hazard of
inert gas is the almost complete absence of Oxygen. In complete combustion in an IG generator can produce
traces of Carbon Mono oxide.
Toxicity of Inhibitors
Some of the cargoes carried which are of the chemical gas type require inhibitors to be added to prevent
reactions which will result in the cargo going off specifications. Such Inhibitors some time pose health risks.
Table 3.1(a) provides similar information to that shown in Table 3.1 but cover the potential hazards of cargo
inhibitor.
Table 3.2 Additional health data - cargo liquid (effects on the human body)
Substance
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Chemical Burns
As shown in above, chemical burns can be caused by ammonia, chlorine, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide.
The symptoms are similar to burns by fire, except that the product may be absorbed through the skin causing
toxic side effects. Chemical burning is particularly damaging to the eyes.
Frostbite
The extreme coldness of some liquefied gases is, in itself, a significant hazard. If the skin is exposed to severe
cold, the tissue becomes frozen. This danger is ever-present in gas terminals and on a ship handling fully
refrigerated cargoes. For fully pressurized gases, while containment systems will normally be at or near
ambient temperature, liquid leaks will quickly flash to the fully refrigerated temperature. Such areas
should never be approached without proper protective clothing. The symptoms of frostbite are extreme pain
in the affected area (after thawing), confusion, agitation and possibly fainting. If the affected area is large,
severe shock will develop.
3.2. Flammability (Fire Hazard)
Operational aspects
The single most hazardous aspect of liquefied gases is the flammable nature of their vapours. Much effort is
put into ship design to ensure effective cargo containment so as to limit vapours escaping to
atmosphere. In addition, ships are terminals have design specifications for electrical equipment so as
to ensure that, within well - defined operating zones, such sources of ignition are eliminated.
Furthermore, in the ship and terminal working environments operational procedures should apply that
limit other possible sources of ignition.
All liquefied gases transported in bulk by sea, with the exception of chlorine, are flammable. The vapours of
other liquefied gases are easily ignited. The exception to this is ammonia which requires much higher
ignition energy than the other flammable vapours. Accordingly, fires following ammonia leakage are less
likely than with the other cargoes. However, in practice it is usual to consider the possibility of ammonia
ignition and to act accordingly.
Emergency aspects
Because of the very rapid vaporization of spilled liquefied gases, the spread of flammable vapour will be far
more extensive than in the cases of a similar spillage of oil. The chances of ignition following a spill of liquefied
gas are high. This makes it necessary to enforce ignition- free zones round jetties.
The extent of these zones is based on a hazard analysis, taking into account local conditions and
involving the dimensions of the gas cloud which be so formed. To established the size of such a cloud it is
necessary first to estimate the size of the maximum credible spillage. Such an estimation may be carried out in
various ways and numerous methods are available.
The hazards to personnel in fighting oil cargo fires are well known and apply generally to liquefied gas fires.
There are, however, some points of difference to note. Radiation from liquefied gas fires, because of the
rapidity of vapour production, can be intense and fire-fighting should only be attempted when personnel
are wearing protective clothing suited for purpose.
Flammability and Explosiveness General
In the process of burning, hydrocarbon gases react with the react with the oxygen in the air to produce carbon
dioxide and water. The reaction gives enough heat to form which travels through the mixture of
hydrocarbon gas and air. When the gas above a liquid hydrocarbon is ignited, the heat produced is
usually enough to evaporate sufficient fresh gas to maintain the flame, and the liquid is said to burn; in
fact it is the gas which is burning and is being continuously replenished from the liquid.
Flammable Limits
A mixture of hydrocarbon gas and air cannot be ignited and burn unless its composition lies within a
range of gas in air concentrations known as the 'flammable range'. The lower limit of this range, known as the
lower flammable limit (LFL). Is that hydrocarbon concentration below which there is insufficient hydrocarbon
gas to support and propagate combustion. The upper limit of the range, known as the upper flammable limit
(UFL). Is that hydrocarbon concentration above which there is insufficient air to support and propagate
combustion.
Effect of Inert Gas on Flammability

When an inert gas, typically flue gas, is added to a hydrocarbon gas/air mixture, the result is to increase the
lower flammable limit hydrocarbon concentrations and to decrease the upper flammable limit
concentration. These effects are illustrated in the Figure on the next page, which should be regarded only as a
guide to the principles involved.
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Every point on the diagram represents a hydrocarbon gas/air/inert gas mixture, specified in terms of its
hydrocarbon and oxygen contents. Hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures without inert gas lie on the line AB, the
slope of which reflects the reduction in oxygen content as the hydrocarbon content increases. Points to
the left of AB represent mixtures with the oxygen content further reduced by the addition of inert gas. The
lower and upper flammability limit mixtures for hydrocarbon gas in air are represented by the points C and
D. As the inert gas content increases, the flammable limit mixtures change as indicated by the lines
CE and DE, which finally converge at the point E. Only those mixtures represented by points in the
shaded area within the loop CED are capable of burning. On such a diagram changes of composition due to the
addition of either air or inert gas are represented by movements along straight lines directed either
towards the point A (pure air), or towards a point on the oxygen content axis corresponding to the
composition of the added inert gas. Such lines are shown for the gas mixture represented by the point F.
It is evident from the figure that as inert gas is added to hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures, the flammable range
progressively decreases until the oxygen content reaches a level, generally taken to be about 11% by volume,
when no mixture can burn. The figure of 8% by volume of oxygen specified in this guide for a safely inerted
gas mixture allows a margin beyond this value.
When an inerted mixture, such as that represented by the point F, is diluted by air, its composition
moves along the line FA and therefore enters the shaded a read of flammable mixtures. This means
that all inerted mixtures in the region above the line GA go through a flammable condition as they
are mixed with air, for example, during a gas freeing operation. Those below the line GA, such as
that represented by point H, do not become flammable on dilution. Note that it is possible to move from
a mixture such as F to one such as H by dilution with additional inert gas (i.e., purging to remove hydrocarbon
gas).
Flashpoint
In this test, a sample of the liquid is gradually heated in a special pot and a small flame is repeatedly and
momentarily applied to the surface of the liquid. The flashpoint is the lowest liquid temperature at which the
small flame initiates a flash of flame across the surface of the liquid, thereby indicating the presence
of a flammable gas/air mixture above the liquid. This gas/air mixture corresponds closely to the lower
flammable limit mixture.
Important Point to Note!
The cargoes are carried in Liquefied Gas tankers at temperatures considerably above their
flash point temperatures.
Auto Ignition Temperature
Auto ignition temperature is the temperature at which a combustible material may ignite on coming in contact
with oxygen on air, without the aid of a very high temperature source of ignition such as a spark or flame.
3.3 Health hazards
Symptoms Following Exposure - These are brief descriptions of the effects observed in humans when the vapor
(gas) is inhaled, when the liquid or solid is ingested (swallowed), and when the liquid or solid comes in contact
with the eyes or skin.
3.4 Hazards to environment
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An oil spill is a release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment due to human activity, and is a
form of pollution. The term often refers to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal
waters. Oil spills include releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as
spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, and heavier fuels used by
large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil. Spills may take months or even years
to clean up.
Oil also enters the marine environment from natural oil seeps. Public attention and regulation has tended to
focus most sharply on seagoing oil tankers.
Environmental effects
The oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds, reducing its insulating ability, thus making the
birds more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. It also impairs birds'
flight abilities to forage and escape from predators. As they attempt to preen, birds typically ingest oil that
covers their feathers, causing kidney damage, altered liver function, and digestive tract irritation. This and the
limited foraging ability quickly causes dehydration and metabolic imbalances. Hormonal balance alteration
including changes in luteinizing protein can also result in some birds exposed to petroleum.
Most birds affected by an oil spill die unless there is human intervention. Marine mammals exposed to oil spills
are affected in similar ways as seabirds. Oil coats the fur of Sea otters and seals, reducing its insulation abilities
and leading to body temperature fluctuations and hypothermia. Ingestion of the oil causes dehydration and
impaired digestions. Because oil floats on top of water, less sunlight penetrates into the water, limiting
the photosynthesis of marine plants and phytoplankton. This, as well as decreasing the fauna populations,
affects the food chain in the ecosystem.[citation needed] There are three kinds of oil-consuming bacteria.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria are anaerobic, while general aerobic bacteria
(GAB) are aerobic. These bacteria occur naturally and will act to remove oil from an ecosystem, and their
biomass will tend to replace other populations in the food chain.
3.5 Reactivity Hazard
Some of the liquefied gas cargoes are of a chemical nature and like all chemicals exhibit different levels of
reactivity. Some of the types of reaction are
 Reaction with air
 Reaction with water
 Reaction with own self
 Polymerisation
 Reaction with previous cargoes
 Reaction with materials of construction etc.
Reaction with air
In normal course of operation, air is excluded from coming into contact with liquefied gas cargoes.
During cargo changing operations and gas freeing operations inert gas is used for purging out the
previous cargo . Where reactivity with air is possible ,the oxygen content in the IG may need to be reduced to
as low as 0.2%. Some times pure nitrogen needs to be used.
Reaction with water
This reaction and formation of hydrates has been included in the previous chapter.
Reaction with own self and polymerization has been also discussed in the previous chapter.
Reaction with previous cargoes
As with many other cargoes the cargo purity needs to be maintained. Since in a gas tanker, there is
no common boundary between adjacent tanks, the threat of contamination from other cargoes through failed
boundaries is minimal. However, traces of previous cargoes can cause reactions in some cases.
Chlorine will react with almost all cargoes. Ammonia will react with ethylene oxide, propylene oxide and
acetaldehyde.
3.6 Corrosives (Reaction with materials of construction )
Acids, anhydrides and alkalis are among the most common carried corrosive substances. They can rapidly
destroy human tissue and cause irreparable damage. They can also corrode normal construction materials, and
create a safety hazard to the ship. Acids in particular react with most metals evolving hydrogen gas, which is
highly flammable. As to suitable materials of construction see IBC code.
4. HAZARD CONTROL
This chapter discusses the Hazards associated with the cargoes carried normally on tankers. Main focus is on
the risks personnel could be exposed to.
CARGO HAZARDS
All Tankers are designed so that, in normal operation, personnel should never be exposed to the hazards posed
by the products being carried. This assumes, that the ship and its equipments are maintained properly and that
operation instructions are followed.
In the event of accidental leakage, emergency inspections or maintenance tasks, personnel may be
exposed to liquid or gaseous product. It is the purpose of the chapter to review the hazards to health and safety
that such circumstances present and to outline means of hazard avoidance.
The overall approach in the avoidance of hazards to personnel should always be, in order of preference:
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 Hazard removal
 Hazard control, and then only on,
 Reliance on personal protection.
This listing suggests that reliance of personal protection should only be used in cases where hazard removal or
hazard control are found impossible to accomplish.
An essential requirement is the thorough training of all personnel. Effective supervision of all tasks where
hazards may be present is also vital. Training should go beyond basic instruction on the use of equipment or
the execution of procedure, and should include the nature of the hazards,
including those, which are sometimes not immediately obvious.
Broadly, the hazards of tankers or their vapours may be of three kinds. These hazards are already discussed
fully in chapter 3. However, the essential components are listed below:-
‹ Health Hazards which basically comprise any of the following
 Toxicity (poisoning)
 Asphyxia (suffocation)
 Low temperature (frostbite)
 Chemical burns
‹ Flammability Hazards
‹ Reactivity Hazards
The Cargo Information Data Sheet and the Medical First Aid Guide published by IMO provide
detailed health and safety data for products. The risks of flammability, low temperature and asphyxia apply to
nearly all tanker cargoes. However, the hazard of toxicity and chemical burns apply to only some of them.
4.1 CARGO INFORMATION SAFETY DATA SHEETS (Material safety data sheet)
A material safety data sheet (MSDS) is a form with data regarding the properties of a particular substance.
An important component of product stewardship and workplace safety, it is intended to provide workers and
emergency personnel with procedures for handling or working with that substance in a safe manner, and
includes information such as physical data (melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.), toxicity, health
effects, first aid, reactivity, storage, disposal, protective equipment, and spill-handling procedures. MSDS
formats can vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements.
MSDS (material safety data sheets) are a widely used system for cataloguing information
on chemicals, chemical compounds, and chemical mixtures. MSDS information may include instructions for the
safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular material or product. These data sheets can be found
anywhere where chemicals are being used.
There is also a duty to properly label substances on the basis of physico-chemical, health and/or environmental
risk. Labels can include hazard symbols such as the European Union standard black diagonal cross on an orange
background, used to denote a harmful substance.
An MSDS for a substance is not primarily intended for use by the general consumer, focusing instead on the
hazards of working with the material in an occupational setting.
In some jurisdictions the MSDS is required to state the chemical's risks, safety, and effect on the environment.
It is important to use an MSDS specific to both country and supplier, as the same product (e.g. paints sold
under identical brand names by the same company) can have different formulations in different countries. The
formulation and hazard of a product using a generic name (e.g. sugar soap) may vary between manufacturers
in the same country.
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4.2 Methods of controlling hazards on tankers Fire Safety

Fire is an external sign of chemical reaction, usually the combination of carbon and hydrogen with oxygen,
resulting in the release of energy. Only gas can be ignited.
To start the action it is necessary either to apply a flame or a spark having a certain minimum energy
value to a substance which has been raised to a temperature sufficient to release flammable vapors
conductive to the continuation of the action or else, to raise the substance to its auto ignition temperature
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or temperature where spontaneous combustion of liberated gases occurs. Once started, the heat energy
released is available to raise a greater amount of the substance to the temperature of combustion, so the
amount of gases liberated and of burning material increase and fire spreads ever more rapidly. If the
temperature is near that of self-ignition, little energy is required to cause combustion, and fires
will appear to break out at points some distance from the main fire at a bewildering speed. Given a
good start and plenty of combustible material, most fires are eventually limited only by the rate at which
air can get to the burning material. There are limits to the air/fuel ratio at which different substances
will burn, and limitation of air will cause long tongues of flame to reach out searching for the air
required. Incomplete combustion can result in the formation of pockets of gas which may explode if
sufficient air becomes available, whilst heated hydrocarbons, if lacking air, will decompose and form sooty
and tarry particles characteristic of thick, black smoke. From the above, it can be seen that
there are three elements required for the initiation and propagation of fire.
Conditions for fires
 Presence of burning material, which acts as fuel/combustible substance.
 A source of heat or ignition
 The presence of Oxygen in the form of air.
As the initial ignition starts as an oxidation process it continues to burn as a molecular chain reaction The
above conditions shall be represented by a "FIRE TRIANGLE" or as a "FIRE TETRAHEDRON".
Principles of Fire Fighting
The principles of fire fighting lies in the removal of one of the side of the Fire Triangle, or Fire Tetrahedron
(Fire Square).
Fire extinction, in principle, consists in the limitation of one or more of these factors. The methods of
extinguishing fire may be classified under the following headings:
 Removal/limitation of fuel - Starvation.
 Limitation of Oxygen - Smothering.
 Limitation of Temperature - Cooling
 Inhibition or the retardation of the combustion reaction.
Properties of flammable materials
Flammability: Flammability is the ability of a substance to burn. Vapours given off by a flammable
material can burn when mixed with air in the right proportion, in the presence of an ignition
source.
Ignition Point: Is the lowest temperature to which a flammable substance must be heated for it to
ignite.
Flash Point: Is the lowest temperature at which the vapors of a substance are available in
sufficient quantity to produce a momentary flash when a flame is applied.
Fire Point: Is the temperature at which the heat from the combustion of a burning vapour is capable of
producing sufficient vapours to enable combustion to continue.
Spontaneous Ignition Temperature: Is the lowest temperature at which the substance will ignite
spontaneously, i.e. the substance will burn without the introduction of a flame or other ignition source.
Upper Flammable Limit (UFL): Is that concentration of flammable vapour in air below that
there is insufficient flammable vapour to support and propagate combustion.
Auto Ignition: Is the ignition of a flammable material without the assistance of an external pilot source.
Flammable Range: Is the range of concentrations of a flammable vapour in air within which the vapour
and air mixture is ready for combustion or burning.
Static Electricity: Is the electricity produced on dissimilar materials through physical contact and
Separation. E.g.: A sampling apparatus lowered into a tank containing charged petroleum
liquid.
Reactivity: Is the property of most materials to enter into a chemical reaction with each other.
Combustion is a chemical reaction in which heat and light are evolved. Fire for combustion is said to be
the result of a rapid oxidation reaction at Temperature above 730 C accompanied by the evolution of
highly heated gaseous products of combustion and the emission of visible and invisible
radiation.
The following reactions are examples of combustion (Reaction with atmospheric Oxygen)
C + O 2 = CO 2 (Carbon Dioxide)
2C + O 2 = 2CO (Carbon Monoxide)
2H 2+ O 2 = 2H 2 O (Water)
Fire prevention
There can be no doubt that in the case of fire, prevention is better than cure. True fire
prevention lies in recognizing a fire hazard and, if possible, removing it or at least reducing its
potential. One of the Ideas that we would like to encourage is that of a "forum" or "Safety
Committee" and one of the tasks they could undertake is to consider the fire risks that exist on board and
to make sure Sources of Ignition in Ships and Prevention.
(a) Flame or smoldering source - careless disposal of lighted matches and cigarettes; prevention by the
provision of ashtrays of an approved design. Smoking in bed, care at galley fire and boiler fronts.
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(b) Hot surfaces - what may be termed "black heat". It is not generally realised that the heat from an
ordinary electric bulb can soon put the temperature above the S.I.T of some materials if that heat is not
allowed to dissipate by normal convection currents. Dishcloths or newspapers left on electric hotplates
or hot surfaces, paint or oil on hot surfaces. A fire may be prevented by considering, where
the oil would spray from any burst pipe and fitting deflector plates over steam pipes, diesel
exhaust pipes, boiler casings. General care must be taken in the maintenance of machinery, pump-glands
etc. which would overheat if faulty.
(c) Sparks and incendive particles - funnel spark, friction and mechanical sparks from grinding,
cutting, chipping or welding. Electrical sparks from switches, faulty brush gear or short-
circuiting. Particular care should be taken in gaseous conditions where even a torch may be
unsafe. Gas-tight switches should have good gaskets, and flame arrestors kept in good repair.
(d) Electrical - any wiring which is overloaded will become overheated; correct fusing is important wiring
in places difficult of access must be inspected and be on the lookout for unauthorized wiring.
(e) Spontaneous combustion - apart from the risk in cargo, rope-stores, oilskins, dirty linen, or life-
jacket lockers are likely risk areas. Keep well ventilated to prevent heat build-up.
Contaminations with natural oils or rotting due to dampness are the main culprits. So good
housekeeping is essential in steward's stores
(f) Static electricity in gaseous conditions - importance of electricity bonding all tools and
appliances steam, CO 2 or high pressure cleaning jets in flammable atmosphere.
(g) Electrical sparks may occur when making or braking cargo connections between ship and shore if the
cargo connection hose or hard arm provides an electrical path between ship and jetty structure.
Electrical current flow though this path due to differences in the electrolytic potential of the ship's
structure and of the jetty structure in relation to the surrounding sea water, such structure in
relation to the surrounding sea water. Such differences as may occur naturally due to the different steels
or protective coatings of the two structures ma be increased by an imbalance between the degree of
cathodic protection difference between ship and jetty will never be more than a fraction of a volt, the
electrolytic cells involved are large and electrical resistances in the ship sea water/jetty/cargo
connection circuit are small. As. A result , a heavy current of many amperes may flow though
the cargo connection and this current, on being established or interrupted, may produce a spark of
incendive energy.
The intention of the bonding cable traditionally connected between jetty and ship was to provide
an alternative path for this current but, in practical terms, such cables have been shown to be quite
ineffective for this purpose. Since it is ineffective and itself presents some hazards by virtue of the current
it carriers, the use of the bonding cable is now not recommended. The introduction of an electrical
discontinuity in the cargo connection by means of an insulating flange or a length of electrically
discontinuous hose, as appropriate, is completely effective in eliminating the cargo connection
current and any resultant sparking due to its making or breaking. For reasons of accessibility and
to avoid the possibility of sparking due to electro - magnetic induction in the hard arm length, insulating
flanges are usually located At the lower end of the outer arm of the hard arm.
Many sources of ignition are eliminated by the ship's design and care should be taken to ensure
that design features are not impaired in anyway. Other sources of ignition have to be excluded
by correct operational practices.
Once a fire has stared its spread will depend on the availability of loose combustible material. The
importance of good housekeeping cannot be overstressed a metal waste-paper basket represents a
measure of fire protection, but over-full it becomes a fire hazard; in the same way oil should not be
allowed to accumulate on boiler fronts, bearing housings, plates or bilge's. There should be
steel bins for oily waste, which are frequently emptied.
Safe practices
Smoking
 Fires are often caused by the careless disposal of burning cigarette ends and matches. Ashtrays should
be provided and used only at authorized area. Ensure matches are extinguished and cigarette
ends properly stubbed out.
 Warning notices should be displayed where smoking is forbidden and same to be obeyed.
 It is dangerous to smoke in bed.
Electrical and other fittings
 Authorized persons only to interfere with electrical fittings. Personal electrical appliances should
be connected to the ship's supply only with the approval of the Electrical Officer.
 Faulty fittings, wiring to be reported immediately to Head of Department.
 All electrical fittings should be firmly secured.
 Flexible leads should be secured properly to avoid being chafed or cut.
 Make shift plugs, sockets and fuses should not be used.
 Circuits should not be overloaded since these causes overheat failure of insulation, thus
resulting a short circuit, which could start a fire.
 All portable electrical appliances, lights etc. should be isolated from the mains after use.
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 All fixed electric heaters are to be fitted with suitable guards. Drying clothing on the heaters
should not be permitted.
 The use of portable heaters should be avoided. However, if they are used, care should be taken on
positioning away from combustible materials.
Laundry and wet clothing:
Clothing should not be placed over space heaters, radiators etc. or so close to heaters or light bulbs etc as
to restrict the flow of air, and thus lead to overheating and fire. Clothing should be left to dry only in
designated places.
The Nature of Liquefied Gas Fires
 Cargo and stored product fires may be broadly categorized as follows:
 Pressure fires from liquid from liquid or vapour leaks, at pump glands, pipe flanges, valves or vent
headers.
 Fires from confined liquid pools.
 Fires from unconfined spillages, and
 Fires in confined spaces.
Pressure fires
(Some times called jet or torch fires)
Leaks from pump gland, pipe flanges, relief valves mast heat vent headers, etc, will initially procedure
vapor and/ or possibly liquid which will rapidly vaporize. This will not ignite
spontaneously. Should a gas cloud occur, initial effort should be directed, using water sprays, to
deflecting the cloud away from potential ignition sources and to protect the equipment with
water spray against heat damage should ignition occur. If ignition does occur it will probably flash back to
the source of leakage, giving a jet or torch fire.
If the liquefied gas is being carried refrigerated and the emergency shutdown system and
isolated calves are closed, a high pressure may be caused by heat radiated upon a pipeline until the
trapped liquid has been expelled through the leak, either as liquid or vapour.
Whether the cargo is liquid under pressure or refrigeration the end result is the same - a fire in which the
fuel is being fed under pressure with possibly a pool or a running on the deck on the deck beneath it.
Pool fires
Prompt initiation of the ESD will do much to limit the amount of liquid spilled and because the ship's deck.,
with its camber and open scuppers, will quickly pass liquid spillage over the ship's side, the size and
duration of pool fires would be limited.
A liquid spillage on shore from tank or pipeline ruptures may now ever be in larger quantities and will
generally and will generally be contained within bunds.
Should the vapors from either type of spillage reach an ignition source a resultant pool fire will burn,
like petrol, with tall flames and some black smoke. Evaporation will maintain the liquid temperature at, or
slightly below. Its boiling point. It is important to remember that the addition of water will increase the
rate of vaporization and intensify the fire.
When using water to disperse spilled liquid, to prevent possible brittle fracture, the water should,
wherever possible, be introduced a little at a time. Jets of water should never be directed in to liquid gas
as this will cause a violent increase in flame. When contained in drip-trays, the cold liquid may
also be spilled on to the deck and should and should therefore be avoided.
Fires in enclosed spaces
Leaking gases may from a flammable mixture within an enclosed space which may cause an explosion if a
source an explosion is found. However, once a fire is burning such an explosion to, containment
vessel or adjacent tanks. Closing openings where possibly and shutting down mechanical
ventilation should minimize the supply of oxygen to the spaces. Enclosed spaces containing cargo
related plant such as compressors, heat exchangers, etc. will normally be provided
with a fixed and remotely operated fire suppressant system -CO 2. Halon or medium /high expansion
foam.
Radiation
The radiant heat from a flame is caused mostly by excited carbon particles in a flame, which, unless they
combine with oxygen soon after forming, radiate away their energy as heat and light, forming
soot particles in the process. Whereas hydrogen flames are feature of hydrocarbon fires, the soot density
being depended upon the fuel source. Where black smoke is profuse the smoke, to a limits
extent, will shield the firefighters from radiation. Where some liquefied gas fires concerned, rates of
vaporization are such that high burning rates achieved with littlie black smoke to absorb radiation
and therefore it is essential when fighting a liquefied gas fire to wear full protective clothing and
take advantage of water spray protection.
Expansion of contained boiling liquids
When fires involve contained liquefied gases, ('contained ' in this respect applying not only to pressure
storage tanks but also to pipelines containing trapped liquid')the heat of the fire increases the internal
pressure and the container's metal may be weakened by high temperature to the point of failure,
particularly at the to part of the container not internally wetted by the liquid product. The
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sudden release of the container's contents to atmosphere and the immediate ignition of the resultant
rapidly expanding vapour cloud can produce overpressures and heat radiation. A point to note is that if a
vessel contains fully refrigerated liquefied gas, which would be liquid at atmosphere pressure, the
chances of this phenomenon occurring are lessened and is depended on heat input. Some fully
refrigerated gas carries, however, have deck storage pressure tanks and as mentioned above, a
section of pipe between two closed valves, if heated, becomes pressure vessel.
Action on discovering fire or spillage
F. I. R. E There is a well known reminder of the actions to be taken in successfully fighting a FIRE: Find
inform restrict extinguish
Since this reminder was first considered, in the long and distant past, methods, informing,
restricting and extinguishing have advanced immeasurably nonetheless the same principles,
modified where necessary, still apply.
The first action to be taken on discovering a fire must be to raise the alarm and immediately alert others
who may be to in the vicinity. Since only cargo related fires are being considered in the film and support
material, the discovery of a fire in the ship's cargo area should be reported to the bridge and engine
room or the cargo area should be reported to the bridge an engine room or the cargo control
room as appropriate. This may be by radio, talk -back systems or similar. For terminal related fires
involving the terminal control center and its communication facilities, similar considerations
apply.
Upon receiving advice of a fire, and dependant upon the pre-planned emergency procedures on the ship,
an emergency control will be established. Simultaneously, in the event of a ship's fire with the ship
alongside, the terminal will be informed of the fire and, in accordance with methods previously
discussed at the pre-cargo transfer meeting between terminals and ship, the ESD system will be operated.
Both the ship and the terminal will have their own individual contingency plans for dealing with an incident
but it is a necessary part of the ship/shore interface that such plans are mutually and fully discussed
during pre-transfer meetings.
Emergency shut down (ESD)
Consideration should be given when activating ESD to the prevention of pressure surges in the transfer
pipelines, both at the terminal and on board ship.
A number of factors are relevant to this consideration.
 Whether the ship is loading, in which case the terminal ESD system should operate first, or
discharging when the ship ESD should be operated.
 The liquid velocity in the e pipeline.
 The product being transferred surge pressures are influenced by the acoustic velocity of the
liquid.
 Valve closure timings, and
 Length transfer pipelines in use.
It is often the case that, in the ship loading situation, the terminal supplies to the ship a cable pendant
extension of their ESD to enable the ship to shut down the shore system. Similarly in the
discharge situation, the ship may provide a pendant from their ESD system to allow the shore jetty
operators to stop the transfer.
Restrict
Once the ESD system has been activated and transfer stopped any other valves should be closed
which will limit the further supply of fuel to the fire or reduce the length of pipeline affected by the
incident.
In order to protect the terminal during an incident on board, terminals are frequently fitted with
water spray systems to product their hard arms, surge suppression tanks, and other jetty heat
equipment. Theses would normally be activated immediately. Foam equipment is not generally
considered suitably for attacking for cooling any may assist in vapour dispersal.
Tankers are fitted with comprehensive water spray systems for cooling in the event of fires. The
appropriate spray systems should be activated to restrict further the effects of the fire.
To limit the dangers of a cargo fire spreading to other parts of a ship, accommodation front and control
room water spray systems should be activated.
Control or Extinguish
General consideration
If a leak is un ignited a cloud forms which might find a source of ignition. Because the vapour
cloud is so cold, the air in contact with it will be cooled below its dew point and a visible white
cloud is seen. There is a temptation to think that this is the limit of the gas cloud. It must be remembered,
however, that the flammable cloud may extent beyond the visible cloud
If a fire involving liquefied gas is extinguish without isolation of the fuel source a vapour cloud
may form which, upon finding a source of ignition, would re-ignite and flash back to the
leakage. This is an important point to remember since, having extinguished the initial fire, the fire
terms may be in the process of for example, cooling down hot areas when the flash back occurs.
Those in charge must make positive decision as to whether to control or extinguish the fire.
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The prime factors on which to base such a decision are:
 Wind strength and direction. is there plenty of wind to disperse the vapours after extinction?
Will the wind carry the vapours out in to the open water?
 POTENTIAL ignition sources. Are they isolated or removed from the downwind area?
 (Potential sources of ignition include hot surfaces; people operating machinery or electrical
equipment outside the safe area; private housing; pleasure boats or service craft - a compression
ignition engine drawing flammable vapours into the air intake may over speed and disintegrate; etc)
 What volume of gas will be released if the fire is extinguished?
The answer more often than not must to be isolated the fuel source and control the fire rather than to
extinguish it.
The Riser Fire
To illustrate the statement that the fire should be controlled rather than extinguished let us take
the example of a fire o top of the ship's masthead vent. Gas would normally only be released from the
rise if a pressure relief valve were to lift or if a relief valve was opened. If during venting the release was
ignited, the decision must be made as to whether to control or extinguish the fire.
If the fire is extinguished, and venting continues, a gas cloud would from which, being normally
heavier than air, may roll down on to and along the ship's deck seeking a source of ignition. If
ignition occurs then the cloud will burn and flash back to the source.
Some ship's are able to inject a something gas at the base of the riser which can snuff out the fire. This
will not stop the emission of gas and if either the top of the riser is hot enough or if burning liquid is
flowing down externally, immediate re-ignition can occur. Water sprays should therefore cool the
mast heat.
If however , the decision is made to control , rather than extinguish the fire, then the source of fuel
should be cut off or diverted by suitable means and the fire allowed to burn itself out
preventing the formation and potential hazards of a gas cloud.
Control and Extinguishment Techniques
Isolation of fuel
As already stated, one of the first actions to be taken when a fire is to activate the ESD
system. Whilst this effectively stops the transfer of product the nature and position of the fire may be such
that it is being continuously fed by liquefied gas entrained in pipelines. to limit the supply of fuel or the
effects of further pipe rupture, it may be necessary to close other valves in the vicinity of the fire.
In order to do this it may be necessary to use water sprays to allow access to the valves.
Note that the person controlling the operation, and who is going to operate the valve,, is the man
between the two hoses. He does not reach forward until he is certain that the two hoses are
correctly positioned, the hose teams are concentrating on their job and not looking at the man, and the
valve is adequately cooled. In reaching forward, care should be taken not to penetrate the
protective water spray curtain.
If the type of nozzle that produces a flat water wall is being used, this should be closed slightly
to help push the flame away from the firefighters, but the resultant hollow flame may produce a
vortex which flame into the center of the cone. This is acceptable, albeit disconcerting, provided
the men stand firm.
Preventing the Expansion of Contained Boiling Liquids
This phenomenon is obviously something to be avoided and this is best done by cooling of the
containment vessels by the immediate activation of fixed water sprays systems supplemented
where necessary by hand-held spray should be used rapidly or their effectiveness is diminished since
above 200 c the water droplets tend to skate off on a layer of steam without cooling the metal.
Flame Bending
If a pressure flame is impinging on other pipe work, surrounding steelwork or pressure vessels,
it may be slowly "bent away" using a spray jet. Care must be taken not to extinguish the flame
unintentionally. If the spray jet is applied too close to the leak the water may be carried into the flame,
which is extinguished.
Ice formation may also extinguish a fire, if the pressure is limited, by but alert to this -the ice may
subsequently blow off giving an unignited leak situation.
Running fires
The use of water sprays on a running whish may have started beneath a pressure fire should flash off the
liquid below. Thus the fire will be reduced to a pressure fire, eliminating the effects on pipe works of the
radiated heat from the running fire.
The unignited leak
There is one important point that should be made and emphasized:
From what has been said about not extinguishing a fire, never consider lighting an unignited leak. The
hazards involved in so doing far outweigh any possible advantages.
Extinguishment
Cooling
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In fires involving liquid, extinguishment is usually effected by cooling the liquid below its flash
point. This is not possible in case of liquefied gases. On the contrary, water increases the
burning rate by the addition of heat there by promoting evaporation of the spilled liquid.
Smothering
Smothering of liquefied gas fires is difficult and may only effective under certain conditions:
In enclosed spaces such as ship's compressor rooms where fire suppression may be achieved by CO 2,
Halons, In mast risers, In high sided drip rays or within storage bunds, medium and in
particularly, high expansion foams applied in copious quantities may be successful in reducing burning
rates and controlling the fire by suppressing the radiation from the flame to the liquid below,
thereby reducing the vaporisation rate. Foam, however, is unlikely to extinguish a liquefied gas fire.
Starvation
By shutting of the fuel source the fire will consume the gas until it is extinguished. After the valves have
been closed the contents of the pipe will continue to feed the fire until the pipeline is free of
pressure.
Flame Inhibition
Inhibiting a flame is the most effective way to extinguish a free burning liquefied gas fire. Dry
powder does not starve, smother or cool to any extent. What is does to absorb the energy in the flame.
Dry powder also shield the fuel and the firefighter from the heat of the flame. The practical aspects of the
use of dry powder are as follows:
 When dry powder settles a mixture of flammable vapour and air remains which will be reignited if any
flame or hot surface exists
It should be remembered that dry powder has a minimum application rate for a given for efficient
extinguishing of the fire, provided the correct technique is used.
The technique with a pool fire is to sweep side to side and from the front to the back. For large fires
thought must be given to delaying the attack can be made using additional recourses.
 Care should be taken not to agitate the surface of a pool of liquid by direct application of a dry powder
jet at close range.
 The presence of objects such as steel supports may cause problems by shielding parts of the fire form
the chemical and, because powders have a negligible cooling effects. May also leave 'hot spots' able to
produce re-ignition after the initial extinguishment. For this latter reason special attention should
be given when to eliminating hot spots by cooling with water sprays when using dry chemical powders,
making sure that the source of spillage has been isolated experiments indicate that, in the
shielded areas under and around ships' cargo manifold piping, the application of fixed water sprays and
dry powder together may provide sufficient turbulence for the powders to be carried in to the shielded
areas.
5. SAFETY MEASURING EQUIPMENTS
Tank atmosphere evaluation
The need for gas testing
The atmosphere in enclosed spaces must be tested for oxygen and hydrocarbon content in the following
circumstances:
 Prior to entry by personnel (with or without protective equipment)
 During gas-freeing, inerting and gassing-up operations
 As a quality control before changing cargoes, and
 To establish a gas-free condition prior to dry-dock or ship repair yard
The atmosphere in a cargo tank is rarely, if ever, homogeneous. With the exception of ammonia and
methane, most cargo vapours at ambient temperatures are denser than air. This can result in layering
within the cargo tank. In addition, internal structures can hold local pockets of gas. Thus, whenever
possible, samples should be drawn from several positions within the tank.
Atmospheres, which are inert or deficient in oxygen, cannot be checked for flammable vapours with a
combustible gas indicator. Therefore, oxygen concentrations should be checked first, followed by checks
for flammable and then toxic substances. All electrical instruments used should be approved as
intrinsically safe.
Oxygen analysers
Several different types of oxygen analyser are available. A common type of analyser is illustrated in
Figures 7.2(a) and (b). In this example, oxygen diffuses through the teflon membrane into a potassium
chloride solution and activates the chemical cell. When the switch is closed, current flows round the circuit
and deflects the ammeter needle. The more oxygen absorbed by the solution, the greater the current and
the needle deflection indicates the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere being sampled. The
instrument described above operates without batteries and is relatively insensitive. Other types of
analysers include the polar graphic and paramagnetic-type instruments. These are much more sensitive
and require batteries.
It should be noted that batteries should never be changed in a gas dangerous zone.
Such instruments have dual scales, each having a separate function. For example:-
Scale 1 - oxygen deficiency in air - zero to 25 per cent oxygen by volume;
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Scale 2 - oxygen in nitrogen - zero to 1 per cent oxygen by volume.
Figure 7.2(a) Oxygen indicator – circuit diagram

A schematic diagram of the polar graphic cell used in some oxygen analysers is shown in Figure 7.2(c). In
this cell, the current is controlled by the electrochemical reaction of oxygen at the cathode (the permeable
membrane). The life of the cell is approximately six months when continuously operated in air.
Figure 7.2(b) Figure 7.2(c) A polar graphic cell
These instruments should be regularly spanned (calibrated) with fresh air (21 per cent oxygen) and test-
nitrogen (a virtual zero per cent oxygen content). Liquid contamination, pressure or temperature effects
may result in drifting of instrument response.
Combustible gas indicators
Catalytic instruments
The basic electric circuit (Wheatstone Bridge) of the combustible gas indicator is shown in Figure 7.3(a).
The gas to be measured is aspirated over the sensor filament, which is heated by the bridge current.
Even though the gas sample may be below the lower flammable limit, it will burn catalytically on the
filament surface. In so doing, it will raise the temperature of the filament, increase its electrical resistance
and unbalance the bridge. The resultant imbalance registers on the meter, which indicates the
hydrocarbon content in the air. Such instruments are designed principally to indicate flammability but are
also used to detect the presence of small concentrations of gases in air.
Figure 7.3(a) Combustible gas indicator –

circuit diagram
The meter scale commonly reads from zero per cent to 100 per cent of the lower flammable limit (LFL).
On instruments having a dual range, a second scale indicates zero to 1 0 per cent of the LFL. Instruments
of this type contain batteries, which must be checked prior to use, and it is a recommended practice to
check the instrument using a calibration gas at frequent intervals. When calibrating the instrument, the
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meter reading should fall within the range indicated on the calibration graph which is provided by the
manufacturers - see Figure 7.3(b).
In the example shown in Figure 7.3(b), a meter reading of between 68 and 92 per cent of LFL for a
calibration gas containing three per cent methane in air indicates that the detector filament is in good
order. These values are only given for illustration and reference must always be made to the graphs,
which accompany each calibration kit. Tank spaces being sampled which have an atmosphere above the
flammable range will produce a low or even zero reading on this type of meter. However, as the sample is
initially drawn into the meter, the meter needle will give a momentary strong deflection before returning
to its steady low or zero reading. This momentary deflection must always be watched for, since it gives
warning that the following steady reading will be misleading and that the gas being sampled is above the
lower flammable limit.
Some instruments may have sensor filaments whose catalytic action may be spoilt by the presence of
other gases such as halogenated hydrocarbons (halon) sometimes used for fire extinguishing. Whenever
opportunity arises, instruments should be checked against each other and any doubt resolved by a
calibration kit. It should be noted that the batteries fitted within such instruments should only be changed
in gas-safe areas.
Figure 7.3(b) Combustible gas indicator - calibration
Non-catalytic heated filament gas indicators

Since the action of the catalytic gas indicator depends upon combustion with air, it cannot be used for
inerted atmospheres because of oxygen deficiency. Instruments suitable for such use, while operating on
a similar Wheatstone Bridge principle, contain a filament sensitive to variations in heat conductivity of the
sample, which varies with its hydrocarbon content. Such meters usually register over the range 0 to 25
per cent hydrocarbon vapour by volume and are useful for monitoring inerting operations.
Multipoint flammable gas monitors
The catalytic and heated filament flammable gas indicators are widely used as portable, hand-aspirated
instruments. They are intrinsically safe. Their main purpose is for testing cargo tanks, void spaces and
other enclosed spaces and this is most often carried out during gas freeing operations and before entry by
personnel. The catalytic instrument is also used in multi-point form for continuous monitoring of air-filled
or air-ventilated spaces such as compressor rooms, motor rooms, machinery spaces and cargo holds. In
multi-point form, the indicator is installed on ships' bridges or in cargo control rooms. These instruments
draw samples sequentially from points in the various spaces monitored. The indications may be
automatically recorded and individual alarms are provided when a low percentage of the Lower Flammable
Limit is detected.
Figure 7.4 Infra-red gas analyser

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Where void spaces are inerted continuously with nitrogen, the catalytic type will not function and an infra-
red analyser is often provided as the central multi-point instrument. Figure 7.4 illustrates the principle of
a typical infra-red analyser. This instrument employs the property of hydrocarbon gas to absorb infra-red
radiation. Two similar nickel/chrome emitters within the instrument beam provide infra- red radiation to
two separate channels, one through the sample cell and one through a reference cell free of hydrocarbon.
The two channels are alternately blocked by a semi-circular beam chopper driven by an electric motor.
The transmitted radiation from both channels passes to a detector cell in which the gas is heated by the
received radiation. The resultant rise in pressure is detected by the sensitive membrane of a condenser
microphone. As a result of the chopping of the two beams and the absorptive effect of any hydrocarbon in
the sample cell, the output of the microphone is an alternating current signal, directly related to the
hydrocarbon content of the sample. This signal is amplified and recorded and, when gas is detected,
actuates the alarm for the point being sampled.
Toxicity detectors
Toxic gas detectors usually operate on the principle of absorption of the toxic gas in a chemical tube,
which results in a colour change. A common type of toxic gas detector is illustrated in Figure 7.5.
Immediately prior to use, the ends are broken from a sealed glass tube. This is inserted into the bellows
unit and a sample aspirated through it. The reaction between the gas being sampled and the chemical
contained in the tube causes a colour change. Usually, readings are taken from the length of the colour
stain against an indicator scale marked on the tube. These are most often expressed in parts per million
(ppm). Some tubes, however, require the colour change to be matched against a control provided with
the instruction manual. As tubes may have a specific shelf life, they are date-stamped and are
accompanied by an instruction leaflet, which lists any different gases, which may interfere with the
accuracy of the indication.
Figure 7.5 Toxic gas indicator

When using this type of instrument, it is important to aspirate the bulb correctly if reliable results are to
be obtained. Normally, the bellows are compressed and the unbroken tube inserted. By this means the
instrument is checked for leaks prior to breaking the tube. If found to be faulty, it should be replaced. This
type of instrument can also be used to good effect during gassing-up operations when changing from one
cargo to another. By using tubes suitable to detect trace amounts of the previous cargo, a careful
estimation can be made regarding a suitable cut-off point for the operation.
specialised fire extinguishing equipments
Dry chemical system (Gas & Chemical Tankers)
Powder is elected as extinguishing remedy on the tank deck of gas carriers and chemical tankers. A
number of minor stationary powder aggregates can be placed on deck or a powder central unit with pipes
forward to a number of powder monitors and hose stations on deck. One or several powder containers are
placed with a capacity calculated for the specific vessel with accompanying pressure bottles in the powder
central unit. The plant can be released from each powder post by opening the valve of the releasing
bottle. The gas is lead into tubes to the releasing mechanism of the pressure bottles in the powder central
unit. It opens the valve of the powder tube that proceeds to the powder post being released. Several posts
can be utilised at the same time, but each post must be triggered in the same way. Stationary dry powder
systems are normally delivered with powder (NaHCO 3 – natrum hydrogen carbonate or KHCO 3 - calcium
hydrogen carbonate) for extinguishing fire in class B or E. That is all types of liquid like: petrol, alcohol,
acetone, oil, painting etc., and different types of gases like methanol, methane, butane, propane etc. Dry
powder systems utilise N2 (Nitrogen) or CO2 (carbon dioxide) as propellant gas. The gas is kept in pressure
cylinders. A gas pressure regulator reduces N2 –gas or CO2 – gas (200kg/cm2) to 20 kg/cm 2 before it
goes via the riser in to the powder aggregate. The riser’s gas taps are very important, as the powder
together with the propellant gas must be able to “float” as a liquid through the pipe system and the
powder jet. The stationary powder post (monitor) should have a capacity of at least 10kg/second. Manual
equipment, “hand hoses”, should have a capacity of at least 3,5kg/second, but not too large for one man
to operate. The length of a hand hose should not exceed 33 m. It is very important that the hose is pulled
out to its full length before setting the pressure. The extension should be at a minimum of 10 metres for
both stationary and hand based equipment. The plant’s powder capacity should be of the size that utilizes
all posts. The delivery of powder should progress at a minimum of 45 seconds.
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Below is an example of this with the following data: 4 stationary and 4 hand stations:
Stationary: (4 pcs. x min.10kg./s x min. in 45s) = 1800 kg.
Hand based: (4 pcs. x min.3,5kg./s x min. in 45s) = 630 kg.
Minimum powder capacity: = 2430 kg.
Technical description
The powder type NaHCO3 and KHCO3 has an extinguishing effect based on a reaction inhibitor along with
some cooling of the fuel surface and the gas face. Powder is not electrically conductive in dry conditions.
To avoid humidity in the powder, a water-repellent material is added usually silicon. Dry chemical systems
consist of a mechanical part that includes a powder aggregate with valves, release mechanism, pipe
system and jets. Everyone must memorise maintenance routines and test routines, based on the plant on
the specific vessel. (This is part of the fire drill onboard).
Water - spray system

(Gas and chemical carriers)
In addition, certain ship types should be equipped with a “water-spray system”, as an object for a
cooling, fire preventive and crew protective effect. We refer here to the IGC-code, chapter 11, point
11.3.1, what areas the plant should cover. The plant onboard the specific ship is designed according to
this. The system should have the capacity to cover the designated area with at least 10 ltr./m 2 pr minute
on horizontal surfaces, and 4 ltr./m 2 pr minute on vertical surfaces. If parts of the line are damaged, shut-
off valves must exist on the main line so that the line can still be utilised. This is operable by shutting off
the line to the damaged area. The alternative is that the system is devisable into several sections that can
be operated independent of each other. The delivery pumps should have such a capacity that they can
deliver simultaneously with full capacity to the whole plant. The plant should contain a material that is
resistant to corrosion. There has to be a possibility of remote start of the water delivery pumps, plus
remote control of the plants shut valves from a place outside the cargo area. We recommend studying the
plant on your vessel, how it is operated, where the remote control is, plus the inclusion of this in the fire
drill executed onboard.
Main extinguishing plant (oil tanker)
Foam in general
A system consisting of gas or air bubbles bound in a water coating (membrane), is called foam. Constant
foam is when the wall/membrane consists of a constant material, such as pumice stone, gas concrete and
foam rubber are examples of constant foam. When the wall has a coating, we are talking about floating
foam, such as soapsuds. Different types of floating foams are used for fire extinguishing. On new gas and
chemical carriers we also find foam utilised for fire extinguishing.
Producing foam
In order to produce foam that will extinguish fire, you need: water, a frothing material that dissolves in
water in anatomised condition, and a non-flammable gas mixed with the solvent. The foam is shaped
when gas/air is mixed into the foam/frothing liquid and into the water by help of mechanical equipment.
The result is mechanic foam.
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Mechanical foam
Different types of pumps, sprinklers and foam pipes are used. The foam liquid is dissolved (or emulsified)
in the water. After this, the air is mixed in by mechanical means. Normal equipment produces bubbles,
which have a diameter of 0,1mm to 1,5mm.
Extinguish effect
Foam has a suffocating effect and acts as a cooling extinguishing agent. The suffocating or the cooling
effect can be more or less the dominating effect, but depends on what material is burning and what sort of
foam is used. By extinguishing a burning liquid with a surface temperature higher than +100 o C, the
cooling effect is the dominating force. This is caused by evaporation of the liquid that penetrates into the
surface’s layer of the burning material as the foam collapses. By extinguishing fire when the temperature
in the surface is below +100 oC, the extinguishing effect is connected with the heat-insulating foam and,
above all, a differentiation effect. When the foam cover has spread outward across the liquid’s surface, the
heat rays from other, still burning parts of the liquid surface, is not able to penetrate through the area
covered with foam. Therefore, combustible gases are no longer formed, evaporation ceases and the fire
dies out.
Foam plant
Foam is chosen as the main extinguishing agent for the tank area. A foam plant consists of a foam central
unit with a foam tank, foam pump that is also connected to an emergency generator, distribution
manifold, foam jets, automatic valves, and a pipe system connected to fixed monitors on the tank deck.
The capacity of the plant should be big enough that the whole tank area could be covered with foam. If
the vessel has an inert gas plant, the foam capacity must have a volume that can deliver foam for a
minimum of 20 minutes. The demand is at a minimum of 30 minutes if the ship is not equipped with inert
gas plant. The main foam line from the foam central unit to the monitors should contain shut-off valves
within determined requirements, in order to bind the line in case of damage. The foam line going to each
monitor has a delivery valve installed to supply foam. The valve can also be used to regulate the amount
of foam supplied in order to achieve the right mixture condition between foam and water. A foam jet pipe
is attached to the monitors. Study the plant installed on your vessel, and understand how this plan is
operated. This equipment (the foam plant) is mandatory for oil tankers.
CO2 – plant
The engine room and pump room are protected with a bar plant that utilises CO 2 as an extinguishing
agent. CO2 (carbon dioxide) is a colourless, non toxic, scentless, corrosion free, non-electrical leading gas
with qualities that extinguish fire quickly and effectively with a recommended gas concentration, which
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does not damage electronic equipment and requires no clearing/cleaning after use. CO 2 plants are
delivered either as a “Total Flooding System”, where the entire room is filled with gas, or as “Object
Protection”, where a part of the room is filled with gas. The room on vessels with “Total Flooding System”
is filled with a CO2 -content corresponding to 40% by volume, that is 0.72 kg/m 3 with gas. CO2 plants
consist of CO2 cylinders with valves, a cylinder rack, releasing mechanism, accumulating manifold, pipe
system and jet.
Extinguishing effect
CO2 has a suffocating extinguishing effect in that the oxygen content in the air is reduced to the point
where combustion becomes impossible.
Familiarise yourself with your vessel’s plant.
Choosing extinguishing agents
If an active extinguishing method is chosen, the extinguishing agent must be properly suited for the actual
situation. The extinguishing agent should:
- extinguish the fire, as quickly as possible.
- not cause the fire object any additional damage.
- not harm the environment.
- not cause damage to the user.
- not demand risky operation.
- give protection to the user.
Water
Water must be in direct contact with the fire to gain an extinguishing effect. The effect emerges when
water changes to vapour. Water takes heat from the fire via evaporation; the vapour displaces air and
consequently the oxygen. Since water does not evaporate, it can add to the object’s damage. To obtain
maximal evaporation, the water must have as large surface as possible when hitting the heat zone. A
scattered jet obtains this, the water comes in shape of drops, the smaller the drop, the larger the surface.
Drops with 1 mm diameter have a surface of 0.126 cm 2, the same water amount in drops of 0,1 mm in
diameter have a 1,26 cm 2 surface. The smaller the drops are, the shorter the air throw is needed. With a
drop size of 0,2 – 0,3 mm, the most practical proportion between air throw and surface is obtained. By
throwing, as much as possible, atomised water into the warmest part of the fire zone, the largest effect is
obtained.
Powder
To have any effect, the powder must be lead down to the fire object. To obtain an extinguishing effect,
one must reach a position from where the powder can reach the fire itself. The powder works partly by
suffocating and partly by poisoning the flame, it also has a little bit of a cooling effect. Danger of re-
ignition is therefore large until the temperature is brought down below the self-ignition temperature. The
powder has no direct damaging effect on the object. In sensitivity instruments and in electronic
equipment, powder has a disturbing effect on the functions.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is utilised either as a “total flooding” agent where the whole area on fire is filled with CO 2
in large concentration, or is used as a spot extinguishing agent. The gas has little cooling effect, so that
re-ignition is a danger. One must utilise total flooding, as early as possible. Evacuation of the area is
necessary, and before releasing the plant, one must check that no one is missing. The gas has no damage
on the environment. In utilising spot extinguishers, the thermal effect may cause damage to sensitivity
instruments.
Foam
Foam has both a cooling and suffocating effect. Light foam contains less water than heavy foam, and
thereby the extinguishing agent causes less damage. One can utilise light foam to cover larger areas and
thereby suffocate the fire. One can also utilise foam as secondary remedy to prevent re-ignition, or
prevent ignition from oil leakage, etc.
When selecting an extinguishing agent, one must consider the type of fire:
 Only a glow, or glow and flames, (fire in solid material), where the fire core has high temperature.
 Only flames (fire in liquids) where gas vaporised from the surface is on fire, relatively low
temperature in the liquid itself.
 Fire in alive, electrical components (glow/flame fire in isolation materials, painting, lubricating oil
etc.).
The main rule when choosing an extinguishing agent is:
 Glow fire and glow/flame fire is extinguished by cooling (damp extinguishing remedy).
 One extinguishes a flame fire by suffocating.
 One extinguishes an electrical fire with a dry extinguishing remedy.
One must also consider the surroundings (as little extinguishing damage as possible), special
circumstances (alive plants), danger of re-ignition (need of cooling), special material (chemicals,
explosives, dangerous goods, swelling), protection of the fire squad (protect the users).
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One must also evaluate the practicality of utilising a combination of mutual extinguishing remedies. For
example, at first extinguish the flames with powder, thereby cooling with water, and possibly cover with
foam to prevent spontaneous ignition.
Portable fire extinguishing apparatus
There are a number of transportable fire extinguishing apparatus (hand-extinguishing apparatus) placed in
different places onboard. The placement and type of apparatus is in accordance to the regulations based
on the specific vessel. These apparatus are marked by symbols on the vessel’s “safety plan”. Knowledge
of placement and use is introduced in the fire exercises onboard.
Water
Normally there are 10 litre apparatus placed in different locations onboard. 10 litres is a very limited
amount, and has a period of use lasting approximately 60 seconds. Some types have a united jet, while
others alternate between united and spread jets.
Powder
There are mostly 12 kg powder apparatus onboard, except for where something else ahs been
determined, for example 25 kg, 50 kg or 6 kg. This is clearly found in the “safety plan” onboard. A 12 kg
powder apparatus has a period of use lasting approximately 20 seconds; a 50 kg apparatus has a period
of use of approximately 60 seconds. The apparatus has good air throw, and will provide the user good
protection. To utilise powder extinguishing equipment at full effect, a well-drilled technique is demanded.
Add this to the training exercises onboard.
Carbon dioxide
There are carbonic acid apparatus of 6 kg stationed on board. These apparatus have a very limited
capacity and no air throw. The protection for the user is poor. The period of use is approximately 20
seconds. These apparatus are suited for spot extinguishing of relatively small fires. One should have high
goals regarding knowledge in utilizing, of function and capacity of the fire extinguishing apparatus on
board your vessel.
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ENTRY INTO ENCLOSED SPACES
Precautions for tank entry
Because of the danger of hazardous atmospheres, an enclosed space should only be entered when it is
essential to do so. At such times a permit to work should be issued and this should be specific as to
date, time and space concerned and list the precautions to be taken. Alternatively, for ship tank entry
purposes, the Maritime Safety Card should be completed.
The Maritime Safety Card gives an appropriate procedure for entering enclosed spaces on ships.
Particular hazards atmospheres can include:-
 Amounts of hydrocarbon gas
 Trace amounts of toxic gas
 The intrusion of inert gas, and
 Oxygen deficiency (often caused by the rusting process in unventilated tanks)
The table below lists those spaces on a gas carrier which are either enclosed or which may be considered
gas-dangerous for entry.
Enclosed Spaces on Gas Carriers Include

Enclosed Spaces in Cargo Enclosed Spaces Enclosed Spaces
Area Elsewhere Entered Routinely
Cargo tanks Void spaces Compressor rooms
Hold spaces Bunker tanks
Interbarrier spaces Cofferdams
Duct keels Ballast tanks
Spaces containing cargo pipes Spaces adjacent to cargo
spaces having unsafe
atmospheres
Note: Even if a space is already considered gas-free and fit for entry, where it is
immediately adjacent to a tank having a dangerous and pressurised atmosphere, the
space should always be entered with caution and only after suitable checks have been
made.
Procedures
For those special cases where tank entry is required, every ship and terminal should have procedures for
safe entry and these should be written into operating manuals. Manuals should be clear on questions of
area responsibility; shore tanks should not be entered without the terminal manager's permission and the
ship's tanks should not be entered without the shipmaster's permission. As far as the terminal operating
manual is concerned, such procedures should give advice on terminal operations and the requirements
expected from their own, or contracted, personnel when they are visiting or inspecting ships. Terminal
managers should take this matter most seriously, as accidents to shore personnel when entering enclosed
spaces on ships are not uncommon.
Generally, entry into enclosed spaces should only be permitted when a responsible officer has declared the
atmosphere gas-free and fit for entry. Only in very exceptional circumstances should tank entry be
allowed when the tank atmosphere is unsafe - and then, only with full protective equipment and breathing
apparatus.
Rescue from enclosed spaces
Experience has shown that the rescue of persons from within an enclosed space can be extremely
hazardous and especially so in cases of oxygen deficiency. These risks are heightened where access to a
compartment can only be achieved with difficulty. In such circumstances, it is vital that rescuers always
pay strict attention to the correct procedures and the use of proper equipment and do not rush into ill-
considered action. Many fatalities have resulted from failure to comply with these basic rules. For training
purposes, full-scale exercises in non-hazardous atmospheres have been found extremely beneficial.
Exercises involving weighted dummies, with rescuers wearing protective equipment and breathing
apparatus, are essential if rescue teams are to be properly prepared for a real emergency. Ship’s
personnel often conduct such simulations. They can also involve terminal employees and shore based
emergency services such as the fire brigade. It is good practice that the ship or terminal management
issues a written “Permit to Enter” to those named personnel authorized to do so. The permit should be
specific to the date, time and the space concerned and list the precautions which have been taken already
and which should be taken by the entering personnel. The permit may, with advantage, incorporate or be
supported by a check list.
MARINE SAFETY CARD NO. 1
Entering Cargo Tanks, Pump Rooms, Fuel Tanks, Cofferdams, Duct Keels, Ballast Tanks or similar enclosed
compartments.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
Do not enter any enclosed space unless authorized by the Master or a responsible officer and only after all
the appropriate safety check listed on the reserve of this card have been carried out.
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The atmosphere in any enclosed space may be incapable of supporting human life. It may be lacking in
oxygen content and/or contain flammable or toxic gases. This also applies to tanks which have been
inerted.
The master or a responsible officer MUST ensure that it is safe to enter the enclosed space by:
a) Ensuring that the space has been thoroughly ventilated by natural or mechanical means; and
b) Where suitable instruments are available, by testing the atmosphere of the space at different levels for
oxygen deficiency and/or harmful vapor, and
c) Where there is any doubt as to the adequacy of ventilation/testing before entry, by requiring breathing
apparatus to be worn by all persons entering the space.
WARNING
Where it is known that the atmosphere in an enclosed space is unsafe it should only be entered when it is
essential or in an emergency. All the safety checks on the reverse side of this card should then be carried
out before entry and breathing apparatus must be worn.
Protective Equipment and Clothing
It is important that all those entering enclosed spaces wear suitable clothing and, that they make use of
protective equipment that may be provided on board for their safety. Access ladders and surfaces within
the space may be slippery and suitable footwear should be worn. Safety helmets protect against falling
objects and, in a confined space, against bumps. Loose clothing, which is likely to catch against
obstructions, should be avoided. Additional precautions are necessary where there is a risk of contact with
harmful chemicals. Safety harnesses/belts and lifelines should be worn and used where there is any
danger of falling from a height. There may be additional safety instructions on board your ship, make sure
that you know them.
ENTRY INTO ENCLOSED SPACES
Because of the possibility of oxygen deficiency as well as the presence of hydrocarbon or toxic gas in a
cargo tank, cofferdam, double bottom tank or any enclosed space, it is the master’s responsibility to
identify such spaces and to establish procedures for safety entry. Guidance is to be found in Chapter 10.
Personnel should consult the responsible officer to determine whether entry into such enclosed spaces is
permitted. It is the duty of the responsible officer to check the atmosphere in the compartment, ventilate
the space, ensure the appropriate procedures are followed, ensure the safety of the personnel concerned,
and issue an entry permit.
PUMPROOMS
General Precautions
Pump rooms, by virtue of their location, design and operation, constitute a particular hazard and therefore
necessitate special precautions. Pump room bilges should be kept clean and dry. Particular care should be
taken to prevent the escape of petroleum products and/or hydrocarbon vapour into the pump room. All
pump seals, valve glands, drain cocks and mud boxes should therefore be maintained in good condition.
In the event of a serious spillage, the application of a layer of fire extinguishing froth will help to control
the generation of hydrocarbon vapour until the situation is brought under control.
Ventilation
The probable presence of hydrocarbon gas within the pump room requires the use of ventilation.
Regulations require the mechanical expulsion of air and any petroleum gas from the bottom of the pump
room. Before anyone enters a pump room, it should be thoroughly ventilated and the atmosphere checked
for petroleum gas. Ventilation should be maintained until access to the pump room is no longer required.
Special attention should be paid to levels below the lower platform where petroleum gas is liable to
accumulate. Isolation of the pump room vent system in the event of fire requires the efficient operation of
dampers in the vent trucking. They should therefore be well maintained.
Pump room Entry
No one should enter a pump room at any time without first obtaining the permission of a responsible
officer. It is the duty of the responsible officer in charge of cargo operations to ensure that adequate
ventilation of the pump room has been accomplished, that the atmosphere within the compartment is
suitable for entry, and that adequate communication procedures are established and maintained. Notices
should be displayed at the pump room entrance prohibiting entry without prior permission. The pump
room lifelines and harness should be rigged ready for immediate use. Where possible an unobstructed
direct lift should be provided. Approved breathing apparatus and resuscitation apparatus should be
available in an accessible location.
Pump room Lighting
Care should be taken to ensure that the integrity of the approved lighting system is maintained. If
additional lighting is required, only approved equipment should be used. If there is any reason to doubt
the integrity of the pump room lighting system, it should only be switched on after thorough ventilation of
the pump room.
SAFETY CHECKLIST
Before entering any enclosed space all the appropriate safety checks listed on the card must be carried
out by the master or responsible officer and by the person who is to enter the space.
RESUSCITATORS
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Oxygen resuscitators are used to provide oxygen-enriched respiration to assist in the recovery of victims
overcome by oxygen deficiency or toxic gas. The equipment can be taken into enclosed spaces to give
immediate treatment to a casualty. Oxygen resuscitators consist of face mask, pressurized oxygen
cylinder and automatic controls to avoid damage to the victim and give audible warning in the event of
airway obstructions. The equipment is provided with a standard eight-metre long extension hose so that
the carrying case (with cylinder and controls) may be securely placed and the mask taken to the victim if
he is lying in a confined location. Some ships provide a further 15-metre extension hose. If the equipment
is taken into a contaminated atmosphere, it must be remembered that, if adjustable, the instrument must
be set to supply only pure oxygen. Caution with its use in a flammable atmosphere is necessary. If the
instrument is used when the victim has been removed from the contaminated space, there are means to
vary the air/oxygen mix.
A resuscitator is a device using positive pressure to inflate the lungs of an unconscious person who is not
breathing, in order to keep him oxygenated and alive. There are three basic types: a manual version (also
known as a bag valve mask) consisting of a mask and a large hand-squeezed plastic bulb using ambient
air, or with supplemental oxygen from a high-pressure tank. The second type is a pulmonary or breath
powered resuscitator. The first appearance of the second type was the White Pulmonary Resuscitator or
W.P.R. introduced in 1981. The third type is an oxygen powered resuscitator. These are driven by
pressurized gas delivered by a regulator, and can either be automatic or manually controlled. The most
popular type of gas powered resuscitator are Time Cycled, Volume Constant Ventilators. In the early days
of pre-hospital emergency services, pressure cycled devices like the Pulmotor were popular but yielded
less than satisfactory results. One of the first modern resuscitation ventilators was the HARV, later called
the PneuPac 2R or Yellow Box. The workings of most modern resuscitators are arranged so that the
patient will be able to breathe on his own should he resume the ability to do so. All resuscitation devices
should be able to deliver >85% oxygen when a gas source is available.
It should be noted that the couplings on oxygen resuscitators should not be greased.
Warning: Smoking, naked light or fires must not be allowed in the same room during the administration of
oxygen because of the risk of fire.
Oxygen must be given with care since it can be dangerous to patients who have had breathing difficulties
such as bronchitis.
An accident in which a patient may require oxygen can be divided into two stages.
Stage 1 — During rescue
During rescue the patient should be connected to the portable oxygen resuscitation apparatus and oxygen
administered until transferred to safety.
Stage 2 — When the patient is in a safe room The unconscious patient
1. Ensure there is a clear passage to the lungs and that an Airway is in place
2. Place mask over the nose and mouth and give 35 per cent oxygen
3. Connect the mask to the flowmeter and set it at 4 litres per minute
The conscious patient
1. Ask if the patient suffers with breathing difficulty. If the patient has severe bronchitis, then give only 24
per cent oxygen. All others should be given 35 per cent oxygen
2. The mask is secured over the patient's mouth and nose
3. The patient should be placed in the high sitting-up position
4. Turn on the oxygen flowmeter to 4 litres per minute
Oxygen therapy should be continued until the patient no longer has difficulty in breathing and has a
healthy colour. If the patient has difficulty in breathing, or if the face, hands and lips remain blue for
longer than 20 minutes seek urgent medical assistance.
Additional measures necessary where exposure to toxic vapours has been experienced include: —
• The removal of affected clothing
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• Eye washing, and
• Skin washing
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND MEASURES
Tanker operation : Matters That Require Attention At Sea
Oil tankers navigation at sea requires some basic safety precautions to be observed. Following are the
most common matters that require crew to take care:
Closure of Tank Openings
Ensure that all cargo oil tank hatches and access openings / ports are tightly closed to prevent escape of
oil and vapors.
Maintenance of Vent Line System
All P/V valves must be checked during ballast voyages to ensure proper and safe operation. Record of
maintenance shall be as per “Maintenance Record of Cargo Oil Tanks (COT) Pressure-Vacuum Valves”
Metal wire mesh in flame arrestors must be inspected only during ballast voyages as per the planned
maintenance system, and kept clear of dirt and rust accumulation. Their specification of construction
should be verified in accordance with related drawings. Metal wire mesh in flame arrestors must be
inspected.
Cautions about Sparks from Funnel
At sea, where sparks / burning soot are observed being emitted from the funnel, measures to avoid such
sparks falling on deck such as course alteration, where possible, should be considered. Any special
operations such as cargo tank cleaning, purging and gas freeing operations should be ceased and all tank
opening closed. Boiler tubes should be soot blown prior to arrival and after departure from a port. Boiler
tubes soot blowing should not be carried out at berth. At sea, the officer of navigational watch should be
consulted, prior to such activity, and suitable measures adopted. Duty deck personnel shall watch for
sparks or soot emitting from the funnel. If sparks from the funnel are observed, the duty engineer or Chief
Engineer must be notified immediately.
Avoidance of Thunder Storms:
Navigating through thunderstorms should be avoided as far as practically possible by changing of course
while cargo related activities are carried out which may result in discharge of flammable vapors. If the
passing through thunderstorms cannot be avoided, all open cargo oil tank hatches should be closed until
the vessel has passed through the thunderstorm. The valves in the main vent lines may be temporarily
secured in locked position, but must be opened immediately after passing through the thunderstorm.
Ballasting and Cargo Oil Transfer Operations
Carry out fire control and take safety measures even at sea.
Tanker operation : Procedure and basic guidance
The operation of modern oil tankers involve numerous complexities and careful consideration will need to
be made for various shipboard activities. Our site is a quick guide to finding tanker vessel operation
related information. The procedures explained here are only indicative, not exhaustive in nature and one
must always be guided by practices of good seamanship.
How to ensure safe working atmosphere onboard oil tankers
The basic procedure - Restriction of Smoking, other Burning activities and Naked Lights
The basic procedure of ship to ship transfer
For dealing with Unforeseen Emergencies, such events can be contained and their effects minimized by
preparing the ship’s crew through a system of drills
Pumproom inspection procedure for oil tanker
A pump room contains the largest concentration of cargo pipelines of any space within the ship and
leakage of a volatile product from any part of this system could lead to the rapid generation of a
flammable or toxic atmosphere
How to ensure safe working area onboard oil tankers
Before work, the conditions of working area, such as the density of inflammable gas and fire, shall be
positively managed, and the work shall be started after necessary safety of the work is confirmed
Matters That Require Attention At Sea
Maintenance of Vent Line System, Cautions about Sparks from Funnel, Avoidance of Thunder Storms,
Ballasting and Cargo Oil Transfer Operations
Inert gas system
The oxygen content of the Inert Gas supplied to cargo tanks should be 5% or less. However, it is to be
noted that too less content of oxygen in the IG would introduce other impurities into the cargo tanks
Safety preparation for oil tanker prior entering freezing area
The Master shall ensure that the appropriate measures have been taken to prevent damage to Vessel,
Machinery, Pipelines and Equipment prior entry into areas with Freezing Conditions
Daily soundings of tanks and bilges
Bilge (Hold, Engine Room, Cofferdam, Void space, Chain Locker, Emergency Fire Pump Room, Bow
Thruster Room, etc.),Ballast Water Tanks , Fresh Water Tanks
Oil pollution control
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Equipment For Oil pollution Control, Equipment for Oil Pollution Mitigation, Guidelines For Prevention Of Oil
Pollution Mitigation, Action by Duty Officer, Plugging Deck Scupper Plugs
Gas freeing procedure onboard oil tanker
It is generally recognized that Tank cleaning and Gas freeing is the most hazardous period of tanker
operations. This is true whether Washing for clean ballast tanks, Gas freeing for entry, or Gas freeing for
Hot work.
Oil handling procedure
Bunkering Operation, Measures during Extreme Weather, Restrictions on Use of Fire, smoking, and other
General Precautions to the Crew
General safety measures against oil pollution accident
Working system and preparation , Planning for Cargo Oil Operations ,Pre-safety meeting , Effective
Communication ,Promote techniques of Hazard Prediction Training, Preparation of Watch Schedule & PIC
of Oil Transfer Operations, Have a complete meeting beforehand with terminal ,Cargo Oil Transfer Check
Lists ,Ship / Shore Safety Checklist ,Pre Arrival Checks ,Check Operational Conditions and Training of Crew
Preparations For Oil Loading
Preparation of the Cargo Plan, Preparing of Ballast Pumps, Cargo Oil Transfer Check Lists, Hose
Connection, Display of warning notices and signs, Cargo Oil Transfer Meetings with Terminal
representative, Dry Survey / OBQ survey, Lining up Pipelines and Valves, Precautions for Loading Heated
Cargo, Personnel arrangement
Tanker Standard Equipment Of Prevention Of Oil Spillage
Cargo Tank Level Measuring System and Level Alarm System, Emergency Hydraulic Hand Pump,
“Software”/Guidelines For Prevention Of Oil Spillage, Operation Guidelines for Cargo / Ballast valves,
Prevent Erroneous Operation of Valves, Valve Handling with Avoiding Liquid Hammer, Securing Indication
for Closed Valves
Loading operation onboard oil tankers
Line up of the Vent lines, Safety Confirmations and Clearance, Leakage Monitoring System, Cargo Loading
Rates, De-Ballasting of Segregated Ballast, Preparation for Topping Off
Guidelines For Toxic Gases Hazards
HYDROCARBON VAPORS Characteristic ,Toxic Hazards of H.C. Vapors , HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S), H2S
Gas Concentration, Precautions for Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Health Concerns in connection with Benzene,
Health Concerns of Inert Gas, Oxygen-deficient atmosphere
Crude oil washing procedure
Supervision Of Crude Oil Washing (COW) Operations, Discharging Strategy ,Advance Notice In Port ,Safety
Measures For Crude Oil Washing Operations , Confirming Atmosphere in Tanks to be Crude Oil Washed,
Pressure Test
Standard Procedures for Tank Cleaning, Purging and Gas free Operation
Gas-Freeing for Cargo Tank entry, Safety Precautions, Non Flammable Atmosphere, Atmosphere Control
during Tank Cleaning Operations, Purging with Inert Gas (IG), Forced Air Ventilation
Matters that require attention while loading and discharging oil and ballast water
Control of Discharge of Oily Mixture Originating from Cargo Oil from Tankers & Restriction of carriage of oil
and water ballast
Operations during laden voyage
Water And Cargo Oil Measurement, Vapor Control, Topping Up Operation, Cargo Oil Heating, Line Pressure
Test
General Precautions Confirming Working Area Onboard Oil Tanker
Confirming Working Area, Anti-Electrostatic Clothes and Shoes for Ship’s crew, Permission of Hot Work
,Use of Explosion-proof Type Electric Torch equipment, Use of Hand Tools, Prohibition of Carrying
Unnecessary Tools, Attention to Shock Sparks by Lighter Metals, handling of Aluminum Products
Preparation for discharge onboard oil tankers
Preparation of the Cargo Plan, Cargo Equipment, Cargo Oil Transfer Check Lists, Display of Warning
Notices and Signs, Hose Connection, Cargo Oil Transfer Meetings with Terminal representative, Ullage
measurement and Cargo Quantity Calculation, Lining up Pipelines and Valves
Oil Cargo Discharging Operations
Supply of I.G to cargo tanks being discharged, Line up of the IGS, Safety Confirmations and Clearance,
Deck Watch and Personnel Arrangement
Personnel for Cargo Handling
Watch Schedule, Supervision Of Operations, Personnel Arrangement During Cargo Operations
Measures For Handling Cargo Oil Having A Flash Point Exceeding 60c
Ensure that sufficient reliable evidence available that the flash point of the cargo oil is above 61° C and
the temperature of the cargo oil does not exceed 5° C less than the flash point.
Disposal for Spilled Oil and Prevention for Secondary Disaster
Tanker Standard Equipment for Disposal of Spilled Oil & Secondary Disaster Prevention Slop Dump
(Surface) Valve Arrangement (Emergency drains)
Inspection Of Cargo Work Equipment And Machinery
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The Chief Engineer and Chief Officer shall jointly be responsible for the inspection and maintenance of the
cargo oil transfer equipment and machinery before entering port
Measures For Pump room entry
Entry Permit into Enclosed Space, Atmosphere Control, Effective communication, Gas Monitoring,
Maintenance Work in Pump Room
6. POLLUTION PREVENTION
Tanker operation: Control for Oil Pollution to a Minimum
Oil tankers operations at sea and while at port requires some basic safety procedure to be observed.
Equipment for Oil Spill Detection
a) Fixed Gas Detecting System
(Pump Room and Double Hull Spaces adjacent Cargo Tanks)
b) Pump Room Bilge High Level Alarm
c) Cargo Oil Pump, High Temperature Alarm & Trip System
(Casing / Bearing / Bulkhead of Pump Shaft)
Equipment for Oil Pollution Mitigation
a) Deck Scupper Plugs with Higher Gutter Coaming on Main Deck
b) Manifold Spill Tank
c) Emergency Stop System of COP
d) Emergency Shut Dow System of manifold Gate Valve
e) Emergency Damper of Pump room Exhaust Fan
Guidelines For Prevention Of Oil Pollution Mitigation
1) Watch the Sea surface around the Vessel
2) The Gangway Watch stander and cargo operation watch stander shall periodically monitor the surface
of outboard sea to check for oil leakage, and to try to detect such oil leakage (if any) early. He shall also
monitor the emission from the funnel stacks (excessive soot or sparks) and report any abnormality to the
duty officer.
3) If floating oil is observed on the surface of the sea in the vicinity of the vessel, it shall be reported
immediately to the officer on duty or the Chief Officer (whether the oil is originating from own vessel or
not).
4) The officer on duty shall allocate crew for periodic monitoring on deck and associated spaces. The
following are some examples of condition monitoring required: Which includes the conditions around the
vessel, mooring ropes, and the surface of the outboard sea and the like. Also to detect any irregularity
onboard and outboard the vessel.
5) The officer on duty shall have the crew patrol or monitor the surface of the sea near the following
places or outfit as required:
 Sea-chest (Cargo & Ballast)
 Overboard discharges,
 Floating hose,
 Stern tube,
 Shore connection, and
 Near SPM & SBM if applicable.
6) The company designated checklists should be used to ensure proper compliance of the above.
Action by Duty Officer
If oil is observed on the water in the vicinity of the vessel and there is reason to suspect that the oil is
originating from the vessel, all cargo transfer operation shall be suspended, and the Master shall
immediately be notified.
Appropriate notification in accordance with SOPEP/OPA90 and shall be executed. Immediate action should
be taken to reduce such outflow (e.g. Depressurizing the system, Adjusting the level, etc.)
Plugging Deck Scupper Plugs
Suitable scupper plugs shall be used the expansion-type oil resistant rubber- mechanical scupper plug. As
a company’s standard, the main deck scuppers, after being fitted tightly in place, shall be further sealed
with temporary putty. This is a further preventive measure, in case of improper surface / sealing of
scupper opening. The ship specific Scupper Checklist shall be prepared & used for confirming the above.
Oil Coamings (e.g. save-all trays to air pipes serving oil tanks, mooring winch save-alls, etc) shall be
effectively plugged, and the ship specific Oil Coaming Plug Checklist shall be prepared and used for
confirming it. If rainwater collects on the aft main deck, the rainwater may be released through the
aftermost scuppers after carefully checking and confirming that No Oil water or Traces of Oily sheen is
mixed with the rainwater. Such draining in port shall be carried out only after Loading Masters permission,
bearing in mind the above. Oil absorbent pads should be used as a precautionary measure, when draining
rain water in port. Personnel shall continuously attend such operation and after completion, confirm with
the COC the final status of scupper. Also Siphon Line, if applicable, between Main deck cargo area to
Accommodation area is to used for draining effectively. However, if collected water is contaminated with
oil, or if terminal refuses to let the water through the scupper, then suitable means such as oil catcher (oil
absorbent pads) to clear such oily sheen should be used to the satisfaction of the terminal representative.
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Tanker operation : General safety measures against oil pollution accident
The International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) makes recommendations for the
safe carriage and handling of petroleum cargoes, which is seen as a fundamental part of overall Tanker
Safety
Working system and preparation
The Master is responsible for the prevention of marine pollution. The Chief Officer is responsible and shall
comply with all instructions and as laid out herein for all cargo oil transfer operations and ballast
operations. He shall supervise all such activities carried out by the Junior Deck Officers and Deck Crew.
Planning for Cargo Oil Operations
Prior to commencement of any cargo oil operation the Chief Officer shall prepare a detailed plan & the
same to be approved by Master.
The Cargo oil operations plan shall be prepared in writing, and posted conspicuously in the Cargo Control
Room. It shall be made available to all officers and crew directly involved in the cargo oil transfer
operations.
The plan shall include at least the following operations:
 Loading, Discharging and Transfer of cargo oil,
 Crude Oil Washing,
 Tank cleaning, Purging and / or Gas-freeing,
 Ballasting and De-ballasting,
 Decanting of the slop tank, and
 Delivery of Slops, Sludge and Cargo Residues to shore facility.
Pre-safety meeting
The Chief Officer shall conduct Pre cargo operation safety meeting with all concerned. The plan shall be
read out to the attending crew the duty officers involved to ensure good understanding by all such
personnel,
The following shall be addressed, as a minimum:
 Special features and characteristics of the cargo, addressing any precautions to be observed. i.e. high
H2S content, high viscosity, high vapor pressure, initial monitoring of loaded heated cargo
temperatures, etc.
 Procedures and arrangements for starting and stopping loading or discharging operations, crude oil
washing, and ballast operations.
 Communication between the cargo control room, pump room and on-deck.
 Monitoring requirements for the Maximum Allowable Loading Rates, topping off rates / Discharging
Rates (grade-wise)
 Monitoring and maintaining the maximum allowable manifold pressure during discharge operations.
 Special conditions at the loading/discharging terminal (eg moorings, draft and trim limits, monitoring
manifold movement restrictions including height limitations, river and tidal currents, etc.
 Specific duties distribution for Junior Officers and crew.
Procedures for emergency situations and communication
Effective Communication
Effective means of communication shall be established between the cargo control room, on deck watch
standers and shore terminal operators.
Fixed and portable communication devices used during cargo oil transfer operations shall be tested prior
to commencement of below operations:
 Loading, Unloading and transfer of oil
 Crude oil Washing
 Tank Cleaning and Gas Freeing
 Ballasting and De-ballasting
 Drainage of the slop tank and
 Delivery of Slop / Sludge
Promote techniques of Hazard Prediction Training
To prevent mistakes caused by human, which make up the greater part of causes of accidents, matters
that require attention shall be discussed before the start of work. The items for the One point finger
pointing and call method should be practiced.
Preparation of Watch Schedule & PIC of Oil Transfer Operations
The Chief Officer shall prepare and post a watch schedule detailing the person in charge for the duration of
the planned cargo oil operation. This schedule shall detail the working arrangements, duty shifts and
contact details. Leaders of shifts should also be mentioned. The schedule shall include additional support
staff and include the person in charge of cargo transfer operations.
Have a complete meeting beforehand with terminal. The Chief Officer shall complete the company’s
designated checklists and conduct a Pre-transfer meeting with shore facility representative(s) to cover all
aspects of the proposed operations.
The following items shall be discussed during the meeting:
1) Specifications, temperatures (if applicable) and quantity of cargo oil.
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Including peculiar hazards / precautions needed to be followed.
2) Maximum oil transfer rate, and maximum manifold pressure.
3) Any shore / terminal / berth restrictions, including loading arm restrictions and any specific preventive
measures or requirements to be adopted to avoid accidents.
4) Any safety regulations of the terminal (Latest Terminal handbook, etc)
5) Any particular vessel requirements
6) In case of discharging, Shore receiving tanks details and distance from ship, Crude Oil Washing Plan
details and terminal procedures/restriction.
7) Any other related circumstances and procedures requiring special attention.
8) Stoppage / disconnection criteria in normal and emergency situations
9) Procedures for emergency situations and means of communication.
For above Procedures for emergency situations and means of communication, the reporting method for
the following cases shall be discussed and mutually agreed upon:
 Emergency Stop Procedures
 Standby
 Commencement of transferring oil
 Slow down,
 Temporary stoppage and final Stoppage.
Prior to loading, the Ship-Shore Cargo Information Exchange at Loading Ports
The vessel should send and exchange such required information (details which can be obtained from the
Port Guide or local agent) by national and regional regulations, well in advance of her arrival, which may
be required in the form of a check list.
Cargo Oil Transfer Check Lists
The Chief Officer, after confirmation, shall affix his signature on the related checklist. The Master, shall
then sign on the completed checklist.
1) Tanker Loading Checklist (Including Pre Arrival Checks and Tests for Loading Port)
2) Tanker Discharging Checklist, (Including attached Annex A? Pre Arrival Checks and Tests for
Discharging Port)
3) Crude Oil Washing Checklist
4) Crude Oil Washing Record
5) Ship-Shore Cargo Information Exchange at Loading Ports
6) Ship / Shore Safety Checklist
7) Ship to Ship Transfer Checklist, as required
8) Tank Cleaning, Purging and Gas Free Checklist
Ship / Shore Safety Checklist
The above checklist shall be completed correctly and signed by both the Chief Officer and the shore
terminal representative. Each shall retain one copy of the check list. For items that need to be periodically
verified, suitable intervals shall be decided and entered at the initial stage.
For US Ports, each item of confirmation in the Declaration of Inspection needs to be initialed by both
parties, prior to commencement of cargo oil transfer operations.
Pre Arrival Checks
The pre-arrival cargo gear and other equipment checks are to be conducted as and details entered into
the deck log book. Tanker Loading Checklist, Tanker Discharging Checklist, Crude Oil Washing Checklist to
be completed as required. Ship specific Checklist for Preparation for Entering Port and other ship
controlled documents should be prepared and approved for use and distributed onboard for efficient
compliance.
Transfer of Duty in Conscientious Manner
The deck duty officer shall enter all cargo oil transfer operation activities and other associated activities in
the Tanker Cargo Log Book and shall transfer the duty to the relieving deck officer after the status of the
following activities has been discussed & checked:
i) Confirmation of open/closed valves,
ii) Operational condition of pumps,
iii) Cargo loading/discharging quantity / rate, and
iv) Expected time of change-over of tanks.
v) Draughts and ships pose
vi) Special additional instructions.
vii) Checking Items marked R (Re check) as per Ship-shore check list (ISGOTT).
The deck duty officer shall also relay the status of other ongoing activities related to the oil cargo transfer
operation like Ballast operations, tank cleaning, oily water transfers and COW operations.
Check Operational Conditions and Training of Crew
The Master and Chief Engineer shall ensure that the concerned crew are well acquainted with the
mechanism and its operation. They shall also ensure that the equipment and machinery is inspected and
maintained in its operational readiness before use. The Chief Officer is responsible for the training of all
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crew directly involved in oil cargo transfer operations. He shall train all such personnel to be familiar with
the proper operation of all equipment and machinery related to oil cargo transfer operations.
The Chief Officer is also responsible for assuring that the below equipment is inspected and checked for
operational condition prior to the commencement of any Cargo Oil Transfer operation.
 Valves.
 Pumps.
 Inert gas system.
 Level gauges.
 High level alarm unit.
 Hydraulic unit.
 The manufacturers instruction manuals should be used for reference.
 Prevention for Oil Spillage
Tanker Standard Equipment Of Prevention Of Oil Spillage
Cargo Tank Level Measuring System and Level Alarm System
Portable tank gauging equipment is to be in a state of readiness and checked prior to arrival ports.
Automatic high level alarms and independent overfill alarms shall be checked prior to Cargo oil loading
operation, using the appropriate ANNEXES of Tanker Loading Checklist and Tanker Discharging Checklist
Every Quarter, the Fixed Cargo Tank Level Gauge Alarm Setting and Portable Gauge Record should be
verified using the Quarterly Testing Record for Miscellaneous Equipment
Emergency Hydraulic Hand Pump
Emergency Hydraulic Hand Pumps shall be ready to use in Pump room and at Manifold. Also crew member
on deck duty should be familiarized to operate the Hand Pump and Emergency Push Switch of Hydraulic
Solenoid Valve in Hydraulic Valve Local Stands.
Software/Guidelines For Prevention Of Oil Spillage
i) Pay strict attention to Cargo Tank Level Gauges (Fixed & Portable)
ii) To prevent marine oil pollution caused by oil cargo overflow strict attention must be paid to all tank
level gauges and high level alarms.
iii) At Loading Ports, the accuracy of the fixed level gauges and the integrity of that cargo tank valve
should be ascertained, well before reaching the Final Topping-off Ullage, using Cargo Tank Level Gauge
Check Record at Loading Ports .
Close watch is to be kept at the manifold back pressure build-up during such operations. If during loading
operations there is reason to suspect that the automatic level gauges are inaccurate, the level shall be
confirmed by the portable gauging tapes. Topping off operations should carried out by the use of portable
gauging tapes.
iv) During any oil cargo transfer operation level gauges in all cargo tanks, ballast tanks, including those
tanks which are not being loaded or discharged must be monitored. The level in tanks must be recorded in
the Tanker Cargo Work Logbook hourly throughout the transfer operation.
v) On completion of loading in the tank, the level should be locally monitored for a while (even after
closing of respective valve) and periodically thereafter
vi) During COW (crude oil washing), close attention must be paid to the level gauges in the Receiving
(Gathering) tank in order to prevent oil cargo overflow.
Operation Guidelines for Cargo / Ballast valves
''Repeat the Order (Answer Back)''
A work order shall be repeated by the receiver for acknowledgement. On successful completion, he shall
report the details for confirmation.
Confirmation on Valves Setting prior to Cargo Oil Transfer Operation
Chief officer shall do or instruct the duty officer to check & set pipe lines in Cargo control Mimic panel by
pointing a finger to avoid mistakes.
For Manual valves, the open / closed condition shall be correctly indicated and updated, after positive
confirmation from personnel at the site.
Before commencement of oil handling, a complete line setting shall be double checked by an independent
person. In case of complicated valve operation, the ship specific Valve Checklist shall be used prudently.
The Chief Officer shall instruct crew to confirm, once again, the pipe lines to be used before
commencement of the oil handling work, and indicate the valves to be opened or closed, and shall confirm
being opened or closed.
The Chief Officer shall confirm in the same manner in case of change of oil types, suspension and restart
of cargo handling, ballasting or de-ballasting.
Opening and Closing of important valves must be supervised and witnessed by an officer. Opening and
closing of certain important valves, including Pump room Sea valves, Overboard discharge valves and
Manifolds valves shall be carried out under the supervision of the Chief Officer or the deck duty officer
designated by the chief officer.
Prior to commencement of cargo oil transfer operations, the Chief Officer or the deck duty officer shall
confirm that the Pump room Sea valves are closed, and shall ensure that the valves are sealed. Warning
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Notices should be posted at locations of such valves leading to overboard where there is a possibility of oil
/ oily effluence discharge.
Such notices should caution personnel against opening without the Chief Officers permission. Blind flanges
shall be inserted in all Overboard discharge valves and Sea valves.
Prevent Erroneous Operation of Valves
To ensure that valves are operated in accordance with the Cargo Oil Transfer Plan, any operation of cargo
valves prior to, during and upon the completion of cargo oil transfer operation must take place under the
supervision of the Chief Officer or the duty deck officer. Before arrival to terminal all Cargo, Ballast valves
& remote indicators shall be checked for its status (Open / Close). The Valve Checklist should be used
prudently.
Valve Handling with Avoiding Liquid Hammer
Strict attention must be paid to the vessels trim during discharge operations. If the vessel has excessive
trim by the stern, it may be necessary to partially close / fully close the cargo valves to the aft of oil cargo
tanks being discharged to prevent cargo flowing from the forward tanks to the aft tanks due to apparent
resultant difference in liquid head. Such could cause cargo overflow and oil spill from the aft tanks. Watch
pressure gauges carefully in operating tank suction valves. To avoid damage to valves and pumps, careful
attention must be paid when opening suction valves in cargo tanks, especially when the tank is full or
almost full of cargo. The status of filling (full or empty) of the planned bottom line to be used should be
controlled prior to connecting that tank to the pump. Vacuum may exist on the suction side of the valve,
causing the cargo to flow towards the pump at excessive rates. Always open the valve very carefully and
slowly while watching the pressure gauge on that line.
Securing Indication for Closed Valves
All the vessels cargo lines, bunker line and tank cleaning line valves should be clearly marked in such a
manner as to be unmistakable to personnel as to what valves they are operating. Manually operated
valves on these lines, including the pump room valves should be clearly marked / numbered. Hand wheels
on manual valves shall be secured with a rope or twine to indicate its closed position. Valves which may
be required to be opened in an emergency situation must be secured in a way where it can be easily
opened. Suitable securing arrangements should be also carried out for ancillary valves to sea chest
arrangements (testing / blowing vent pipes in the pump room, etc) to prevent accidental opening.
Opening / Closing Speeds of Valves should be checked quarterly using Quarterly Testing Record for
Miscellaneous Equipment and compared as per original timings, as specified by manufacturer.
Prevention of Internal Pressure increase by Expansion and by Blocking (Solidification)
Oil or liquid left inside a closed system of piping can create severe damage to the system or cause leakage
/ rupture of gaskets, expansion joints or flanges due to expansion inside, as the liquid temperature raises
inside the system. While having this incident on deck could cause oil pollution, it might trigger cargo
contamination if it occurs inside tanks, e.g. Bottom Cargo pipelines, Pump room pipelines, Top Loading
lines & Small diameter lines, including COW lines etc
To avoid such damage the following must be observed:
A) The cargo oil transfer plan shall include instructions how to displace oil cargo in the lines upon
completion of transfer operations. This must be discussed with shore facility representatives.
B) Cargo oil should never be left in the deck or pump room cargo piping upon completion of cargo oil
transfer operations, but should be dropped into the cargo tanks.
C) Close attention shall be paid to cargo bottom lines containing non heated cargo that passes through
tanks loaded with heating cargo.
D) Sometimes, ballast water left inside pump room lines without proper monitoring / measures could
cause leakages at flanges. Such situations are more likely experienced when proceeding to warmer
regions.
E) Similarly, after heated cargo is loaded or discharged, preventive measures against solidification inside
pipelines should be taken. Bottom lines containing such, particularly in way of empty cargo tanks need to
be considered for stripping after completion of operations. For additional details for heating cargo, refer to
Crude Oil Washing with Heated Cargo
Air in such locked systems, can be more readily compressed and cause less damage, as compared with
liquid entrapped in a closed system.
Guideline for Pump room Sea Chest Valve Operation
The Cargo Sea Chest shall NOT be opened without office permission except in case of emergency.
If the sea valves are required to be opened for taking ballast or washing water the residual oil in line shall
be completely stripped, Pump shall be started first.
After confirming sufficient vacuum in suction gauge, the concerned sea chest valve shall be opened in
presence of Chief officer. Sometimes in port, it is required to carry out line displacement of shore hose at
high discharge rates using the cargo oil pump- after completion of discharge operations. Where there is
limited time for awaiting the filling of tank using the connection provided using the fire line, the next
choice to consider is using the ships fixed pump room connection to take suction from a ballast tank with
sufficient positive head. Precautions as mentioned above to be exercised.
Inspection for the Sea-chest
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Prior to entering the first loading port and first discharging port, the presence of oily ingredient shall be
checked using the cocks and air cocks provided to sea-chests.
Integrity of the sea chest should be verified by pressure testing before entering ports, as described above.
Care should be exercised not to exceed 3.5 Kg/cm2 pressure inside the system. This shall be recorded in
the Annexes of the Tanker Loading Checklist and Tanker Discharging Checklist.
Inert Gas System / Scrubber Cooling Pump operation
For discharge ports of environmentally sensitive nature, where the Air pollution and Scrubber discharge
flushing could interfere with the ecosystem, the Inert Gas System shall be run before embarking the
harbor pilot at time of entering the port. This is done so that the IGS plant can settle down & avoid dark
funnel smoke emissions on start-up. The internal memory battery, within the CP Unit is to be replaced as
per manufacturers recommended interval and suitably indicated at the external portion.
Safe Mooring In Port
Always keep in mind that Mooring Failure on Oil Tankers shall be involved with accidental Cut of Manifold
Cargo Line Connections, what means to occur Major Oil Pollution. During cargo oil transfer operations it is
imperative that the deck duty officer and the deck cargo watch stander pay strict attention to moorings
throughout the transfer operation to avoid damage to loading / discharging arms and flexible hoses. As
the vessels draft changes during the transfer operation, mooring ropes and Brakes tension tension must
be correctly adjusted and set to avoid motion of the vessel. Suitable visible marking arrangements should
be employed at the manifold and should be closely monitored during adjusting of mooring ropes. Vessel is
to be always maintained within the operational envelope of manifold arm connections. When adjusting
moorings it is important to ensure that the load is distributed to all mooring ropes to the extent practically
possible. Winch brake pads should be visually checked, and mooring lines should be visually inspected for
excessive wear and tear and suitable precautions exercised. In case of extreme current and/or wind
conditions, or adverse directions, it should be considered to suspend cargo oil transfer operation and/or
pay out additional moorings. Local river and tidal current data and weather forecasts must be monitored
and required information is to be made available for reference. As a preventive measure, when rough
weather or adverse conditions are expected, applying of additional mooring ropes or consideration for
suspension / disconnection of cargo operations should be considered.
SOPEP
Purpose of the Plan
 The Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan ("SOPEP") is to be seen as an information from the owners
to the Master of a particular ship.
 It shall advise the Master how to react in case of an oil spill to prevent or at least mitigate negative
effects on the environment.
 The Plan contains operational aspects for various oil spill scenarios and lists communication
information to be used in case of such incidents.
Legal Background
 It is compulsory for all ships of more than 400 Gross Tons (Oil tankers of more than 150 GT) to carry a
SOPEP onboard.
 The required contents is described in MARPOL Convention Annex I Reg. 26.
 "Guidelines for the Development of a Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan" are published by IMO
under MEPC.54(32) 1992 as amended by MEPC.86(44) 2000.
 The SOPEP forms an integral part of the IOPP certificate. It's existence is verified in the Supplement to
the IOPP Certificate.
 In any case the SOPEP has to be approved by the flag state administration of the flag the ship is
presently flying or by a classification society on behalf of this flag.
Scope
 The Plan consists generally of 4 Sections with the mandatory contents and it’s Appendices with
additional information as contact addresses and data plus a set of certain drawings for easy reference
for the Master.
 The provided SOPEP sample plan has been prepared as a general guidance how to write such a plan in
accordance with the new IMO Guidelines as amended in March 2000. It has to be seen as an example
how the contents basically could be written in order to fulfil the requirements
 All pretexted steps and preventive measures have to be seen as an example only.
 The individual SOPEP should be prepared in line with the "Table of Content/ Index of Sections" as per
sample.
 It has to be tailored carefully to the particular ship and company procedures and policies. Specific
instructions should be incorporated according to ship type, purpose, and company requirements.
 Especially for tankers actions in regard to the cargo tanks and cargo handling have to be included in
the instructions.
 The contents of the plan have to be fully in line with the instructions given by the company within the
ISM Safety Management Manual.
 “Remarks to plan writers” can be found on various pages for guiding users where the sample text has
to be tailored as a minimum. These remarks have to be eliminated prior printing.
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Table of Contents
The SOPEP shall consist of the following Chapters:
1. Ship identification data
2. Table of Contents
3. Record of Changes
4. Section 1: Preamble
5. Section 2: Reporting Requirements
6. Section 3: Steps to control Discharges
7. Section 4: National and Local Coordination
8. Minimum Appendices:
 List of Coastal State Contacts
 List of Port Contacts
 List of Ship Interest Contacts
9. Ship's drawings:
 General Arrangement Plan
 Tank Plan
 Fuel Oil Piping Diagram
10. Further appendices on owners' decision
Special parts to observe
 The ship's identification data page may contain the owner's/manager's address. However it is
advisable to list all communication data in the Appendix "Ship Interest Contacts", as changes in
telephone numbers. etc. can be altered by the owners and the amendments need not to be approved.
 The statement about the person being responsible for reporting has to filled in respectively.
 Special remarks about availability of additional information sources have to be entered in the plan only
if they are available.
 It has to be pointed out that assistance in any stability calculations especially in case of any hull
damage can be rendered by this society only if a agreement is existing for the particular vessel within
GL's Emergency Response Service.
 The responsibility schemes for the have to be tailored exactly to the present crew rankings onboard.
Additional entries
According MARPOL following appendices should be added to the SOPEP:
• Coastal State Contacts
(as annually published but quarterly updated in the Internet by IMO)
• Blank form for listing of Port Contact Addresses to be kept up-to-date by the Master
• Ship Interest Contact List (communication data incl. 24hours contact phone no.to owners/managers ,
data abt. charterer, insurance, P&I Club, etc.)
The Coastal State Contact List can be obtained in the Internet pages of IMO under the address
www.imo.org/home.html under navigator "National Contacts" >> for downloading and printing.
Following drawings should be added to the SOPEP for easy reference for the ship's command in case of
an oil spill:
• General Arrangement Plan
• Tank Plan
• Fuel Oil Piping Diagram
Those drawings form the minimum requirement by MARPOL. Further plans may be added if found
appropriate.
Additional voluntary Entries
Additional Appendices can be entered as found necessary by the owners, i.e.:
• Training and drill procedures
• Plan review procedures
• Record keeping procedures
• Public affairs policy
All appendices do not belong to the mandatory part of the plan's contents but have to be kept updated
by the owners as found necessary.
Approval responsibilities
 The approval is a flag state obligation as a part of issuing the IOPP Certificate. If they have authorized
the classification societies to issue this certificate, this authorization generally includes the approval of
the SOPEP.
 Certain Flag administrations offer direct approval services too.
 In some cases GL might be authorized on a case-by-case authorization.
 In case of a transfer of class the approval by the previous classification society or another flag state
authority will generally be accepted. The final decision lies with GL head office.
 If a ship changes to a flag by which GL is not authorized to issue the IOPP Certificate, the approval of
the SOPEP for this flag has to be made by the flag state authority directly, unless a case-by-case
authorization for GL is on hand.
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Procedure
 The SOPEP has to be furnished according to the requirements of the MARPOL Convention by the
owners (possibly by assistance of a consultant/shipyard etc.).
 For approval by GL the plan has to be forwarded to GL Head Office Hamburg in at least 2-fold.
 For ships flying the German flag GL will just pre check the plan and forward it to the flag state
Authority SBG for final approval, in which case at least 3 copies have to be sent to GL HO.
 If a plan is reprinted/copied for approval by GL, which had been formerly approved by another
authority /class, all entries and stamps from the previous authority have to be eliminated.
 The plan will be checked for being in line with the requirements and finally stamped on the cover page.
 One copy will be retained for filing with GL, the remaining copies will be sent back to the owners or the
forwarding party respectively.
Procedure for changes in the plan
 Any changes within the text of the mandatory part will be subject to new approval by GL Head office.
 In case of any changes of the ships particulars - new flag, new owners, new ship' name - an approval
by head office generally is not necessary. A GL surveyor can change the details as necessary by hand
in the original SOPEP onboard with stamping and signing the entries.
 For any special cases of a change please see Special Procedures.
 All necessary changes in the Appendices have to be made by the owners without approval.
 During MARPOL surveys the surveyor will check the presence of an updated SOPEP.
Special Procedures
 In case of a change-of-flag and a previous approval by another flag administration the surveyor can
preliminarily accept the plan for the new flag (in case he is issuing an IOPP Certificate) by a respective
entry. It is necessary that in such a cases the owners forward a copy of the SOPEP with a new
coverage with ship's particulars to GL head office for final acceptance/stamping prior to the issuance of
the full-term IOPP Certificate.
 In case of change-of-flag from German to another flag the surveyor can approve the plan for the new
flag by a hand entry. It is advisable that a new coverage is furnished with new ship's data and to be
forwarded to GL HO for stamping and later exchange in the plan. The German approval document
becomes null and void.
 In case of a admission to class by GL the approval of the SOPEP by the previous classification society
will be generally accepted. The GL surveyor issuing the IOPP Certificate will enter a remark in the
SOPEP about GL's preliminary acceptance of the previous approval. Owners have to forward a copy of
the SOPEP to GL head office for final acceptance/stamping prior to the issuance of the full-term IOPP
Certificate.
 If there is a change-of-flag too, the case will be handled as described above.
FAQ
 My ship is changing her name. Do I have to furnish a new coverage for the ship's identification data?
No! the surveyor altering the certificates for the new name can alter the name also in the original
SOPEP with stamping and signing.
 My ship is changing to another flag. Do I have to send a new SOPEP for approval? No! the surveyor
issuing the certificates for the new flag can alter the details in the original SOPEP with stamping and
signing.
 My ship is changing from a flag where the flagstate approved the SOPEP to a flag where GL is
authorized to approve it. Do I have to furnish a new plan for approval? No! At change-of-flag the
surveyor can make a preliminary remark in the SOPEP about acceptance for the new flag. It is
necessary to send a copy of the SOPEP with an updated coverpage with the ship's particulars to GL HO
for final acceptance/ stamping prior to issuance of the fullterm IOPP Certificate.
 My ship is changing to a flag where GL is not authorized to issue the IOPP Certificate. How can the
SOPEP be further approved? In such case the new flagstate has to approve the SOPEP, unless a case-
by-case authorization is given in writing to GL for approval for the new flag.
 The ship today changed owners and the previous SOPEP was taken off by the old owners. What can I
do to continue trading? A new SOPEP has to be furnished and sent to GL HO for approval as soon as
possible. The surveyor has to attend and to issue a Conditional Interim IOPP Cert. with short validity
only to bridge the time until approval and delivery onboard.
 The telephone number of the company's office has changed. Do I have to send new pages for approval
to exchange in the SOPEP? No! If the numbers are to be changed in one of the pages of the mandatory
part, a surveyor at next possible occasion can alter the entry in the SOPEP with stamping and signing.
If the numbers are only stated in the Appendix "Ship Interest Contacts", they have to be altered by
the owners under own responsibility.
6.5 SHIP/SHORE INTERFACE
SUPERVISION AND CONTROL
 Within the gas trade, the ship/shore interface plays a vital part in operations. It is an area where
differing standards and safety cultures may coexist.
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 There is no major difference between the general operation of a liquefied gas tanker and the
operation of any other type of ship. However, in view of the hazardous cargo transported by a liquefied
gas tanker, the crew must be trained to be extra vigilant and to consider at all times the potential risk
under which the ship, its crew and its cargo are placed.
 Close co-operation between ship and shore personnel is essential for the safe handling of a ship
transferring cargo in a terminal. If the operation is well prepared and if open channels of
communication are maintained between ship and terminal, there is a good chance that the transfer will
be carried out smoothly and that any unexpected incident will be tackled promptly before it can
develop into something more serious.
With respect to the equipment fitted on jetties, the ship/shore interface covers: -
 Moorings
 Fenders
 Breasting dolphins
 Hard arms and hoses
 Ship/shore gangways
 Emergency shut-down arrangements
 Ship/shore links, and
 Fire-fighting equipment capability
 Liquefied gases are loaded and discharged at many terminals around the world by a wide variety of
ship types and sizes. Operations range from the very large self-contained LNG projects to smaller LPG
terminals handling many different products.
The terminal
During the design of a new marine terminal, minimum and maximum ship size is established.
Furthermore, the jetty and its equipment are designed accordingly. Farther offshore, the port approaches
and river channel are surveyed. Once a terminal is ready for service, the relevant information needed by
visiting ships should be advised to the port authority, ship’s agents, pilots and ship owners’ associations.
The ship
Gas carriers are normally built in such a way that there is maximum compatibility with a range of
terminals. Terminal personnel prior to acceptance of any nomination should always confirm compatibility
of any particular ship and terminal from a technical viewpoint. Confirmation should include items such as
mooring studies, manifold configurations and ESD link (Emergency Shut Down) compatibility.
Communications
Communications should start before the intended voyage and continue until the arrival of the ship
alongside: they must also include the period of cargo operations and continue until the ship departs. All
communications should be carried out in a common language so that misunderstanding cannot develop.
Usually, apart from some coastal trades, this will be English.
Prior to arrival
As a ship approaches a port, direct contact should be established between ship and shore as soon as
possible. Modern communications will readily allow the terminal to update the ship on its requirements for
the envisaged transfer operation. Additionally, port requirements, berthing arrangements and the
facilities available can also be advised. Similarly, the shipmaster may inform the terminal of the cargo
arrival temperatures and pressures, stores and bunker requirements and personnel joining or leaving. For
the planning of ship cargo operations, the shipmaster should be advised by the terminal of all port and
terminal requirements relevant to gas carriers.
Alongside the jetty
As for the earlier parts of a ship's voyage described in the foregoing paragraphs, reliable and effective
communications are a necessity once the ship is alongside. While alongside and transferring cargo, various
means of communication need to be agreed. Decisions must be made on the use of portable radios or
telephones. These tools usually form the basis of good communications under normal operating
conditions. However, emergency means of communication must also be developed and this will normally
take the form of an established terminal operating procedure. In many terminals, the actuation of
emergency shut-down (ESD) valves is interlinked between ship and shore. This communication channel
requires a suitable system having plugs and sockets fitted on ship and jetty. Both ship and shore need to
be properly outfitted. Such methods of communication are recommended so that a controlled emergency
shutdown can always be accomplished.
DISCUSSIONS PRIOR TO CARGO TRANSFER
Before the start of any cargo transfer operation, the intended cargo handling procedures must be
thoroughly discussed at a meeting held between the responsible personnel from the ship and the terminal.
The purpose of the meeting is primarily to draw up a suitable cargo plan and to check on safety issues.
Furthermore, the meeting has the benefit of making both sides familiar with the essential characteristics
of ship and shore cargo handling systems. At the meeting, the envisaged operational and safety
procedures and requirements should be covered. Finally, any limitations to be observed during the
transfer should be noted in writing. Written agreements should include a cargo handling plan (including
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transfer rates), communication procedures, emergency signals, emergency shutdown procedure and the
tank venting system to be used.
The content of the meeting will depend on a wide variety of circumstances but the following broad outline
forms the normal basis for such meetings.
(i) The names and roles of terminal and ship personnel who will be responsible for cargo transfer
operations should be noted.
(ii) The terminal representative should check that pre-arrival instructions to the ship on cargo, cargo
disposition and cargo arrival temperature have been carried out. They also check that all necessary ship
equipment inspections and tests have been performed.
(iii) Similarly, the ship's officers should satisfy themselves that the relevant terminal equipment is
satisfactory and that appropriate inspection checks have been carried out.
(iv) The terminal representatives and, where necessary, customs and independent surveyors should be
informed of the cargo tank data, such as:-
Temperatures
Liquid heel or arrival dip
Pressures
Composition of tank vapour, and
Cargo tank quantities
Total quantity of cargo on board
(v) The ship and terminal should then discuss and agree in writing the quantity and types of cargo to be
loaded or discharged and in what order. The anticipated transfer rates and, for discharge, the receiving
tank allocations should also be agreed.
The cargo transfer operation should be planned and confirmed in writing in order to assure full mutual
understanding. The items to be addressed should include:-
 The order of loading or discharging
 The total quantities of cargo to be transferred
 The sequence of discharging and receiving tanks
 The intended transfer rates
 The transfer temperatures and pressures to be expected, and
 The use of vapour return line
(vi) To reconfirm earlier pre-charter advice, the previous three cargoes carried by the ship and the
relevant dates should be noted in order to identify and assess any possible cargo contamination problems,
particularly after ammonia.
(vii) The appropriate Cargo Information Data Sheets should be provided and should be posted in
prominent places on board the ship and within the terminal.
SHIP/SHORE SAFETY CHECK LIST
When a ship is alongside, no cargo operations or inerting should commence until the ship and the terminal
have completed the international Ship/Shore Safety Check List and it has been confirmed that such
operations can be safely carried out. It is normal practice that this checklist is presented to the ship by
the terminal.
Recommendations on the Safe Transport of Dangerous Cargoes and Related Activities in Port Areas were
revised by IMO in 1995. They refer to a comprehensive Ship/Shore Safety Check List covering the
handling of bulk liquid dangerous substances with a special section for liquefied gases. It also includes
guidelines for its completion.
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Berthing and mooring
Berthing
Port and terminal authorities should establish berthing and unberthing criteria for safe operations,
including limiting wind, wave, current and tide conditions. Requirements for the number and size of tugs
must also be set.
Mooring
Mooring line configurations should be agreed as suitable. The initial mooring of the ship to the terminal
and the subsequent tending of moorings is most important if the ship is to be safely held alongside and
damage to transfer facilities and jetty prevented.
Connection and disconnection of cargo hoses and hard arms
Terminal equipment, such as hoses and hard arms, are designed to connect with the ship's manifold.
Irrespective of the type of equipment being used, there are certain operational procedures to be
considered.
No flanges should be disconnected or blanks removed until it is confirmed that line connections
are liquid-free and depressurised and, where possible, inerted with nitrogen or other suitable inert
gas.
Care must be taken to avoid air or contaminants entering cargo pipelines.
The manifold area of a gas carrier is a zone where flammable vapours may be present. Therefore,
care must be taken to ensure that ignition sources are eliminated from this area.
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Cargo tank atmospheres
Prior to any cargo transfer, the oxygen content in the ship's cargo tank vapours should be carefully
checked. As stated elsewhere in this book, at these times the oxygen content should never exceed five
per cent and is commonly required to be not more than two per cent by volume in tanks containing
vapour only. Lower oxygen contents may be required for cargo quality purposes. For example, products
such as butadiene and vinyl chloride, which can react with oxygen to form unstable compounds, require
maximum oxygen concentrations of 0.2 per cent by volume and 0.1 per cent by volume, respectively.
Cargo handling procedures
Cargo handling is described in Chapter Seven but procedural aspects of these operations, directly relevant
to the ship/shore interface, are considered here.
All operations carried out alongside should be under the continuous supervision of experienced ship and
shore personnel. These personnel should be familiar with the details, hazards and characteristics of the
cargoes being handled and capable of ensuring that such operations can be safely and efficiently
completed. Facilities for instant and reliable communications (such as separate telephone, portable radio
or VHF) between the ship and the shore control should be provided at all times during cargo operations.
Before commencing operations, maximum cargo transfer rates have to be agreed. This should be done in
accordance with vapour return specification, ship or shore reliquefaction capacity and emergency shut-
down requirements. Inevitably, some of these considerations may be based on best practical estimates.
Accordingly, during operations, a strict watch should be maintained on flow rates, tank pressures and
temperatures. By means of ship/shore communications, adjustments to initial agreements can be made
as appropriate.
If cargo transfer operations need to be stopped, this should be carried out under previously agreed
controlled conditions with proper communication. If the situation demands an emergency shut-down, the
agreed procedure should be followed, bearing in mind the dangers of excessive surge pressures. It is
particularly important to maintain appropriate communication in emergency conditions and, if the
responsible person becomes over-occupied in controlling operations, the communication task should be
delegated to another officer.
Gangways and ship security
It is the duty of both the ship and the terminal to ensure that adequate and safe ship/shore access is
provided. Where possible, the manifold areas should be roped off to limit the access of personnel to that
area. The gangway should be located away from the immediate vicinity of the manifold and, ideally,
should be positioned about midway between the cargo manifold and the accommodation. As appropriate,
it should be rigged with a strong safety net beneath. Both on the terminal and on board ship it is good
practice to provide a lifebuoy at the gangway entrances. Proper illumination of the gangway and its
approaches should be provided during darkness.
A notice warning against unauthorised personnel should be posted at the gangway and provision should
be made for all ship visitors to be met and escorted to the accommodation.
Bunkering
In general, on gas carriers, bunkering operations by barge will not take place during cargo operations as
this is usually disallowed by terminal regulations. This avoids a bunker craft with possible ignition sources
being allowed alongside the gas carrier.
Bunkering from the shore can be carried out during cargo operations so long as shipside scuppers can be
closed quickly. In case of cargo leakage open scuppers on gas carriers are an important feature to allow
cold liquids to escape quickly so reducing the risk of metal embrittlement and the possibility of small pool-
fires on a ship's deck.
Oil tanker practice is to operate with scuppers closed and, in general, this standard is also applied to
bunkering operations. It is therefore essential for gas carrier port operations to be properly considered in
this respect and either suitable operational procedures must be in place or bunker tank openings and air
pipes should be well bunded so that bunkering from ashore can take place during liquid cargo handling.
Work permits
While a ship is alongside, only under exceptional and well-controlled circumstances should any hot work
(including the use of power tools) be undertaken, either on board or within the vicinity of the ship. In the
unlikely event that such work must be carried out, the most stringent safety precautions and procedures
should be drawn up and rigidly adhered to.
To cover these and similar circumstances, a Permit to Work system should be in place. In the event that
hot or cold work becomes necessary when a ship is alongside, a Work Permit should be agreed between
the ship, the terminal and, where necessary, the port authority. The Work Permit should cover a limited
period and the terms and conditions for which it is issued should be rigidly enforced.
FIRE-FIGHTING AND SAFETY
When a ship is alongside a terminal jetty, it is important that a joint emergency plan be available. The
preparation of such a plan is the responsibility of each terminal. The details of the plan should consider
the appropriate actions to be taken in all envisaged emergencies. This should include communication with
local emergency services and the port authority. A summary of the essential elements within the plan
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should be made available to ships' personnel and an appropriate method of providing this information is
by inclusion of suitable data in the Terminal Information and Regulation booklet.
Whilst a ship is alongside the terminal, fire-fighting equipment, both on board and on shore, should be
correctly positioned and ready for immediate use. Although the requirements of a particular emergency
situation will vary, fixed and portable fire fighting equipment should always be stationed to cover the ship
and jetty manifold area. As described in the Ship/Shore Safety Check List Guidelines, fire hoses should be
laid out with nozzles attached; hoses from fixed dry powder units should be laid out; and portable fire
extinguishers readied for immediate action. The international ship/shore fire connection should also be
made available for use at short notice.
Water spray systems should be tested on a regular basis. Where water sprays are designed to operate
automatically, in the event of fire, the functioning of the automatic devices should be included in the test.
The ship's fire fighting and safety plan should be placed in a container near the gangway. This plan
should provide the most up-to-date information. It is good practice to include a copy of the ship's Crew
List in the container.
7. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS
7.1 Emergency Measures
Emergency shut-down (ESD) - ship/shore link
In any serious incident associated with cargo transfer, on shore or on ship, it is essential to shutdown
cargo flow by stopping pumps and to close ESD valves. All gas carriers and all large terminals have a
system for the rapid emergency shutdown of cargo transfer.
Where gas carriers and terminals are dedicated to each other, as in most LNG projects, terminal and ship
ESD systems are linked during cargo transfer and act in combination.
In general trading of other liquefied gases, the ship and shore ESD systems are not always linked and
consideration must be given to avoiding escalation of an incident by creating disruptive surge pressures at
the ship/shore cargo connection by the over-rapid closure of ESD valves against cargo flow. It is
preferable that in loading a ship, the terminal ESD is actuated and completes its shutdown before the
ship's ESD valves close. Similarly, it is preferable during a ship discharge that the ship completes its ESD
before the terminal's ESD valves close.
It is a growing practice for loading terminals to present the ship with a pendant by means of which the
ship may actuate the terminal's ESD. Similarly, some receiving terminals encourage discharging ships to
provide the jetty with a pendant by means of which the ship's ESD may be actuated from the shore. In
any case it is desirable that the maximum cargo flow rate be limited to that which will not cause excessive
surge pressure should ESD valves downstream of the cargo connection be closed, at their known rate of
closure, against the cargo flow.
While the above procedures and pendant-controls may be suitable in some circumstances, they cannot
always be relied upon, especially in an emergency when personnel may activate the system incorrectly.
To overcome this difficulty, it is recommended that ship and shore systems be fitted with a linked system.
This must be engineered to ensure the appropriate procedure is followed, no matter which party initiates
the shut-down.
7.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
An emergency can occur at any time and in any situation. Effective action is only possible if pre-planned
and practical procedures have been developed and are frequently exercised.
When cargo is being transferred, the ship and shore become a combined operational unit and it is during
this operation that the greatest overall risk arises. In this respect, the cargo connection is probably the
most vulnerable area.
The objective of an emergency plan to cover cargo transfer operations should be to make maximum use of
the resources of the ship, the terminal and local authority services. The plan should be directed at
achieving the following aims:-
Rescuing and treating casualties
Safeguarding others
Minimising damage to property and the environment, and
Bringing the incident under control
7.3 ALARMS
Each gas ship and terminal should have fire-fighting plans and muster lists prominently displayed. These
should be carefully read and understood by all personnel. As a general guide, when a liquid gas fire
occurs, the correct procedure to adopt is as follows:-
Raise the alarm
Assess the fire's source and extent, and if personnel are at risk
Implement the emergency plan
Stop the spread of the fire by isolating the source of fuel
Cool surfaces under radiation or flame impingement with water, and
Extinguish the fire with appropriate equipment or, if this is not possible or desirable, control the spread
of the fire as above
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Raising the alarm and initial action
Fundamental to emergency procedures is how to report and how the alarm should be given to all
concerned. These procedures should be developed independently for the terminal, the ship and the
ship/shore system.
Procedures should warn that a seemingly minor incident may quickly escalate to one of a more serious
nature. Much is gained by immediately reporting any abnormal occurrence, thereby permitting early
consideration of whether a general alarm is desirable.
In the case of incidents on a ship or on a jetty while a ship is alongside, the manpower and facilities
immediately available on the ship will generally make it appropriate that the ship takes first autonomous
action by initiating cargo transfer ESD by the agreed safe means, alerting the terminal to provide
assistance as quickly as possible and immediately putting into action the ship's own emergency procedure.
7.4 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Effective emergency response requires an emergency organisation round which detailed procedures may
be developed. The international character of ocean shipping and its universally similar command
structures lend themselves to the development of a standard approach in ships' emergency planning. For
gas carriers this broad uniformity can be extended further to the development of incident planning. Such
standardisation is of advantage since ships' personnel generally do not continuously serve on the same
ship. It is also of advantage in the handling of incidents in port in that terminal emergency planning can
be more effective if there is knowledge of the procedures a ship is likely to follow.
Outlined below is a suggested emergency organisational structure for gas carriers in port, which has
received wide acceptance. As shown, the basic structure consists of four elements:
(i) Emergency Command Centre. In port the Emergency Command Centre should be established in
the Cargo Control Room. It should be manned by the senior officer in control of the emergency,
supported by another officer and a crewmember acting as a messenger. Communication should be
maintained with the three other elements (see below) and with the terminal emergency control room by
portable radio or telephone.
(ii) Emergency Party. The Emergency Party is a pre-designated group. It is the first team sent to the
scene and reports to the Emergency Command Centre on the extent of the incident. The Party
recommends the action to be taken and the assistance required. The Party is under the control of a senior
officer and comprises officers and other suitable personnel trained to deal with rescue or fire-fighting.
(iii) Back-up Emergency Party. The Back-up Emergency Party stands by to assist the Emergency Party
at the direction of the Emergency Command Centre. The Back-up Party should be led by an officer and
comprises selected personnel.
(iv) Engineers Group. Some engineering personnel may form part of either emergency party.
However, the Engineers Group is normally under the leadership of the chief engineer and has prime
responsibility for dealing with an emergency in the main machinery spaces. Additionally, the Group
provides emergency engineering assistance as directed by the Emergency Command Centre.
Incident plans
In developing plans for dealing with incidents, the following scenarios should be considered:
Checks for missing or trapped personnel

Collision
Grounding
Water leakage into a hold or interbarrier space
Cargo containment leakage
Cargo connection rupture, pipeline fracture or cargo spillage
Lifting of a cargo system relief valve
Fire in non-cargo areas
Fire following leakage of cargo
Fire in a compressor or motor room
7.5 FIRST-AID-TREATMENT
In general
What is health? In short, it is when the physical is in balance with the non-physical, and the
harmonisation here has a natural function. The result is good health. To maintain this, knowledge about
harmonisation is the vital factor in health. Health is different for each one of us based on individual
tendencies and external/internal influences that mark (or chooses to mark) our life.
All crewmembers that sign on a vessel should have been through a medical check in order to have a
regular status of his/her health condition. Life at sea is a special place to work, it is important that the
general health condition at all times is good. What can be done to maintain a good general health
condition on board? The answer is built into the safety and protection of personnel on board. You can also
take care of one another in a good manor by being aware of the risks that may have direct and external
effect on health, regarding the special cargoes carried onboard your vessel.
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The body
The doctrine of how the body is built is called anatomy. The doctrine of the body’s function is called
physiology. This will be roughly illustrated to achieve a synopsis of how the “machine” functions.
The cell
This is the smallest, independent unit of the body and the basis for all living organisms. All the processes
in the body are caused by the chemical reactions that take place in the cells. Cells in different tissue and
organisms co-operate in their duties. The cell has a water content of approximately 70% in addition to
proteins, carbohydrates, fat and inorganic material. All the cells have the same basic structure and a
number of mutually basic qualities. Simultaneously each part of the cell has its function. We all utilise
nutrients both to achieve energy and as “building stones”. In new cell components, glucose (grape sugar)
is the most important energy source. It is important to have nutrient rich and varying diet.
Tissue
Cells that look alike remain lying to form tissue. All surfaces of the body are covered with epithelial tissue
(type of tissue that mainly covers all surfaces, the cavity and channels of the body). Connective tissue and
support tissue forms the tissue network in the body and keeps tissue and organs together. There is an
innumerable of tissues, for example osseous tissue, muscular tissue and nerve tissue. The cell co-
operation is controlled by chemical signals. These signals consist of two types, nerve signals and hormone
signals. These two systems co-operate for an appropriate reaction. This is fully necessary for our survival.
The hormone system controls the activity of many internal organs; the nerve system controls muscles and
glands.
Several organ systems co-operate to keep the composition of tissue fluid constant. The blood renews this
tissue fluid. The blood must circulate the whole time. The duty of the lymph artery is to drain excess
tissue fluid.
The respiratory organs
These absorb oxygen and partly carbon dioxide. Respiration is an exchange of gases between the blood
arteries and the air in the lungs. The blood absorbs oxygen into the body’s cells and partly the excess
carbon dioxide that arises. The respiratory organs consist of the bronchia and the lungs. Gas exchange
between blood and air takes place in the lungs.
The skin
The skin forms an essential boundary to the surroundings, and is the body’s largest “breathing organ”.
The skin consists of different tissue with different qualities and covers the body surface, like an almost
impenetrable protective film. The skin is an important sensory organ with large adaptability.
The immune system
This system protects the body and consists of several parts. There is no possibility of living a normal life
without this defence, as its duty is to render harmless infective agents or other strange material. In
addition to combating infection from outside, this defence system also fights against any internal cell
changes.
Thought, Action, Result, Feeling
Positive thoughts and attitudes together with a healthy diet form the basis for good health. We can do a
lot ourselves by choosing the right things, as we are free to choose.
We now take a look at your work place, onboard a vessel, and the influence this has on your health. We
will also discuss what external influences can be found in the atmosphere and the injuries/incidents that
may occur on board.
Onboard different types of vessels carrying different types of cargo, danger to health from external
influences are considered regarding the vessel’s protective equipment and routines. This protective
equipment is placed practically and can be utilised, as necessary. Familiarise yourself with the equipment
onboard your vessel and use it!
With a sudden injury or illness on board, medical advice and guidance can be gathered from Radio Medico
– the radio medical service for vessels at sea.
It is important to have all the important information when help is needed for a serious condition onboard,
such as:
Age
Sex
Weight
Duration of the illness
Extent of the injury
Symptoms
Patient's comments (complaints)
Clinical findings (sign of a specific illness)
How the injury happened
Character of the pain (grumbling, stabbing, squeezing)
Whereabouts of the pain
Face colour, limpness, drowsiness, temperature, pulse, breathing trouble, nausea, blood, mucus,
urination, etc.
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All of the above is important.
There is a “hospital” onboard containing ordered equipment for treatment and medication. The ship
medical directions regarding the ship’s hospital deal with the maintenance, supply, inspection, etc.
It is important to know how to protect oneself against harmful skin contact, skin absorption and
respiratory absorption of dangerous gases in the atmosphere surrounding us, such as entering tanks and
closed spaces.
Help given in the first minutes of an emergency situation is crucial. All must endeavour to have
respectable first aid skills.
First aid
First aid is used with sudden unconsciousness, stopped breathing and lack of air.
(Call for help, but do not abandon the patient, immediately start helping.)
A Air: Try to free the airflow, lie the patient on a flat surface, bend the head backwards, remove any
dentures, vomit, etc.
B Breathing: If the patient is not breathing, start resuscitation with 3-5 breaths/insufflations. Use the
“Pocket Mask” as an option. Hold the head curved backward, check the pulse on the neck. If pulse is felt,
continue with 12 respiration’s per minute
C Circulation: With deadly paleness and no pulse, give 2-3 powerful knocks over the heart. If this has no
effect, start external heart compression once per second.
ABC
The method stands for air, breathing, and circulation.
The priority of first-aid training and practice is of great importance. The better you are at first aid in an
emergency; the chance of a good outcome is greater.
Heart problems
Heart problems can be suspected if sudden, strong pain behind the breastbone is experienced. For
cardiac arrest, use the ABC.
Shock injuries
Description of shock is acute circular failure. This may be caused by reduced blood volume from bleeding,
shock by drop of blood pressure or reduced pump functions from a cardiac infarction. If a big incident
occurs, shock must be calculated. The symptoms are fast pulse, coldness, pail and difficulty in breathing.
Supply oxygen, warm blankets and fluids.
Head injuries
All knocks against the head must be taken seriously. The symptoms are headache, nausea and dizziness.
Flat bed rest for 2-3 days. Limited fluid intake and be sure to supervise.
Poisoning and etch injuries
Refer to the IMO’s book “Medical First Aid and Guide for use in accidents involving dangerous goods”. This
refers to the data sheets on the different cargo onboard. (This is illustrated later on in this part).
Poisoning and etch injuries appear in connection with cargo contact, as air absorption, swallowing or skin
absorption (skin contact). The symptoms are pink coloured skin, smell of almonds on the breath,
headache, dizziness, nausea and vomiting. Remember that in connection with cargo contact, the
emergency squad should efficiently use protective equipment, gloves etc. Supply oxygen and follow the
instructions on the data sheet for the cargo in question.
Fire injuries
In fire injuries, ensure a stabile lateral position for the patient, if possible. Supply oxygen and fluid. With
fire injuries, quick help is double the help. Quickly cool for at least 20 minutes. Estimate the extent of
the injury. The patient mustn’t freeze. Provide warm blankets and abundant fluid. The patient should
rest, be under supervision, and have their pulse checked. Check the medical box for proper use of
medication and bandages.
Frost injuries
Localised frost injuries on the skin’s top layer begins with a prickling feeling, then ascends to white spots
on the skin. Careless handling of pipeline and cranes onboard vessels, which carry strongly cooled gases,
can lead to localised frost injuries.
Important: Frozen hands and feet must not be warmed up actively with warm water. Cover frozen skin
parts with a soft woollen garment. Do not massage or rub. It helps a lot to warm up frozen skin with
warm skin
Bone, joint & soft part injuries
A lot of injuries are sprains, fracture and soft part injuries. Use the ICE method, as the proper first aid, in
such injuries. ICE means ice, compression and bandage, and elevation.
I – stands for ice. Ice the injury in order to lower the injured spot’s temperature. By doing so, the
bleeding is reduced in the underlying tissue. Swelling and pain will also be reduced.
C - stands for compression bandage or compression. If cooling the injury is not sufficient, compression
around the injured spot is recommended in order to counter the pressure from haemorrhage and reduce
swelling and pain. Confer with the patient regarding the tightness of the bandage.
E – stands for elevation and rest. To decrease the blood pressure and reduce the seepage of blood on and
around the injured place, raise an injured arm or foot to approximately heart height and rest for 1-2 days.
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Intake of poison materials
Poisonous materials can be taken in by inhaling (gas, dust), skin penetration, skin absorption (gas and
liquid) and swallowing (gas and fluid). If any of this occurs, different reactions will occur depending on
the kind of material, how much, etc. Refer to the material’s data sheet regarding treatment. Blood is
most important, since it is the higher brain centre that is first affected from lack of oxygen.
A poisonous material emerges quickly to the brain cells and deprives them of oxygen. This may cause
unconsciousness, at worst death. By inhaling small concentrations, we are exposed to localised effects
(nasal, throat, and lung) or poisonous gas absorption into the blood.
Through skin penetration, gases and fluids are quickly absorbed into the blood and the effects depend on
the characteristic of the material, the velocity of the penetration and poisonous elements. If material is
swallowed, this is easily absorbed by the mucous membrane in the mouth.
The eyes
The eyes are very exposed to any spill or contact to cargo. There is normally irritation, burns and tears
from harmful exposure. It is of utmost importance with a very fast first aid and abundant rinsing with
water.
With all injuries and illness it is of the utmost importance to administer first aid and contact competent
medical help if any doubt of the outcome exists.
Enclosed is a data sheet for Propane, which illustrates the layout and the content of information. There
are such sheets for all types of dangerous cargo, which are made readily available and visible onboard.
The data sheets tell us about the cargo’s character, the emergency procedure for a cargo fire or cargo
spill. There is also information about health hazards, fire, explosion, chemical data, reaction data,
physical data and the condition of the material in freight. Information regarding the quality of material is
required with the freight of the material.
8.1 General cargo handling equipments onboard oil tankers
A tanker is a specialized ship intended for the carriage of bulk liquid cargo. An Oil tanker again is further
divided into 2 basic types, namely Crude Oil Tanker and Product Oil Tanker.
For both of the above the cargo of oil is carried within the tanks similar to the holds of other ships, the
difference being that the bulkheads are extra strengthened to take in the load, and the hatch or rather the
tank openings are very small, the sole purpose of having them is for Man Entry and for small repair work
in the dry docks.
The cargo of oil is loaded on to the ships tanks by pipelines, which are fixed on the ship (permanent
structure), the shore pipelines are connected to the ships pipelines at the manifold on either side of the
ship. Note that some special ships also have manifolds at the bow and at the stern.
The shore pipelines may be connected using flexible steel rimmed rubber hoses (small ports/ Ship to ship
transfers/ SBM) – the flexible come in small lengths are connected to each other to make them long
pieces.
The shore pipelines may also be connected with rigid loading arms – also called ‘chiksons’, which are
remotely controlled and take in the roll of the ship to a certain extent but the fore and aft movement of
the ship has to be kept to a minimum.
The combined pipeline system of the shore and the ship deliver the oil to the cargo oil tanks directly via
the drop lines. These are as the name suggests pipelines, which drop to the bottom of the tanks vertically
from the pipeline on deck – thus bypassing the pump room.
There are various cross- over valves, which are opened in order to load a group of tanks.
The shore system starts to pump/ delivers by gravity (some Persian Gulf ports) at a slow rate, so that any
leakages can be detected and to check whether the right tank is receiving the oil or not, once the shore
and the shipside are satisfied the pumping – loading of the cargo is increased. In case of any subsequent
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leakages that are detected the ship valves should not be shut abruptly, rather the shore has to be
informed first and then only the ship valves are to shut, this to prevent pressure surge from bursting the
pipelines.
To prevent this surge from affecting the pipelines the cargo valves have set times at which they close –
this depends on the size of the valves – typically a 550mm valve would shut at about 24 seconds, whereas
a 250mm valve would shut at 6-8 seconds.
After the ship completes her loading the stage is set for the unloading or discharging operation.
While loading the cargo had by passed the pump room, now however the cargo from the tanks is allowed
to flow to the pump room through the bottom pipelines. Just within the pumproom and at the pumproom
bulkhead are situated isolation valves known as ‘Bulkhead Master valves’, by opening the valves the oil is
led to the pump suction valve and on opening that the oil flows to the centrifugal pumps. Turbines, which
are situated in the Engine Room, commonly drive these pumps; the shaft penetrates the ER bulkhead and
drives the pump situated at the bottom of the pumproom.
The pump accelerates the flow of the oil into the discharge pipeline and this oil is thus led on the deck
pipelines and to the manifold from where it flow through the flexible pipeline or the hard loading arm to
the shore pipeline system.
The Pump Room
This is a cofferdam kind of space – in fact it is accepted as a cofferdam, which begins on main deck and ends at
the keel.
It may have more than 2 decks, however these decks are not normally solid decks but are partial decks made of
expanded metal, so you are able to see right to the bottom.
There would be a companionway leading from the top to the next deck and so on right to the bottom.
At the lowermost deck are situated the Cargo Oil Pumps (COP’s). The numbers of pumps vary in number – for
crude oil tankers it is normal to have 4 pumps, three being used at any one time.
For product oil tankers the number of pumps depend on the number of grade of oil that the ship is capable of
carrying.
So if the ship can carry 4 grades of oil then she would be having 4 pumps.
Once the gravity flow to the COP’s is not possible the stripped pumps are started, these pumps are of the
reciprocating type and have great capacity to create partial vacuum to suck out the remaining oil from the tanks.
Again on a product oil tanker the number of stripped pumps would be equal to the number of grades of oil that
it can carry.
Earlier on Crude oil carrier there would be stripper pumps of the reciprocating type however today largely
eductors are used to remove the remaining oil from the tank. Generally 2 eductors are provided on each crude
oil tanker. However 1 stripper pump is always provided to strip the cargo lines of any residual oil and to pump
the same to the shore system.
The pumproom is a hazardous area as such the light fittings are gas tight and only tanker safety torches are
used. The ventilation system is of the exhaust type and has intakes from all the levels with the intakes being
fitted with closing devices so that if required only a certain level can be evacuated.
Hydrocarbon gases being heavier than air tend to settle at the bottom of the pumproom as such the main exhaust
are always from the bottom level.
The pumproom lighting is devised in such a way that the lights do not come on unless the ventilation has been
started and is kept on for 15 minutes.
AT the top of the pumproom a harness and lifting arrangement is provided to lift out a person from the
lowermost deck, for this reason a clear passage is left vertically from the top to the bottom of the pumproom.
Fire man’s outfit are also placed at the top of the pumproom, the pumproom may have different types of fixed
fire fighting appliances such as total flooding by CO2 or by foam applicators fitted in the bilges (below the floor
plates under the lowermost deck).
Bilge alarms are fitted which give alarms when the bilges are filled – a high level and a low level alarm is fitted
which gives indications in the Engine room as well as in the Cargo Control room.
Picture shows the main deck layout of a Product tanker (capable of carrying 4 grades of oil):
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The same tanker – with the tank layout.
And part of the pump room layout of the same tanker.
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The above shows the location of the drop valves; drop lines, line master, bulkhead master and the bottom lines.
Cargo Oil Pumps (COP)
A centrifugal pump, in the pumproom bottom platform. The dark green pipeline is the discharge line. The
pump consists of an impeller which rotates within the casing. Due to this rotation which is generally about
1000 – 1700 rpm the oil is speeded up and this increase in velocity causes the oil to flow out at a great
pressure. These pumps are capable of delivering a very high rate of discharge (up to 4000 m3/hr). With
this type of pump the level of oil has to be above the pump – as such the pump is situated at the bottom
of the pump room.
Another detail of the same centrifugal pump.The

earlier centrifugal pump situated in the pumproom is driven by a shaft which is connected to the steam
turbine – situated in the ER. The shaft passes from the ER to the pumproom through the pump room
bulkhead via a gas and oil tight gasket.
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The turbines are driven by superheated steam from the boiler in the ER.
Positive displacement pumps such as the reciprocating pump work on the principle of a hand pump – the
movement of the piston creates a vacuum which sucks out the fluid. However the size of the pump is
dependent on the size of the piston and the length of the strokes so for discharging at a high rate is
practically impossible. In general these pumps are used to discharge small quantities of oil such as the
strippings – the balance that the centrifugal pump cannot discharge due to the oil going below the level of
the pump. The pump is used today on crude tankers to strip out the pipelines after discharging and then
collecting these line content (small) and then pumping them to shore.
Eductors
Eductors work on the principles of Bernoulli’s Principle.
A driving fluid is pumped down the main line, with very high velocity, through a constriction, and past a
relatively smaller opening, thus creating a vacuum.
When eductors are used for clean ballast, the driving fluid is seawater.
When used for stripping crude oil, the driving fluid is the cargo itself- delivered by means of a bypass from
one of the main cargo pumps.
When used for stripping tank washings, the driving fluid is from the secondary slop tank and then re-
circulated back to the primary slop tank. In the latter case the driving fluid is either crude oil or seawater,
depending on the tank cleaning method.
Eductors are simple and rugged, have no moving parts, and do not become air locked like other type of
pumps. They are widely used on tankers of all types and sizes.
Tank layout of a crude oil tanker:
The Pipeline system:

Pipeline systems on tankers differ in their degree of sophistication, depending on employment of the
tanker.
ULCC’s and VLCC’s have relatively simple pipeline systems usually the direct line system.
Some product (parcel) tankers may have very sophisticated piping systems. This could be the ring main
system or in case of a chemical product tanker it could mean an individual pipeline and an individual pump
for every tank on board.
Basically there are three systems of pipelines found on tankers, and the fourth system being the free flow
system found on large crude carriers
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Ring Main System
Direct line system
Single line to Single tank system (Chemical/Product ship)
Free Flow system
Ring Main System:
It is generally of a square or circular layout.

It is used mostly on product tankers, as segregation of cargo is required.
Though the system is expensive, as more piping, and extra number valves are used.
However if the vessel is carrying many grades of cargo, the advantages compensate for the extra cost of
the original outlay.
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Direct Line System:
This system is mainly found on crude oil carriers where up to 3 grades of cargo can be carried as most of
the direct pipeline systems is fitted with three direct lines.
This system is cheaper to construct. The disadvantages over the ring main system, is that line washing is
more difficult, the system has fewer valves which make pipeline leaks difficult to control, as the system
lacks versatility there is problem with line and valve segregation.
This system provides the vessel to carry as many grades as there are tanks.
The disadvantage is the cost factor having a multitude of pumps on board.
Free flow Tanker:
This system is usually found on large crude carriers, where the cargo piping is not used for the discharge
of cargo.
Instead, gate valves are provided on the bulkheads of the tanks which when opened; allow the oil to flow
freely in the aft most tank and into the COP.
The advantages of this system are primarily the cost factor, it allows for fast drainage and efficient means
of pumping the cargo tanks. Disadvantages are of single crude being shipped.
Independent System:
This layout is not very common in the tanker trade.
This system is quite normal on chemical ships.
There are some Product Tankers that have this system fitted on the ships.
This is a single line servicing an individual tank through an independent pump that could be either a
submersible pump or a deep well pump.
8.2 Cargo handling equipments onboard chemical tankers

TANKS, PIPING AND HOSES
Tanks in the cargo area are:
 Cargo tanks
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 Slop tanks
 Segregated ballast tanks
Cargo piping systems in chemical tankers are generally very simple. To a large extent there are individual
runs of piping’s all the way from the deck manifold through the pump room to each cargo tank. The
primary aim is, of course, to eliminate the risk of contamination between cargo parcels and to reduce
cleaning problems, but also to enable simultaneous discharge from several tanks to shore and, perhaps,
also to lighters alongside.
In the pump rooms there are generally two pumps as standby for each other. They are each normally
connected to a group of tanks arranged for the same types of cargoes. Grouping of tanks is made with
regard to tank coating, ship’s trim etc.
In ensuring efficient, accident free operation of the basic cargo handling system, the designer must bear
the following requirements in mind:
 The minimum length of cargo pipes
 Direct filling into the tank
 Cargo pumps
 Closing valves, blanks, spool pieces, etc. if connected to more than one tank.
 Easy access for cargo line cleaning and inspection.
The advent of deepwell pumps has made it possible to bring the cargo line directly up to the open deck
from the tank it serves, thus giving the shortest possible line from tank to manifold. And if the tanks can
be filled directly through the pump, then the need for a direct filling line has also been obviated.
Valve or double valve separation is never acceptable means of cargo segregation in the chemical trade.
For normal cargo segregation simple blind flanges are acceptable. Double blind flanges with drain in
between (or removable pipe bend) are used to safeguard 100% against contamination. Vessels with
submerged pumps normally have no connection possibilities between tanks or pipes except at the midship
manifold. Control of segregation is therefore safe and easy.
The small hose connection in pump room and deck for steaming or blowing with air (e.g. for blowing the
hoses, cleaning, gas freeing or removal of odours) the cargo piping should have normally caps on to
prevent leakage, if any of the small valves should happen to open inadvertently. Expansion glands are not
permitted on cargo piping in chemical tankers. The use of stainless steel bellows should be avoided below
deck. Expansion of cargo piping could best be accommodated by arranging the piping in suitable natural
bends.
Some chemical tankers have small additional cargo tanks located on deck.
The slope Tanks are tanks dedicated for tank washing and cargo residues. The cargo tanks may also be
used as slop tanks. The segregated ballast tanks are tanks dedicated for ballast only.
The segregated ballast tanks are equipped with an independent pumping system in order to avoid
contamination from noxious cargoes.The cargo tanks may also be used for ballast.
The construction materials in tanks, piping, hoses and equipment containing cargo liquid and vapour are
resistant to the cargo.
The common fixed piping arrangement in a cargo tank are:
 Discharge line
 Cargo ventilation line
 Drop line
The main purpose of the discharge line is to lead the cargo from the cargo tank to the cross over by
means of a cargo pump.
It is sometimes desirable for various reasons (e.g. contamination) to load a tank “over top” directly down
the hatch. For certain types of cargoes, particularly kerosene’s (jet fuels), static electric charges may
accumulate due to high velocities in pipes or free falling droplets. In order to avoid the risk for electric
discharge sparks the hose should be secured near the bottom of the tank. Loading should commence very
slowly so that the hose movements do not occur and liquid velocities are kept below 1 m/s in the
beginning.
Important: check that the exterior of the hose will not be attacked by the product. A better solution is to
arrange permanent drop pipes with flanges on deck, terminating only a few cm. above the tank bottom.
The main purpose of the ventilation to ventilation line is to lead vapour from the cargo tank to the cargo
ventilation tower.
The cargo vapour flow may be regulated by a pressure/vacuum valve in the ventilation line. See fig.
4.1.5.The vent outlets are arranged to prevent entrance of water into the cargo tanks and, at the same
time, should direct the vapour discharge upwards.
The vent outlets are provided with flame screen or safety heads.
In chemical tankers one finds all common types of valves in the cargo system, gate valves, seat valves,
membrane valves, ball valves, butterfly valves etc. The common factor is that a high degree of tightness
than usual is required. Stainless steel is often used for valves in chemical tankers, the main reason being
to avoid rust contamination of the cargo. In some cases stainless steel is a necessity, e.g. with corrosive
cargoes like phosphoric acid.
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All cargo tank valves must be operable from deck as per classification rules. It is of great advantage,
particularly with hazardous cargoes, that the more frequently used valves in the pump room are also
arranged with remote control from the deck. Thereby one can reduce the number of visits to the pump
room during discharge which will increase efficiency and a reduction of risk to personnel.
CARGO HOSES
The chemical tankers are provided with cargo hoses.
The cargo hose may be a weak part of the cargo handling system and that incorrect handling of the hose
will increase the danger of fire, health hazard and pollution.
In some trades cargo hoses are carried abroad. This gives the vessel added responsibility for safety during
cargo handling in port. The IMCO Code, ref (25) rules that the cargo hoses must be inspected by the
officer Incharge before they are taken into use each time and that pressure tests shall be carried out.
The burst pressure for new hoses shall be atleast 5 times the working pressure of the hose.
The hose shall be inspected and pressure tested as per National Regulations. This normally means annual
tests. It is advisable to have a representative of the maker inspect the hose during the testing. The
procedure includes measuring the lengthwise elongation during pressure increase from 1 kp/cm 2 to
working pressure (max permissible elongation 10%) and resulting elongation when back to 1 kp/cm2 (max
2.5%). Test pressure shall normally be working pressure + 25%. The hose shall lie straight on flat ground
during tests and shall be rolled backwards and forwards to enable it to stretch freely. The condition of
internal liner and flange connections to be inspected in particular. Check hose wall for delaminations and
flange connections for creep. British standard BS 1435/54 gives further details. Check electrical bond
between flanges. See fig. 4.1.5
Hoses should be stored, after cleaning, in a well ventilated location protected from direct sunlight. Blind
flanges should preferably be fitted during storage. Hoses should not be stored together with other ship
stores etc. but should be kept in a special room. Storage in the common forecastle is not advisable in a
chemical tanker. Nitril rubber lined hoses should be oiled inside after solvent or gasoline pumping, e.g.
with a lubricating oil.
The maker will state what products the hose is suitable for and his advice must be followed. As a general
guide, however, below are mentioned some common materials used for hose linings and their typical
services and limitations.
REF: IBC CODE CHAPTER 5
Ship’s cargo hoses
Liquid and vapour hoses used for cargo transfer should be compatible with
the cargo and suitable for the cargo temperature.
Hoses subject to tank pressure of the discharge pressure of pumps should be designed for a bursting
pressure not less than 5 times the maximum pressure the hose will be subjected to during cargo transfer.
Each new type of cargo hose, complete with end fittings, should be prototype tested to a pressure not less
than 5 times its specified maximum working pressure. The hose temperature during this prototype test
should be the intended extreme service temperature. Hoses used for prototype testing should not be used
for cargo service. Thereafter before being placed in service, each new length of cargo hose produced
should be hydrostatically tested at ambient temperature to a pressure not less than 1.5 times its specified
maximum working pressure but not more than two fifths of its bursting pressure. The hoses should be
stenciled or otherwise marked with its specified maximum working pressure and if, used in other than
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ambient temperature services, its maximum and minimum service temperature as applicable. The
specified maximum working pressure should not be less than 10 bar gauge
CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL AND COATINGS

All materials used for the construction and associated piping, pumps and valves must be resistant to the
cargoes carried. Mild steel is the normal material used for chemical tanker construction. Mild steel is fairly
resistant to most chemicals but its propensity to rust makes it unsuitable for chemical cargoes. Rust
makes tank cleaning more difficult and may also contaminate the cargo. In order to avoid the
contamination of cargo and to obtain a smooth surface on tank structure, mild steel cargo tanks on
chemical tankers are always coated internally with paint resistant to groups of chemicals. No coating today
is suitable for all cargoes shipped in chemical tankers. A “coating resistant list” for each coating system
used in various cargo tanks on board is available on board. This list must be consulted before a cargo is to
be loaded in a coated tank. Most chemical tankers have their cargo tank sections divided into some coated
tanks and some stainless steel tanks.
The stainless steel tanks may be “clad” or solid. Clad steel consists of a mild steel plate with a veneer of
stainless steel of about 2mm thickness. Stainless steel is resistant to a very large group of chemicals. It
must however be borne in mind that stainless steel is not “stainless” or corrosion resistant unless it is
handled properly. Stainless steel manufacture’s or owner’s instructions for maintenance of stainless steel
tanks and piping must be strictly followed by ship’s personnel.
Main types of tank coatings in use today in a chemical tanker’s cargo tanks are:
 Zinc silicate
 Epoxy
 Phenolic resin
 Polyurethane
Each type of coating is resistant to certain groups of chemicals.
Chemical tankers dedicated to the carriage of highly corrosive cargoes may have their cargo tanks rubber-
lined. Rubber-lining has been used in the cargo tanks of chemical tankers carrying organic acids.
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PUMPS AND UNLOADING SYSTEMS
The main cargo pumps fitted abroad Chemical Tankers are mainly of the centrifugal type. These pumps
may be of the deepwell type placed in the cargo tanks or placed in a pump room. The screw pumps and
piston pumps are also used in some unloading systems e.g. Asphalt & molasses. The cargo pumping
systems on chemical tankers are designed to minimize cargo remnants after discharge.
In addition to the main unloading pumps there are arrangements for alternate unloading. The alternate
unloading may be done by means of portable cargo pumps or educators. See fig. 4.3.1 to 4.3.4.
4.3.2
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4.3.3 (A)
4.3.3
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Deepwell pumps have been used for many years in gas tanker and are now found more and more in
chemical tankers. Deepwell pumps are of two different types; High Pressure pumps is 4-6 staged for direct
discharge as hore and low pressure pumps, which only “lift” the cargo to deck level where booster pumps
transfer the cargo ashore with necessary pressure. In the latter case only limited power is needed for
deepwell pump drive and system is suited for hydraulic transmission. For the high pressure deepwell
pumps one also find hydraulic drives and also electric flame proof motors on the deck.
After completing, the discharge of a tank the riser pipe remains full of liquid, which returns to the tank. It
is practical to arrange a well in the tank bottom with a volume corresponding to the pipe volume. In fig.
4.3.3 is shown a system whereby the riser pipe can be blown empty without cargo returning to the
tank.The deepwell pump shaft bearings are lubricated by the product itself. Remember the pumps must
not run dry.
The principal problem faced by the designer in laying out a piping system for a chemical tanker is
flexibility. Obviously, the best and safest system is one incorporating one live, one deepwell pump and one
manifold port and starboard for each tank. However, on a vessel with as many as 50 tanks, problem of
cost and space make this type of layout costly. One way around the problem is to use one pump in each
tank and on the main deck, combine a group of tanks to a common line and manifold with the necessary
closing valves fitted on the main deck to isolate the main line from the branch lines. Another solution to
the question of piping systems, especially in the case of special cargoes, would be the incorporation of the
pump rooms, usually centralizing at various strategic points along with the cargo space. However, pump
rooms have the following disadvantages:
a) loss of valuable cargo volume
b) possibility of vapour leakage
c) difficulty in cleaning lines and pumps
d) potential danger of accidents due to inaccessibility
Chapter II and IV of IMO Code include strict requirements for pump rooms such as their prohibition of the
cargo has a low Threshold Limit Valve (TLV) and is virtually odourless.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS SAFE HANDLING
Particularly when pumping heavy liquids (with centrifugal pumps) such as acids or caustic soda one should
keep in mind that centrifugal pumps absorb most power at low heads (when counter pressure is low).
In order not to overload the pump motor, throttling at pump delivery and may become necessary when
discharging at terminals with low counter pressure.
The pumps must not run dry (in case of deepwell pumps) because bearing are lubricated by the cargo.
Before starting pumps cargo should be taken to ensure that they are free, if possible by turning manually.
Pumps should be started with discharge valves shut or slightly open (according to manufactures
instructions to reduce pressure surge and motor current).
Pumps should not be allowed to cavitate. Protection equipment for same to be maintained in working
condition.
CARGO HEATING SYSTEMS
Some cargoes have to be heated by the ship cargo heating system to remain pumpable. The main reason
for cargo heating is to prevent cargoes from solidifying. The heating medium may be steam, water or
thermal oils.
See fig. 4.4.1 showing a cargo heating system using heating coils fitted inside the cargo tank. Steam is
still the most common heating medium. The maximum steam temperature should preferably be 130-150.c
(3-5 kp/cm2). Among common cargoes sensitive to overheating are vegetable oils and phenols. For
asphalt cargoes the steam temperature has to be considerably higher 200 – 250.c. for liquid sulphur on
the other hand the viscosity increases suddenly around 160 . c.
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The heat transfer from the coils is then reduced drastically, and this cargo may “freeze” in spite of a rise in
coil temperature. For liquid sulphur therefore the maximum steam temperature should not exceed 160 . c.
for most cargoes, however, thermal oil for heating is a more modern answer.
Steam coils in chemical tankers are generally made of stainless steel (AISI 316L). There should be atleast
two individual coils in each tank, each of a capacity corresponding to the tanker’s nominal requirement.
Each coil should have its own steam trap, regulating valve and a cock for “blowing through” over deck.
Important: each individual coil (supply and return) to each tank should have means of easily being blind
flanges. Further, the main steam pipes and returns should have means for easy blind flanging on deck
outside the engine room. Such blinding should, as a matter of routine, be carried out as soon as a cargo
not requiring heating is to be loaded. Too many explosions have occurred in engine rooms due to the
return condensate being contaminated with cargo. Before taken in use the coils should be blown through
over deck in order to prevent that no cargo has leaked into them when they were out of service.
Thermal oils are becoming popular as a heat transfer medium in heating coils. Thermal oils are
hydrocarbons with particular resistance against oxidation and carbonization. The oil is circulated through a
fired tube boiler and the heating coils in the tanks. There is often an intermediate heat exchanger too so
that the fluid is divided into two independent loops in series. Oil temperatures upto 250 .c can be used but
the interesting point lies in the fact that the system is easily regulated to whatever low temperature the
cargo may require to avoid damage to it. (e.g. vegetable oils, phenol)
Thermal oils are very penetrating. In order to avoid contamination of cargoes only gaskets of
recommended types should be used. Some oils require nitrogen blanketing in the expansion tank as a
safeguard against oxidation. The thermal boiler itself is sensitive to overheating, should the oil circulation
cease. It is therefore provided with safety flow alarms and temperature alarms.
Some ships have a hot water circulation system for the cargo tanks, usually heated by steam.
There has recently been introduced a recirculation heating system whereby the cargo is being pumped
through a heater located on deck. See fig. 4.4.2 & 4.4.3.
There is always a certain risk of cargo leakage into the heating coils and hence to the engine room and
boilers. The IMCO Code Ref (25) and Classification rules have taken this risk into consideration and
require for toxic cargoes that any of the following precautions are taken:
 The system shall serve the cargo tank heating only, without communication with our piping
systems on board (example: thermal oil system for the cargo tanks only or a thermal oil system in
two loops where the tank heating is the secondary loop.
 The steam condensate from the coils is collected in a tank outside the engine room and checked for
presence of contaminants before recycling.
 The steam condensate is continuously monitored for presence of contaminants.
 The tanks are being heated from the outside (e.g. by circulation of steam in channels welded to the
outside of the tank bulkheads). This method has been used in several instances.
8.3 Cargo Handling Equipments on board Gas Tankers

Centrifugal pumps are utilised as main unloading pumps on gas tankers. The unloading pumps are located
down in the cargo tank’s swamp or as close to the tank bottom as possible. This is because the centrifugal
pumps do not suck, and are thereby dependent upon good drainage. The pumps are either, the deepwell
pump type, submerged type or booster pump. Normally, the number of revolutions on deepwell and
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submerged pumps lie on 1300 – 1800 RPM. Pumps driven with hydraulics have the advantage that the
number of revolutions can be adjusted. Electrically driven pumps normally have a stated number of
revolutions, but lately they are delivered with a variable number of revolutions, for example 1370/800
RPM.
Booster pumps normally have revolutions from 3500 – 4000 RPM. It is very important to follow the user
manual supplied by the pump manufacturer to ensure what to do before we start a pump, and what
routines to follow at overhaul and inspection of the pumps.
1.1 DEEPWELL PUMP
Deepwell pump is the pump type that is often used on gas tankers. Deepwell pumps are pumps with a
long shaft between the driving motor and the pump. The shaft goes inside the tank’s discharge pipe from
the pump up to the tank dome. The discharge pipe is a solid pipe that goes up through the tank and out to
the flange on the tank dome to the liquid line. The discharge pipe is constructed with several lengths with
pipes, and there is a shaft bearing on each flange. The bearings are lubricated and cooled down by the
liquid that is pumped from the tank. It is very important not to run the pump without liquid. This may
result in damage of bearings and then the shaft.
The motor that drives the pump is either electric or hydraulic. There is a mechanical sealing device
between the motor and the discharge pipe in the cargo tank. When using the pump, we must have at least
one bar higher pressure on top of the mechanical seal than we have in the tank. It is important to closely
read the pump’s user manual about the routines before discharging, because the routines vary some from
different manufacturer.
1.1.3 Submerged pump

Submerged pumps are multistage centrifugal pumps that are often used as discharge pumps on large LNG
and LPG tankers. The motor and pump are submerged down in the tank sump or as close to the tank
bottom as possible. The motor is connected directly to the pump with a short shaft on this type of pump.
The liquid that is pumped lubricates and cools the pump’s bearings. It is therefore essential that the pump
is used only when there is liquid in the tank. The liquid is pumped up through the tank’s discharge pipe
and up to the liquid line.
This type of pump is equipped with electrical motor. The cables to the electric motor are either made of
copper or stainless steel. If copper is used in the cable, the cables must be sheathed with stainless steel to
prevent damage on the cable from corrosive cargoes. When transporting Ammonia, the cable and engine
must be sheathed with a thin layer of stainless steel. It is important that the stainless steel sheathing is
kept unbroken, and we must avoid a sharp bend on the cable to protect the stainless steel sheath. One
must at all times check the resistance of the cable insulation before starting the pump.
Submerged pumps are also installed as portable pumps. The discharge pipe is then the steering pipe for
the pump. At the bottom of the discharge pipe it is a non-return valve that opens when pump is lowered
and shut when the pump is taken up. Before opening the discharge pipe it must be gas freed, this is done
either with inert gas or Nitrogen.
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1.1.4 Booster pumps

Booster pumps mentioned here are auxiliary pumps for cargo handling. The pump is one-staged
centrifugal pump and is often installed on deck near the pipe manifold. The booster pumps on gas tankers
are used either as a main discharge pump, auxiliary discharge pump, deck tank supply pump or heater
feed pump.
The booster pumps are driven with electric or hydraulic motor. The engine and the pump are connected
together with a short shaft with coupling in
between. It is very important that the motor and the pump are aligned according to the manufacturer
manual, and the clearances specified inside are followed.
Booster pumps that are regularly utilised should, as a good rule, be turned by hand once a week to
prevent destruction of the motor and pump bearings. It is important that the booster pumps are blended
off on LPG/LEG tankers when carrying cargo with lower temperature than –50oC. Booster pumps are rarely
designed for temperature lower than –50oC.
1.1.5 Hold spaces and inter barrier spaces

In hold space and inter barrier space there is requirement of drainage system separated from the
machinery drain system. The drain system could be submerged pumps, deepwell pumps or ejectors.
These pumps can be used to drain water or cargo spill from the bilge.
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Generally, there are spool pieces (short pipe pieces) that are produced especially for each hold space and
on each side and fit both to the cargo system and the seawater system. It is important that the spool
pieces are disconnected, and the flanges are blinded off when the bilge system is not in use.
Example of ejector in hold space
1.2 LOADING LINES, PIPES AND VALVES

Loading lines and pipes
The loading lines and pipes mentioned here refer to gas carrier’s cargo handling system. This involves
liquid lines, vapour lines, condensate return lines, lines to vent mast, pipes inside the cargo tank and
seawater pipes to the cargo cooling plant.
All loading lines on gas carrier: liquid lines, gas lines and lines to vent mast have the same requirements
as pressure vessels regarding of temperature and pressure they are meant to handle. All welding on pipes
exceeding 75 mm in diameter and 10 mm wall thickness or more must be X-rayed and classed by the
class company. The same regulation do we have on flanges and spool pieces also.
All loading lines outside the cargo tank must be produced by material with melting point no less than
925oC. The loading lines on gas carriers are mostly produced of stainless steel, but low temperature nickel
steel is also in use. All loading lines with an outside diameter of 25 mm or more must be flanged or
welded. Otherwise, lines with an outside diameter less than 25 mm can be connected with treads.
Loading lines designed for cargo with low temperature, less than –10oC must be insulated from the ship
hull. This to prevent the ship hull to be cooled down to below design temperature. The hull has to be
protected against cold cargo spill under spool pieces and valves on all liquid lines. This is done with wood
planks or plywood. To prevent cold cargo spill on the hull plates, a drip tray must be placed under the
manifold flanges.
All lines that are thermally insulated from the hull must be electrically bonded to the hull with steel wire or
steel bands. On each flange on lines and pipes where gaskets is used, there must be electrical bonding
with steel wire or steel band from flange to flange.
On all cargo lines where it can be liquid it is required with safety valve. Vapour from the safety valve
outlet must go back to the cargo tank or to the vent mast. If the return goes to vent mast the pipe must
be equipped with a liquid collector to prevent liquid to the vent mast. The safety valve’s set point is
dependent upon the pressure for which the line is designed. The safety valves must be tested and sealed
by the ship Class Company.
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1.2.3 Valves
The most common valves used on the cargo handling equipment on gas carriers are ball valves, butterfly
valves and seat valves. All valves used on cargo lines have to be installed with flanges, and the valves
must be electrically bonded to the line either with steel wire or steel bands.
1. Ball valves
On semi and fully refrigerated gas carrier’s ball valves are often used on the cargo lines and cargo cooling
plant. The ball valves tolerate high pressure and large thermal variations, and they are also approved for
chemicals. The valve seats and sealing devices are produced in Teflon, the ball and spindle is produced in
stainless steel. The ball valve principle function is the pressure on one side of the ball forces the ball
against the seat and the valve is closed. If the pressure is equal on both sides of the valve, leakage may
occur.
On some types of ball valves the ball is fastened to the spindle, other types of ball valves have floating
ball. With a floating ball the pressure is equal all around the ball, and the ball is pressed even toward the
seat. With the ball fasten to the spindle it is pressed aslant towards the seat and the valve seat can be
damaged and the valve will leak.
Frequently, particles are left between the valve ball and the valve house, and these particles can easily
cause damage to the valve seat and the ball. The valves must from time to time be opened and the ball
and seat have to be cleaned especially the manifold valves. There is a drain hole on the ball itself. It is of
importance to ensure that when the valve is closed, the drain hole pointing where it is least natural
pressure, then the liquid inside the ball can be drained or boiled off. This prevents large pressure inside
the ball, liquid expansion and wreckage of the sealing devices around the spherical occurs.
Sketch of operation of drainage hull:
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Advantages:
Ball valves tolerate large pressure and thermal variations due to the shape of the ball. Tolerates both
gases and chemicals. Easy to maintain and overhaul.
Disadvantages:
The valves are expensive, and have costly spare parts. They can be difficult to shut at temperatures down
to –90oC and colder (this can be relieved by adding a thin packer between the to parts of the valve
house). Ball valves are unfavourable as regulation valves, as it is difficult to adjust to low flow through
the valve.
1.2.4 Butterfly valves
Butterfly valves are often used on the seawater line on gas carriers, such as water to heat exchanger
(cargo heater), seawater condenser, oil cooler, the compressors etc. Butterfly valves are also often used
on lines with large diameter as cargo lines, where there is not such a large pressure or thermal difference.
Butterfly valves should be moved at regular intervals to prevent the seat from fastening and be damaged
and cause leakage valve.
Advantages:
This type of valves has more reasonable price than ball valves. They have lower weight than ball valves to
corresponding pipe diameters. They are better than ball valves for regulation of flow.
Disadvantages:
They are exposed to cavitation damage on the valve seat and flap when too high liquid flow through the
valve. They are less suitable at low temperatures than ball valves.
1.2.5 Seat valves
Seat valves are frequently used as one-way valves (check valves) on loading lines, as the pressure valve
on the discharging pump, on condensate return lines back to the cargo tank and on the inert gas lines.
Seat valves are opening by turn the spindle anti clockwise and the valve seat can wander freely on the
spindle. When the pressure increases in the line under the valve seat, the seat is lifted up and the valve is
open. When the pressure ceases under the valve seat or the pressure increases above the valve seat, the
valve seat will drop down and shut the valve. Opening or choking the valve regulates the amount of flow
through the valve.
Example on seat valves:
Sketch on spring-loaded seal valve:
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Seat valves that are used as check valves, must be overhauled at regular intervals, and especially the seat
and contact faces must be polished/grounded as they are expelled for mark and wear and tear when the
valve operates often. The seat valves must also be moved regularly when they are not in use for a long
period of time.
Advantages:
The seal valves are reliable and simple to operate. Have large range of utilisation. Have few wearing
parts. Reasonable to maintain.
Disadvantages:
Require strict inspection. Start leaking if wrongly operated.
4. Needle valves
Needle valves are used for regulation of cargo cooling plants, both air regulation and for regulation of
Freon in cascade cooling plants. The needle valve is the valve type that empirically is best suited for
regulation of low flow volume.
HEAT EXCHANGER
Heat exchangers are utilised in several different parts of cargo handling on gas carriers, as heat
exchangers (cargo heater), condensers for cargo cooling plant, vapour risers, super heaters and oil coolers
for compressors. In most of the heat exchangers seawater is used as the medium on gas carriers, which
the products are cooled or heated against.
The heat exchangers that are used for cargo handling must be designed and tested to tolerate the
products the gas carrier is certified for. Heat exchangers that are used for cargo handling are considered
as pressure vessels, and IMO requires one safety valve if the pressure vessel is less than 20 m 3 and two
safety valves if it is above 20 m 3. All heat exchangers that are used for cargo handling must be pressure
tested and certified by the gas carriers Class Company.
Heat exchangers where water is used as the medium and are utilised for heating have little or no effect
with water temperature less than 10 oC. Seawater became ice at about 0 oC and starts to free out salt at
about 50oC. So with operating temperatures with a larger variation than from 10 oC to 45oC, one ought to
use another cooling medium than seawater. Some terminals do not accept water as medium in heat
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exchangers, therefore one must either heat the cargo on route at sea or the gas carrier must have heat
exchangers that do not use water as medium.
It is of importance to ensure that the water out of a heat exchanger is never below 5oC. These prevent the
water in the heat exchanger from freezing and eventually damage the heat exchanger.
1. Tube heat exchangers
Tube heat exchangers are produced with tube bundles either as straightened pipes or u-formed pipes
placed into a chamber. The pipes in the tube bundle have an inside diameter on 10 to 20 millimetres.
There is a cover installed on each end of the chamber to clean the pipes more easily and maintain these.
It is, at all times, important to ensure that the velocity of the liquid that is being pumped through the heat
exchanger is not too high, to prevent cavity damage in the tube bundle or the end covers.
The tube bundle is made of stainless steel, carbon steel, copper-nickel alloy, aluminium-brass alloy or
titan.
Which choice of material one decides to choose, depends on the product one will operate and the costs
associated with the investment and maintenance.
In tube heat exchangers, where seawater is used as medium, the product to be heated goes in the tube
bundle. This prevents remaining seawater from freezing or prevents remnants of salt deposits inside the
tubes. Tube heat exchangers must at regular intervals be cleaned to prevent particles from settling inside
the tubes in the tube bundle or in the end covers. One must closely check for cavity damage when
cleaning the heat exchanger. Ensure that the gasket is produced in a quality that tolerates the products
and temperature one operates it with. Also, ensure that the gasket is correctly placed.
2 Plate heat exchangers
Plate heat exchangers are more utilised in cold storage plants on shore, for example in the fish industry
and the meat industry. Plate heat exchangers are built with thin plates with double liquid channels. The
plates are installed with the flat side toward each other. The cooling medium and product are pumped
each way in the channels to achieve the best possible cooling or heating. Water or oil is used as the
cooling medium and is dependent upon the temperature of the product that is to be cooled or heated.
Plate heat exchangers are also used as condensers on newer cargo cooling plants aboard gas tankers.
Plate heat exchangers must be cleaned at regular intervals to prevent the channels from clogging with salt
deposits or particles from the medium or the product. One must ensure, after cleaning, that the gaskets
are properly placed, and that one uses gaskets that tolerate the medium and temperatures one operates
within the heat exchanger
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3 Different heat exchangers utilised onboard gas carriers for cargo handling
Cargo heater:
A cargo heater is used to heat the cargo when discharging to an ambient shore tank. A cargo heater is
also used when loading a fully pressurised gas carrier with cargo with temperature less than –10oC.
Seawater or oil is used to heat the cargo in the cargo heater. It is of importance to remember that the
cargo heater is full of water and have good flow out with water before letting cold cargo into the heater.
Fully pressurised gas carriers are carriers that are designed to transport condensed gases at ambient
temperature, and they normally don’t have cargo cooling plant.
5. Cargo condenser:
Cargo condensers in a direct cargo cooling plant condensate the vapour against sea water, Freon or other
medium as propylene after it is compressed in the cargo compressor. Cargo condensers in a direct cargo
cooling plant can on some gas carriers also be used as cargo heaters and are designed in low temperature
steel that tolerates a minimum of –50oC.
6. Intermediate cooler
An intermediate cooler is used in a 2-stage direct cargo cooling plant and cascade cooling plant. Vapour
from the first stage on the cargo compressor is pressed down on the bottom of the intermediate cooler
and is condensed against the cargo liquid in the bottom. The cargo compressor’s 2 nd stage sucks
simultaneously from the top of the intermediate cooler to keep the pressure down. Floaters or D/P-cells
regulate the liquid level in the intermediate cooler. The condensate inside the coil came from the cargo
condenser and is under cooled by the liquid in the intermediate cooler before it is pressured further back
to the cargo tank.
1. Sketch of intermediate cooler
Freon condenser:
Water is used to condense Freon in the Freon condenser in a cascade cooling plant. The liquefied Freon is
used to condensate the cargo in the cascade cooling plant’s cargo condenser. Liquefied Freon is also used
in indirect cargo cooling plants. The condensate is then pumped in pipe coils, and cools either directly on
the tank steel or as a cooling medium for ethanol or other mediums.
Vapour riser:
A vapour riser is used to produce vapour from the cargo liquid. Steam or heated oil is used to heat up and
vapour rise the liquid. The liquid is pumped from one of the cargo tank, deck storage vessel or from a
shore tank and into the vapour riser. The vapour is used to gas up or maintains the pressure in one or
several cargo tanks.
Oil coolers:
The cargo cooling plants oil coolers use water as a cooling media. The oil coolers must hold the oil
temperature on the different compressors within the specifications determined by the manufacturer of the
cargo cooling plant.
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2. CARGO COOLING PLANT
1. Compressors
Compressors are used as vapour pumps in all modern cargo cooling plants, either to compress or pump
cargo vapour. Compressors are also used to compress or pump cooling medium as Freon vapour on
indirect cargo cooling plant and cascade plant. The compressors in the cargo cooling plants are produced
either as piston, screw or centrifugal type. We will now look at the different types of compressors and
starting with piston compressors.
2. Piston compressor
Piston compressors used directly against cargo are of oil free type. Oil free compressors are used to
prevent pollution of oil into the cargo, and thereby contamination of the cargo. All cargoes we are cooling
demand a high rate of purity. Consequently, it cannot be mixed with oil or be polluted by other products.
With an oil free piston compressor, we mean that the cylinder liners are not lubricated or cooled with oil.
Piston compressors that are used against Freon normally have oil lubrication of cylinder liners. Piston
compressors are either built with cylinders in line, v-form or w-form. Compressors with cylinders in line
are built with two or three cylinders either single-acting or double-acting. V-form compressors are built
with two, four, six, eight or twelve cylinders and are single acting.
3. Double-acting compressors
Double-acting compressors are normally oil free and compress the vapour above and under the piston.
The vapour is compressed on top of the piston when the piston goes up and vapour is sucked into the
cylinder below the piston. The vapour is compressed below the piston when the piston goes down and is
sucked into the cylinder above the piston. This indicates that each cylinder has two suction valves and two
pressure valves. The pistons are equipped with compression grooves and are not equipped with piston
rings.
There is no oil lubrication of the piston itself, but there is oil in the crankcase on the compressor. It is of
importance that the sealing device between the cylinder liner and crankcase is intact. In the first stage,
the oil pressure in the crank is checked and compared to the suction pressure and the cargo tank
pressure. Check the user manual for the cargo compressors and the marginal values for the pressure
difference with oil and suction. This type of compressor is used as cargo compressor onboard gas carriers.
It is important to change the oil in the crank when changing cargo. This to prevent pollution to the next
cargo from the previous cargo. Small amounts of leakage between the cylinder and crank will at all times
occur, so the oil in the crank contains some of the product that is cooled.
4. Single-acting compressors
Single-acting compressors compress and suck the gas on one side of the piston and then normally above
the piston. A suction valve and pressure valve is then installed in the top of the cylinder. The cylinder top
is spring-loaded as a safety precaution against liquid “knock”. The compressors are built with the cylinders
in pairs: two, four, six, eight and twelve, then often as v-form or w-form. Single-acting compressors are
used both as Freon and cargo compressors on gas tankers.
Piston compressors are operated by electric motor with direct transmission or strap transmission with a
constant number of revolutions. The number of revolutions is between 750 to 1750 rpm. Unloading of the
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compressor occurs by hydraulic lifting of the suction valves. The drawback of piston compressors is that
they are vulnerable when the cylinder liner is filled with liquid and they also have relatively low capacity
for cooling.
Onboard many gas tankers, there is a liquid receiver on the vapour line between the cargo tank and the
cargo compressor, which prevents the liquid from being carried with into the compressor. The liquid
receiver is equipped with a level alarm to control the liquid level.
5. Screw compressor
Screw compressors are either oil free or oil lubricated. The type used on the cargo side must be of oil free
type for the same reason as the piston compressors.
The principle for screw compressors are two rotating screws, the screw that operates has convex threads
and the operated screw has concave threads which rotates them in different directions. Vapour is screwed
through the threads and with rotation on the screws, the confined gas volume decreases successively
resulting in compression. Please also refer to “cargo cooling process” for more information.
The advantage with screw compressors is that they wear few parts and have low weight in proportion to
cooling capacity. Oil free screw compressors are operated by electric motors with a constant number of
revolutions and have a gear transmission for the compressor, which has approx. 12000 rpm. The high
speed prevents leakage between the pressure and suction side. Screw compressors with oil injection in
the rotor house have a lower number of revolutions, about 3500 rpm. One can also use electric motors
with direct shaft transmission.
Oil free screw compressors are used on the cargo side. On the Freon side, compressors with oil injection
are used. The oil causes a film on the outside of the rotors that prevents leakage between the pressure
and suction side. This compensates for the temperature difference inside the compressor. The capacity of
screw compressors is adjusted by a slide, which is inside the compressor. However, when we reduce the
capacity the excess gas flows back to the suction side. Screw compressors are not destroyed if they suck
liquid, as we find with piston compressors.
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Cargo compressors with motors that are installed inside a deckhouse have two parts, one room for the
compressors and one room for the motors. The room where the motors are installed is gas safe with a
constant excess pressure of air preventing flammable gas from flowing in. If the excess pressure is too
low, the power to the electric motor room will be shut off and the cargo cooling plant stops. The shaft
from the electric motor room to the compressor room is rendered gas-tight. A mechanical seal device with
automatic oil lubrication is normally used. To prevent bearing breakdown, it is important that electric
motors and compressors are aligned according to specifications from the manufacturer of the compressor
and motor.
6. Centrifugal compressors
On gas tankers, centrifugal compressors are used to deliver vapour to shore or to supply the cargo
compressors with vapour from the cargo tanks.
Centrifugal compressors are operated by electric motor, hydraulic motor or with steam, and have a gear
transmission. The compressor has a number of revolutions from about 20000 rpm to over 35000 rpm.
This high number of revolutions sets large demands on accuracy and tolerances at aligning motor and
compressor. The centrifugal compressor is built on the same principle as a centrifugal pump.
When a centrifugal compressor is used to feed the cargo compressor, it creates a higher suction pressure
on the cargo compressor, and thereby gives better cooling capacity. Another area of operation for
centrifugal compressors is pumping vapour back to shore tank while loading. The centrifugal compressor
can also be used when changing cargo. Either to blows hot vapour or to be used as ventilation fan. The
use of centrifugal compressors depends on how flexible the piping system to the compressor is. On gas
tankers, the centrifugal compressor is mounted on deck close to the cargo manifold. The capacity of the
centrifugal compressor is from approximate 2000 m 3 and upwards.
7. Indirect cargo cooling plant

Indirect cargo cooling plants are used on cargoes that not can be compressed or exposed to high
temperatures, as they either polymerise or start chemical reactions. Typical cargo that uses indirect
cooling is propylene oxide, ethylene oxide, mixed propylene oxide and ethylene oxide and chlorine. There
are some different methods for indirect cargo cooling.
One type of indirect cargo cooling plant use the discharge pumps and pumps the cargo liquid through a
Freon heat exchanger and back to the cargo tank. This method is energy demanding as we have to use
discharging pump, Freon cooling plant and seawater pump to control the cargo temperature. On this type
of cooling plant the discharge pump should be of submerged type, deepwell pumps can also be used but
we must try to avoid running those while at sea. Deepwell pumps with revolution regulation can be used if
the ship is not rolling or pitching to mush.
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8. Indirect cargo cooling plant with utilisation of discharge pump
Another indirect cargo cooling plant resembles the first a lot, but the discharge pumps are not used.
Instead the cargo vapour is condensed in a Freon heat exchanger and the condensate is pumped back to
the cargo tank with a small pump. This indirect cooling requires less energy than if one also uses
discharge pumps.
A third indirect cargo cooling plant also uses a Freon cooling plant where cold Freon liquid is pumped to a
coil installed inside the top of the cargo tank or is welded around the outside of the cargo tank. The Freon
compressor sucks Freon vapour from the Freon liquid collector then presses the vapour to the condenser
where it is condensed against seawater. One can also use ethanol in this cooling system; ethanol is then
pumped round in the coils and Freon is used to cool down the ethanol.
Indirect cargo cooling plant with utilisation of Ethanol in coil round the cargo tank
9. Direct cargo-cooling plant

A direct cooling plant is used to control temperature on cargoes as LPG, Isobutane, Ammonia and some
chemical gases like VCM, Propylene and Butadiene. Common for all direct cargo cooling plants is that the
cargo vapour is compressed directly in the compressor. It is the seawater temperature and the type of
cargo that decides which condensation pressure is achieved provided that the cargo is pure. If one for
example has loaded Propylene and the seawater temperature is 20 oC, the condensation pressure will be
approximate 9 bars. The pressure needed in proportion to the temperature is located in the density table
for the actual cargo.
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SKETCH OF TWO-STAGE DIRECT COOLING PLANT
Direct cargo cooling plants are operated as one or multistage, dependent upon the type of compressor,
the cargo and the temperature on the seawater. Most gas carriers that are designed for LPG have direct
cargo cooling plants that can be operated as a one-stage or multistage operation.
With one-stage direct cooling, vapour is sucked by the cargo compressor from the cargo tanks. The
vapour is then pressed to the condenser and assembles in the liquid collector. The liquid level in the
collector is regulated either by two floaters or the differential pressure above the liquid level in the liquid
collector. The condensate is pressured back to the cargo tank from the liquid collector via a regulation
valve and in the condensate return line. To use one-stage cooling, the pressure difference between tank
pressure and condensate pressure must be less than 6 bars.
With 2nd stage direct cooling without an intermediate cooler the cargo compressor sucks from the cargo
tank with the 1st stage cylinder. The vapour is thereby pressed to the compressors 2nd stage suction side
and then to the cargo condenser where the vapour is condensed against seawater and collected in the
liquid collector. The liquid is pressured back to the cargo tank via a regulation valve and the condensate
return line from the liquid collector. The pressure in the liquid collector is equal to the pressure in the
cargo condenser, and is at all times higher than the cargo tank pressure. 2nd stage direct cargo cooling
plant is delivered with or without an intermediate cooler.
Some direct cargo cooling plants are delivered with intermediate cooler (inter cooler), this
achieves lower temperature and pressure on the 2 nd stage suction side.
These cargo cooling plants are used on semi-pressurised LPG carriers and atmospheric
pressure LPG/ NH3 carriers.
10. Cascade cooling plant / direct cooling
Cascade cooling plant is basically a direct cargo cooling plant where the cargo is condensed against Freon
and Freon is condensed against water. Sketch of cascade plant
In a cascade cooling plant there is a Freon cooling plant in supplement to a direct cargo cooling plant. The
Freon cooling plant contain of a compressor, Freon liquid collector, oil collector, Freon separator,
regulation valve and pump. Freon are condensed against water, and the Freon condensate is pumped from
the separator to the cargo condenser where the cargo is condensed. The Freon plant have to be started
first, so the condensation and circulation of Freon in the cargo condenser is normal. There must be
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accuracy in the start-up to prevent oil from leaking with Freon and removing the condensation effect.
When the Freon plant operates normally, one can start the cargo compressor.
On the cargo side in a cascade cooling plant there is mostly 2nd stage direct cargo cooling plant equipped
with compressor, intermediate cooler, cargo condenser, liquid collector and regulation valve.
The vapour is sucked from the cargo tank and into the cargo compressor’s 1st stage. The vapour is then
pressured to the intermediate cooler where it is condensed against the liquid in the bottom of the
intermediate cooler. The cargo compressor sucks vapour with the 2nd stage from the top of the
intermediate cooler and press the vapour to the cargo condenser where the gas is condensed against
Freon. The condensate is then pressured against a coil in the intermediate cooler and further through a
regulation valve to the condensate line, and back to the cargo tank.
This type of cargo cooling plant is used on semi-pressurised LPG and LEG carriers, and on large
atmospheric pressure LPG carriers. A cascade cooling plant must be used for condensation of Ethane and
Ethylene, but can also be used for Propane, Ammonia and Propylene. Some cascade cooling plants are
constructed for use as a two or one-stage direct cargo cooling plant. Generally when cooling Butane,
Butadiene or VCM one can also condensate Propane and Propylene directly if the seawater temperature is
low enough.
This type of cargo cooling plant has a lower dependency of the seawater temperature than a direct cooling
plant. The larger volume of Freon, seawater temperature has less influence on the plant. It is difficult to
cool regardless of the kind of cooling plant’s if the surrounding temperature e.g. seawater temperature is
higher than 35oC.
INERT GAS PLANT
On gas carriers inert gas is used for different purposes, some are requirements other is to maintain the
ships hull and spaces:
□ Have neutral atmosphere in hold and inter barrier spaces
□ Elimination of cargo vapour from the cargo tank when gas freeing
□ Eliminating oxygen from the cargo tank before loading
□ Drying up hold spaces or inter barrier spaces to achieve a neutral atmosphere and to prevent
corrosion in the spaces
□ Placing a neutral vapour above the cargo if required
When carrying flammable cargo on fully refrigerated gas carriers there is a requirement to have a neutral
atmosphere in the hold space or inter barrier space either with dry inert gas or nitrogen. If the gas carrier
does not have an inert gas plant or nitrogen plant, it must have a storage vessel with inert gas or nitrogen
with capacity of 30 days and nights consumption. The definition of consumption here is the leakage in the
vents and manhole. If the cargo is not flammable we can have dry air, inert gas or nitrogen in the spaces.
If the cargo is Ammonia, one must not use inert gas that contains carbon dioxide, only dry air or nitrogen,
because carbon dioxide reacts chemically with Ammonia. It is always beneficial to keep spaces around the
cargo tanks dry.
The inert gas generator is built up with a combustion chamber, scrubber, O2 analyser, dryer and heater.
The fuel oil is injected into the combustion chamber, mixed with air, combusts and flue gas or inert gas is
formed. The inert gas is blown through the scrubber where carbon particles and sulphur is washed out
with the water. The O2 analyser measures the O2 content against the stated limits before the inert gas is
blown further into the dryer. There is two types of dryers for inert gas plants either Freon dryer or
absorption dryer. The most common is the Freon dryer.
After the scrubber the inert gas is cooled in a dryer to reduce the dew point. With use of Freon dryer the
dew point will be minimum 5 oC. Water is condensed out while the dew point is reduced and we have to
avoid temperature to sink below 0 oC so we do not clog the inert channel with ice.
In an absorption dryer the inert gas is compressed with a compressor and pumped through a material that
absorbs water and the dew point sinks to minimum –8oC.
Strict demands are made regarding inert gas plants on gas carriers. IMO makes demands for maximum
content of 5% O2 by volume. Inert gas is produced on gas tankers by their own inert gas generator. Inert
gas produces by consuming gas oil, diesel oil or light fuel oil. The O2 content in the inert gas adjusts by
quantity of air added to the oil that is injected into the combustion chamber.
To achieve as pure inert gas as possible, very good combustion is required. A rich oil/air mixture gives a
lot of carbon, high content with Carbon monoxide and low O2 content. A lean mixture (more air) gives
higher O2%, less carbon and less carbon monoxide. The air/oil mixture is produced manually or
automatically on the control board.
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Sketch of inert gas plant
O2 Control
O2 analyser is connected to a two-way valve where the inert gas either can be sent to a ventilation mast
or to a consumption unit (dryer, tanker). The limit value is set manually between 5% by volume O2 and
the minimum value for the inert gas generator for example 0,3% by volume O2. The inert gas then
automatically goes to the vent mast if the O2 content reaches more than 5% by volume or below 0,3% by
volume. O2 content is set to the required O2 volume, for example 1% by volume. The inert will then go to
the dryer and is consumed when the O2 content is between 1% and 0,3%.
Drying
The inert gas is saturated with water when it comes out of the scrubber, that means 100% humidity. The
temperature on the inert gas after the scrubber is about 5 oC above the seawater temperature.
The inert gas therefore must be dried before it is sent to the cargo tanks, hold space or inter barrier space
to prevent condensing of water into the tanks or spaces. The inert gas temperature should be higher than
the atmosphere that one will inert. Inert gas dryer is a Freon heat exchanger, absorption dryer or a
combination of both.
Freon dryer
Freon dryer are frequently used and require less space in proportion to an absorption dryer. The principle
with the Freon dryer is that Freon flows through small pipes in the inert gas channel. The inert gas is
cooled down and thereby condensate the water from the inert gas when it passes the Freon pipes. The
Freon is condensed in its own cooling plant. The temperature of the inert gas after the Freon heat
exchanger must not be less than 5 oC. The inert gas that comes out of the Freon dryer has a dew point of
about 5oC and a water content of 6,75 gram per m3 inert gas.
Absorption dryer
With use of absorption drier the inert gas is then pressed through a medium that absorbs water, for
example silica gel or Aluminium Oxide. The inert gas has a temperature a bit above seawater temperature
when entering into the dryer blower. The temperature of the inert gas is higher when it emerges from the
dryer, from 30oC to 60oC, depending on the required dew point. The result of temperature increase is that
the compressor compresses the inert gas. One can have an inert gas dew point down to –80oC with an
absorption dryer, but the inert gas volume that is delivered for consumption decreases. The inert gas
contains 0,0013 gram water pr m3 at a dew point of –60oC. Inert gas with temperature of 40oC and dew
point at –60oC has a relative humidity of 0,025%.
Inert gas heater
An inert gas heater is a heat exchanger where steam or an electrical coil is used for heating the inert gas.
The dried inert gas can absorb more humidity when it is heated. Heating reduces the relative humidity on
the inert gas. The relative humidity is 28,72% at a temperature of 25oC with Freon dryer and an inert gas
dew point of 5oC. If the inert gas is heated to 50oC, the relative humidity will sink down to 8,13%. It is of
importance that one first removes humidity, and thereby heats the inert gas so it can absorb more
humidity.
The inert gas dryer and heater can also be used in connection with venting tanks and spaces with air.
To maintain the function of the inert gas generator to specification, one must run it regularly, generally
once a week and preferably several hours each time. This is a good opportunity to refill spaces and lines,
which are not used.
Sketch of thermal drier
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A Drying tower
B Tower that is dried
C Heater
D Cooler
E Fan
F Water separator
S Solenoid valves
Sketch of pressure swing drier
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Composition of inert gas and dew point
SAFETY VALVES
Gas carriers must have safety valves on all cargo tanks, spaces and cargo lines where cargo liquid residue
may remain. Cargo tank’s safety valves are either pilot (pressure loaded) or spring loaded valves. Spring-
loaded valves are normally used on fully pressurised tankers and semi pressurised tankers with a tank
pressure above 0,7 bars and on cargo lines. The pressure loaded valves are normally used on atmospheric
pressure tankers and semi pressurised tankers.
There must be two safety valves on all kinds of pressure vessels on more than 20 m3. There are also
demands that there is a safety valve on all kinds of pressure vessels below 20 m3. The maximum set
pressure on a cargo tank’s safety valves depends on the cargo tank MARVS. MARVS is maximum allowed
safety valve set point. The pressure required by MARVS is located in the gas carriers IMO Certificate of
Fitness. The cargo tank safety valve must be located on the tank’s highest point above deck. Each safety
valve must be connected to vent mast without impediment or valves.
The vent mast’s outlet must be at least B/3 or 6 meter above weather deck or gangway, B is the ships
breadth. The distance should at least B or 25 meters from the nearest air inlet or opening in the
accommodation. This distance can be shortened for gas carriers of less than 90 meters in length, but the
flag state authorities, for example Norwegian Maritime Directorate, must approve it.All safety valves on
cargo tanks must be prototype tested and approved by IMO and the gas carriers class company. The
cargo tank’s safety valves must be tested within the IMO limits +-10% for 0 to 1,5 bars, +-6% for 1,5 to
3 bars and +-3% for 3 bars and higher pressure. The tanker’s class company has to seal the safety valves
after authorised personnel have tested and calibrated the safety valves.
Cargo tank safety valve’s function
Safety valves used on cargo tanks have one or more pilots to hold the valve closed. The safety valve
contains of an adjusting spring, three membranes, two valve seats, an exhaust pipe and an equalising
pipe. The pilot is adjusted by a pilot spring in order to get the needed pressure, for example 0,5 bars.
The pilot valve’s seat is attached to two membranes and the pilot spring. The pilot main valve seat is
attached to the main valve membrane. The pilot valve is connected to a pipe on the highest point on the
cargo tank.
There is the same pressure below and above the main valve seat and on the below the boost membrane
when the pilot valve is shut. When the pressure in the cargo tank is higher than the pilot valve’s setting,
the boost membrane will lift, pull the pilot seat up and the pressure above the main valve membrane is
ventilated to the atmosphere. The pressure will now be higher above the main valve seat than below and
the valve is open and vapour is ventilated to the vent mast.
When the cargo tank pressure sinks again, the boost membrane will sink and the pilot seat will go to the
shut position. The pressure above the main valve membrane increases to the same pressure as in the
cargo tank. The main valve seat will then be closed and the valve shut.
Example of a tank safety valve
There are extra setters that are installed on the pilot valve to achieve the right set point on fully
pressurised tankers and semi-pressurised tankers. The setter consists of an adjusting spring with spring
tension equal to the pressure, for example 2,3 bars. When the setter is screwed down on the pilot, the set
point will be at 2,8 bars.
The cargo tank safety valves on atmospheric pressure tankers are normally the membrane type. The
principle is the same as with seat valves. When the valve is shut there is equal pressure under and over
the main membrane and under the boost membrane. When the pressure is higher than the pilot setting,
the boost membrane in the pilot will press the pilot seat up and the valve start to open. When the
pressure sinks, the pilot seat is pressed back and shut.
The valve opens when the tank pressure exceeds the spring tension. When the tank pressure sinks below
the spring tension, the valve shuts again. An adjustment screw is attached on top of the valve that is used
for calibrating the spring tension.
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On fully refrigerated gas carriers there is often options to mount extra weights during loading or change of
cargo. The extra weights are mounted on top of the pilot and increases the set point with approximates
100 to 150 grams.
THE EXTRA SETTER IS NOT ALLOWED TO HAVE ON THE PILOT WHILE THE VESSEL IS AT SEA.
Safety valves on cargo lines/ pipes
Seat valves are mainly used as safety valves on lines. These safety valves are spring-loaded and must be
according to the certified line pressure. The set point and the number of the different safety valves can be
found in the gas carrier valve list. The safety valves must be overhauled, pressure tested and calibrated
by authorised personnel. Then sealed and by the ships class company.
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Example on safety valves on cargo lines/pipes
9. CARGO OPERATIONS
9.1 General awareness of safe cargo operational procedures on tankers
1. Introduction
This module outlines the range of cargo operations normally encountered on liquefied gas
carriers and the general safety precautions to be observed in connection with these operations. The
procedures outlined below should be considered as general guidance, due to the considerable variety In
design of cargo containment and cargo handling systems. Specific instructions should be prepared for
each particular ship and carefully studied by all personnel involved in cargo handling operations.
Although the cargo containment and cargo handling systems have been carefully designed, and
constructed under strict supervision, the intended high degree of safety in cargo operations can only be
achieved if all parts of systems and equipment are maintained in good working order. It is equally
important that the personnel involved in cargo operations are properly acquainted with their duties and
are trained in correct procedures and handling of the equipment. Training in emergency procedures in
particularly important.
2. Responsibility
It is the responsibility of the Master to ensure that his officers and crew have been adequately and
correctly informed, according to their duties. The Master, or an officer appointed by him, should be
responsible for the safety of the ship and all cargo operations. The responsible officer should be present at
all times and be satisfied that all equipment under his care is in good working condition.
The Master should ensure proper liaison between the vessel’s appointed responsible officer
and his counterpart at the shore installation. They should establish the programme for all cargo operations
and the procedures to be adopted in the event of an emergency. Lists of names, titles, telephone numbers
etc. should be distributed before cargo operations begin. Any special safety requirements of the shore
installation should be obtained and distributed to those concerned.
3. Commissioning the Cargo system
Before a ship is commissioned to carry liquefied gas it is essential that all parts of the cargo system are
clean and dry to prevent faults or damage and that safety equipment has been checked and tested.
Cargo tanks should be clean and inspected at all levels to ensure that accumulations of rust, water and
possible loose objects have been removed. Internal fittings should be checked for tightness and security of
nuts, bolts etc. (which preferably should have been spot welded). Gaskets of manhole covers should be
checked for possible damage and covers properly tightened down.
It is essential that pipelines, valves and pumps are carefully dried out and, if necessary, treated with anti-
freeze e.g. alchohol.
Piping systems should be thoroughly blown through with adequate quantities of compressed air (using
cargo compressors if fitted), making full use of the system’s drains in suitable sequence.
Special attention should be paid to body cavities of valves and convolutions of expansion bellows.
The emergency shutdown system should be made ready and the operation of all actuator valves,
compressor and pump cut-outs etc. should be checked.
Final adjustment and testing of some control equipment in connection with cargo refrigeration plant can
only be carried out with cargo onboard. Pre-arrangement with the shore installation should be made to
allow this work to be carried out by competent personnel during early stages of first loading. Pipe supports
should be checked especially where expansion bellows are fitted.
4. Sequence of Cargo handling operations
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Assuming the vessel comes directly from the builder or dry-dock, the sequence of cargohandling
operations for any gas carrier is as follows:
Tank Inspection
Before any cargo operations are carried out it is essential that cargo tanks are thoroughly
inspected for cleanliness; that all loose objects are removed; and that all fittings are properly secured.
In addition, any free water must be removed. Once this inspection has been completed, the cargo tank
should be securely closed and air-drying operations may start.
Drying: to remove moisture from cargo tanks, pipe work, etc. in order to reduce the dew
point and minimize potential ice formation problems.
Inerting: to reduce oxygen content in the cargo system to prevent flammable atmospheres in the
subsequent gassing up operation. Purging (or “gassing-up”): to replace inert gas in the cargo tanks, etc.
with vapour of the cargo to be loaded.
Cool down: to reduce the temperature of the cargo tank prior to loading in order to minimize thermal
stresses and excessive vaporization.
Loading: which may involve cooling the product below delivered temperature.
Loaded passage.
Discharge: which may involve heating refrigerated cargoes for discharge into pressurized
storage.
Ballast passage: which may involve preparing the cargo tanks for a change of cargo.
Changing cargo: which may involve gas freeing, inerting and gassing-up again.
Preparation for inspection or dry-docking: involving gas freeing by inerting followed by aeration.
On the assumption that a cargo tank is clean and contains air, preparation for loading
consists of:
 · Drying
 · Purging
 · Cooling down
The purpose and procedure of the drying operation
Drying of the cargo-handling system of any refrigerated ship is a necessary procedure which must be
undertaken as part of the general commissioning an d preparation of any such vessel being made ready to
carry liquefied gas. The reasons for this clear when it is realized that for a 30,000 m3 vessel the amount
of water vapour in the empty air-filled cargo tanks may be as high as 400 kg depending on the ambient
conditions. This does not include any free water left in the cargo tanks.
This water and water vapour, if not removed, can cause problems of icing and hydrate formation
throughout the system.
Drying can be accomplished in several ways but is mot commonly carried out by means of an air drier. Air
from the cargo tanks is removed by a blower or compressor and then passed to a refrigerated drier,
normally cooled by R22. The air is cooled and water vapour condensed out and drained off. The air leaving
the drier is therefore saturated at a lower dew point. Further reduction of the dew point can be achieved
by downstream silica gel drying. Thereafter, the air may be warmed back to ambient temperature by
means of an air heater and then returned to the cargo tank. This process is continued for all the tanks and
pipe work system until the dew point of the air is lower than the envisaged cargo carriage temperature.
Drying can also be accomplished simultaneously with the inerting operation either using
nitrogen from shore or, alternatively, the inert gas generator on board. This generator is frequently
provided with both refrigerated and silica gel drying facilities to achieve dew points of – 50 deg C at
atmospheric pressure. Whatever method is adopted, time and care must be spent on the drying operation.
Malfunction of pumps and valves due to ice or hydrate formation can often follow from an inadequately
dried system and, while methanol addition facilities may be available to allow freezing point depression at
deep well pump suctions, etc., this must not be regarded as a substitute for thorough drying. Methanol is
only used on cargoes down to – 48 C; propanol is used as a de-ice down to -108 deg C, below which
temperature no de-ice is effective. Note also that the motors of
submerged pumps may be provided with heating arrangements, which should be used when moist air is
present in the tanks.
Inerting of the cargo system
Inerting of the cargo tanks and pipe work system is undertaken primarily to ensure a nonflammable
condition in the subsequent gassing up with the vapour of the cargo to be loaded. For this purpose, a
Reduction in Oxygen concentration to five per cent by volume is generally judged adequate although lower
values are usually obtainable and preferred. For some of the more reactive chemical gases, however, such
as VCM or Butadiene, Oxygen levels as low as 0.1 per cent may be required to avoid chemical reaction
with the incoming gassing-up vapour. Such low Oxygen levels can usually only be provided by a nitrogen
inerting system.
There are two procedure which can be used for inerting cargo tanks:
displacement or dilution.
Inerting by displacement
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This relies on stratification in the cargo tank as a result of the difference in vapour densities between the
gas entering the tanks and the gas already in the tank. The heavier gas is introduced beneath the lighter
gas, and at a low velocity to minimize turbulence. If perfect stratification could be achieved with no mixing
at the interface then one tank volume of the incoming inert gas would completely displace the air. In
practice some mixing does occur and it will be necessary to use more than one tank volume of inert gas.
This may vary from 1 ¼ to 4 times the tank volume, depending upon relative densities and tank and
piping configurations.
There is little density difference between air and inert gas; inert gas from a combustion
generator is slightly heavier than air while nitrogen is slightly lighter. These small density
differences make inerting by displacement alone very difficult to achieve and usually the process becomes
partly displacement, partly dilution.
Combustion generated inert gas is usually introduced through the liquid loading line with the air/inert gas
being exhausted through the vapour line and into the vent header. Theoretically, displacement is the most
economic method but is only practical if the entry of inert gas is diffused and mixing with the initial
contents can be largely avoided. If tank geometries and piping entries lend themselves to the
displacement method, the practicability of the method will be improved by inerting more than one tank at
a time in parallel. The sharing of the inert gas generator output between tanks will reduce gas inlet speeds
and reduce the degree of mixing of tank contents. At the same time, the total inert gas flow will increase
due to the lower overall flow resistance. Tanks being inerted in parallel should be particularly carefully
monitored to ensure a reasonably equal sharing of
the inert gas flow.
Inerting by dilution
In the dilution method the incoming gas mixes with the gas already in the tank. The dilution method can
be carried out in several different ways.
Dilution by repeated pressurization In the case of type C pressure vessel tanks, the dilution can be
achieved by a process of repeated pressurization of the tank with inert gas using a cargo compressor and
followed by release of the compressed contents to atmosphere. Each repetition will bring the tank
contents nearer and nearer to the O2 concentration level of the injected inert gas. Thus, to bring the tank
contents to a level of five per cent O2 within a reasonable number of repetitions, an inert gas quality
better than five per cent O2 is required. Quicker results will be achieved by more numerous repetitions
each at lower pressurization levels than by fewer repetitions using the higher pressurization levels of
which the tank and compressor may be capable.
Dilution by repeated vacuum
Type C tanks are usually capable of operating under considerable vacuum and, depending on tank design,
vacuum breaking valves are set to permit vacuums in the range from 30 per cent up to 70 per cent
vacuum. Inerting by successive dilutions may be carried out by repeatedly drawing a vacuum on the tank
by the cargo compressor and then breaking the vacuum using inert gas. If, for instance, a 50 per cent
vacuum can be drawn then on each vacuum cycle half the O2 content of the tank will be withdrawn. Some
of the withdrawn O2 will, of course, be replaced by the O2 content of the subsequent vacuum breaking
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inert gas but, if the quality of the inert gas is good, this method is probably the most economical in the
use of minimum inert gas quantity in order to achieve the desired inerting level in the tank. The overall
time taken, however, may be longer than with the
pressurization method because of the reduction in capacity of the compressor on vacuum and the
limitation of the rate of vacuum breaking to the output capacity of the inert gas generator.
Continuous dilution
Inerting by dilution can, of course, be carried out by a continuous process. Indeed, it is the only diluting
process available for Type A tanks which have very small pressure or vacuum capabilities. For a true
dilution process (as opposed to one aiming at displacement) it is immaterial where the inert gas inlet or
the tank efflux are located provided that good mixing is achieved. For this reason it is generally found
more satisfactory to introduce the inert gas at high speed through the vapour connections and efflux the
diluted contents via the bottom loading lines.
On ships with Type C tanks, increased inert gas flow, and thereby better mixing and reduced overall time,
may be achieved by maintaining the tank under vacuum by passing the diluted efflux through the cargo
compressor. Care should be taken to ensure continued good quality inert gas under the increased output
flow conditions of the inert gas generator.
Where a number of tanks are to be inerted, it may be possible to achieve a reduction in the total quantity
of inert gas used, and the overall time taken, by inerting two or more tanks in series. This procedure also
provides a ready way of inerting pipe work and equipment at the same time. Cargo and vapour piping
arrangements may prevent more than two tanks in the series arrangement but in any case the extra flow
resistance of the series circuit will decrease the inert gas flow rate below that when inerting tanks singly.
Thus, the optimum procedure in series diluting will differ from ship to ship and may be a matter for some
experimentation.
General considerations
It can be seen that inert gas can be used in different ways to achieve inerted cargo tanks. No one method
can be identified as the best since this will vary with cargo tank design, liquid and vapour piping
arrangements, inert gas and cargo compressor plant characteristics and on gas density differences.
Generally, each individual ship will have established its procedures from experience. As already indicated,
the displacement method is theoretically the most efficient but its efficiency depends upon good
stratification between the introduced inert gas and the air or vapours to be expelled. Unless the inert gas
entry arrangements and the gas density differences are appropriate to stratification, it may be best to opt
for a dilution method and promote the turbulent entry of the inert gas and the consequent mixing, upon
which the efficiency of dilution depends. Whichever method is used, it is important to monitor the oxygen
concentration in each tank from time to time and at as many locations as are possible using the vapour
sampling connections provided. In this way the progress of inerting can be assessed and assurance given
that finally the tank is adequately inerted throughout its volume.
While the above discussion on inerting has centered on using an inert gas generator plant, the same
principles apply to using nitrogen as may be required in preparation for the carriage of reactive chemical
gases such as VCM, ethylene or butadiene. Because of the comparatively high cost of nitrogen, the
inerting method used should be one, which will achieve the very low levels of O2 required with the
minimum of nitrogen consumption.
Inert gas from a combustion type generator must never be used in preparation for carrying ammonia
because of the reaction of ammonia vapour with the CO2 content of such inert gas to form carbamates.
Normally, however, inerting prior to loading ammonia is not required because it is recognized that
ammonia vapour, though flammable, is not readily ignited. Liquid ammonia should never be sprayed into
a tank containing air as there is a risk of creating a static charge which would cause ignition and the
conditions for ammonia stress corrosion cracking of the steel. If the ship’s Flag Administration of the
loading terminal require inerting prior to ammonia then nitrogen must be used.
The purpose and procedure of the purging (or gassing up ) operation
Neither nitrogen nor CO2, the main constituents for inert gas, can be condensed by LPG ship’s
reliquefaction plant because at cargo temperatures they are above their critical temperatures. Purging the
inert gas out of the cargo tank with vapour of the cargo to be loaded is necessary so that the
reliquefaction plant can operate continuously and efficiently. Similarly, on change of cargo without any
intervening inerting, it may be necessary to purge out the vapour of the previous cargo with vapour of the
cargo to be loaded. The basic principles discussed previously in respect of inerting apply equally to
purging. In purging, however, there is generally a greater density difference between the purging vapour
and the inert gas or vapour to be purged than in the case of inerting from
air.
Purging at sea using liquid from deck storage tanks
This method is normally available only to the larger fully, or semi- refrigerated vessel, which is equipped
with deck storage tanks. In this case, either vapour or liquid can be taken into the cargo tanks.
Liquid can be taken directly from deck storage through the tank sprays (with the exception of ammonia)
at a carefully controlled rate to avoid cold liquid impinging on warm tank surfaces. In this case mixing
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tends to predominate and the mixed cargo/ inert gas mixture can be taken into other tanks or vented up
the vent riser.
Alternatively, liquid from the deck storage tanks can be vaporized in the cargo vaporizer and the vapour
introduced gradually into the top or bottom of the cargo tank, depending on its density, to displace the
existing inert gas or vapour to other tanks or to the vent riser. Only when the concentration of cargo
vapour in the tanks has reached approximately 90 per cent, or other such figure specified by the plant
manufacturer, should the reliquefaction plant be started and cool down of the system begin.
Purging alongside
The “gassing-up” operation may also be undertaken using cargo supplied from shore. At
certain terminals facilities exist to allow the operation to be carried out alongside but these tend to be the
exception as venting of hydrocarbon vapours alongside may present a hazard and is therefore prohibited
by most terminals and port authorities.
Thus, before a vessel arrives alongside with tanks inerted, the following points must be
considered:
· Is venting allowed alongside? If so, what is permissible?
· Is a vapour return facility available?
· Is liquid or is vapour provided for purging?
· Will only one tank be purged and cooled down initially from the shore? How much liquid
must be taken on board to purge and cool down the remaining tanks?
Before commencing purging operations alongside, the terminal will normally require to
sample the tank atmosphere to check that the oxygen is less than five per cent for LPG cargoes (some
terminals require as low as two per cent) or the much lower concentrations required for chemical gases
such as VCM.
Where no venting to atmosphere is permitted, a vapour return facility must be provided and used
throughout the purging operation. Either the ship’s cargo compressors or a jetty vapour blower can be
used to handle the efflux. Some terminals, while prohibiting the venting of cargo vapours, permit the
efflux to atmosphere of inert gas. Thus, if a displacement method of purging is used, the need for the
vapour return flow to shore may be postponed until cargo vapours are detected in the mast vented efflux.
This point may be considerably postponed if tanks are purged in series.
Where a terminal supplies a cargo liquid for purging, it should be taken aboard at a carefully controlled
rate and passed through the ship’s vaporizer or allowed to vaporize in the tank(s). If the supply is of
vapour, this can be introduced into the tank(s) at the top or bottom depending on the vapour density.
Where a vessel arrives alongside with its tanks containing a cargo vapour which requires to be replaced
with the vapour of a different cargo to be loaded, then the terminal will normally provide a vapour return
line. The vapours taken ashore will be flared until the desired vapour quality is achieved, at which point
cooldown can begin.
If no facilities (return line etc) are available for the ship to purge alongside, it is common
practice for the ship to prepare one cargo tank and to take sufficient liquid on board so that the vessel can
leave the berth, purge and cooldown and remaining cargo tanks using this liquid and then return ready for
loading.
The purpose and procedure of the cooling down operation
Before loading a refrigerated cargo, the tanks must be adequately cooled down in order to
minimize thermal stresses and excessive tank pressures during loading. Cooldown consists of introducing
cargo liquid into a tank at a low and carefully controlled rate. The lower the cargo carriage temperature,
the more important the cooldown procedure becomes.
The rates at which cargo tanks can be cooled without creating undue thermal stresses depend on the
design of the containment system and are typically 10 deg C per hour. Reference should always be made
to the ship-operating manual to determine maximum allowable cooldown rates. The procedure is for cargo
liquid from shore or from deck storage to be gradually introduced into the tanks either through spray
lines, if fitted for this purpose, or via the cargo loading lines. The vapours produced by the rapid
evaporation of this liquid may be taken ashore or handled in the ship’s reliquefaction plant. Additional
liquid is introduced at a controlled rate depending upon the tank pressures and temperatures resulting. If
the vapour is being handled in the ship’s reliquefaction plant, difficulties may be experienced with the
“incondensable” remaining from the inert gas. A close watch should be kept on compressor discharge
temperatures and the incondensable gases vented from the top of the reliquefaction condenser as
required.
As the cargo containment system cools down, the thermal contraction of the tank and drop in temperature
around it, together tend to cause a pressure drop in the void spaces. Normally pressure control systems
supplying air or inert gas will maintain these pressures but a watch should be kept on them as the cool-
down proceeds.
Cool-down should continue until liquid begins to form in the bottom of the cargo tanks. This
can be seen from the temperature sensors. At this stage, in the case of cool-down of cargo tanks for fully
refrigerated ammonia for example, the pool of liquid formed will be at approximately – 340C while the top
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of the tank may still be at about – 140C, i.e. a temperature gradient of approximately 200C on cool-down.
The actual temperature gradient depends on the size of the cargo tanks, position of sprays, etc.
Many of the difficulties that occur during the cool-down operation result from inadequate
purging of inert gas or from inadequate drying. In this latter case, ice or hydrates may form and iceup
valves, pump shafts, etc. Methanol can be added as antifreeze provided the cargo is not put off quality
specification or the addition will not damage the insulation of a submerged cargo pump.
Once the cargo tanks have been cooled down, cargo pipe work and equipment not already
cooled can be cooled down.
In the case of a semi-refrigerated ship where cargo tank steels are limited to a minimum
temperature above the fully refrigerated temperature of the incoming cargo, care must be taken to avoid
subjecting the steel to lower temperatures. It is necessary always to maintain a pressure within the cargo
tank at least equal to the saturated vapour pressure corresponding to the minimum allowable steel
temperature. This can be done by vaporizing liquid using the cargo vaporizer and
introducing vapour into the tank with the cargo compressor. Alternatively, vapour can be provided from
shore. Figure 8.2.4 shows tank cool-down using liquid supplied from shore.
If two or more cargoes are carried simultaneously they are segregated from each other to
avoid contamination and chemical reaction
Compatibility
The master should ascertain that the quantity and character of each product to be loaded are within the
limits indicated in the International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk and in
the Loading and Stability Information Booklet and that products are listed in the International Certificate
of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk if so required under the certificate.
Care should be taken to avoid dangerous chemical reaction if cargoes are mixed. This is of
particular Significance in respect of:
· Tank cleaning procedure required between successive cargoes in the same tank; and
· Simultaneous carriage of cargoes, which react when, mixed. This should be permitted only if the
complete cargo systems including, but not limited to, cargo pipe work, tanks, vent systems and
refrigeration systems are separated.
If segregation is needed to avoid contamination, segregation can be achieved by double valves or blank
flanges.
Cargoes chemically reactive with each other will have to be totally separated in both the liquid and vapour
phases. This cargo separation is to be obtained by means of removable spool pieces or pipe sections.
Separate re-liquefaction systems are to be used when mutually reactive cargoes are carried.
The codes provide special requirements for the safe handling and transport of certain cargoes carried on
gas tankers.
See Chapter 17 (IGC Code – Special Requirements).
The provisions are applicable where reference is made in column “h” in the table of
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Chapter 19. These are requirements additional to the general requirements of the Code.
Loading- preliminary procedures
Before loading operations begin, the pre-operational ship/shore procedures must be
thoroughly discussed and carried out. Appropriate information exchange is required and the relevant parts
of the Ship/Shore Safety Check List should be completed. Particular attention should be paid to:-
· The setting of cargo tank relief valves and high alarm pressure
· Remotely operated valves
· Reliquefaction equipment
· Gas detection systems
· Alarms and controls,
· The maximum loading rate
· Function test of emergency shutdown systems
· Function test of instruments for pressure,
· Temperature and liquid level measurements
· Line-up inspection
· Stability control
· Verifying that the agreement for cargo transfer procedure has been reached with responsible terminal
representative.
· Ascertaining that all safety regulations are complied with
· Cargo sampling and cargo calculations
This should all be carried out taking into account restrictions in ship/shore systems.
The terminal should provide the necessary information on the cargo, including inhibitor
certificates where inhibited cargoes are loaded.
Ship stability and stress are of primary importance during loading. Procedures for these matters are in
accordance with normal tanker practice.
The Ship’s Seagoing Safety
Trim, stability and stress
The cargo plan should allow for distribution within the ship in order to achieve acceptable
structural stress and the required ship trim to meet safe stability conditions when at sea. For these
purposes the weight of the cargo in each tank will need to be known. For ship stability purposes the
weight in question is the true weight-in-air.
The weight-in-air of liquefied gases, calculated for cargo custody purposes, is not exact in that the cargo
vapour in these calculations is assumed to be liquid of the same mass as the vapour. Thus, the air
buoyancy of the cargo vapour spaces has been neglected. However, for practical purposes concerning a
ship’s stability calculation, this may be ignored.
All gas carriers, as part of the statutory requirements, are provided with stability data,
including worked examples showing cargo loaded in a variety of ways. In conjunction with
consumables such as fresh water, spare parts, and bunkers on board, these conditions provide cargo
storage guidelines to ship’s officers in order to maintain the ship in a safe and stable condition.
Additionally, as part of the requirements to obtain a Certificate of Fitness in compliance with the Gas
Codes, the stability conditions must be such that, in specified damaged conditions, the ship will meet
certain survival requirements. It is, therefore, essential that all relevant guidance concerning the filling of
cargo tanks be observed.
Sloshing A further point to be noted in respect of tank filling levels is that, large prismatic cargo tanks,
due to their width and shape, may suffer from substantial sloshing of cargo in heavy rolling conditions.
Such tanks, and particularly membrane-type tanks which have no centerline wash bulkheads, may have
prohibited filling levels in order to avoid damage to tank structures or internal fittings. Typical controls on
such tanks are a prohibition on all filling levels in the 10 to 90 per cent range.
If an unusual cargo distribution is requested and if this involves cargo tanks only being part – filled, then
it is usual for the shipmaster to seek further guidance from ship owners. In such cases it is sometimes
necessary for the owner to seek confirmation from the ship’s classification society before loading can start.
Loading- Early Stages

Loading refrigerated ships
When liquefied gas is being loaded, it is necessary to consider the location, pressure,
temperature and volume of the shore tanks as well as the terminal’s pumping procedures. Fully
refrigerated ships usually load from fully refrigerated storage where tanks typically operate at a pressure
of approximately 60 millibars.
This pressure will allow the cargo at the bottom of a full shore tank to sustain a temperature perhaps one
degree Centigrade warmer than its atmospheric boiling point.
When this cargo is pumped to the jetty, the pumping energy required for transfer is dissipated in the
liquid as heat, to which must be added the heat flow into the liquid through the pipelines. The cargo may,
therefore, arrive on the ship at an even warmer temperature. When loading without a vapour return line
being used, the vapour which is displaced by the incoming liquid must be reliquefied on board. The power
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required for this, plus the heat flux through the insulation, may leave little capacity for cooling the cargo
during loading.
Therefore, as can be seen from the foregoing paragraphs, the early stages of loading can be critical,
particularly where significant distances exist between the storage tank and jetty. The ship’s tank pressures
must be regularly checked and on no account should relief valves be allowed to lift.
Loading rates should be reduced, and if necessary stopped, when difficulties are experienced in
maintaining acceptable tank pressures. In some ports in hot countries, where the terminal has long
pipelines, this feature can be difficult to overcome. Under these circumstances cargo stoppage would allow
the pipeline contents once again to rise in temperature. Accordingly, in such ports cargo flow should be
maintained as long as it is safe to do so until cold product can be received on board at which time tank
pressures will fall. A rise in ship’s tank pressure in the early stages of loading can also be controlled to
some extent by loading limited quantities of liquid into the cargo tank via the top sprays, if fitted. This will
help to condense some of the cargo vapours.
Loading pressurized ships
Pressurised ships normally arrive at a loading terminal having cargo tanks at atmospheric
pressure. Firstly, the ship requests vapours from the shore to purge any remaining nitrogen or
contaminants from the tanks. This also allows the equalization of ship and shore pressures.
Thereafter, the method used at the beginning of loading is to allow only very slow flow so giving time for
the incoming liquid to expand safely at the first valves in the ship’s system.
In this case, as the liquid is allowed through, local flash-cooling can occur and it is important to ensure
that at no time are tank or pipeline temperatures allowed to fall below design limitations.
Terminal pipeline system and operation

Where a terminal can expect to load fully presssurised ships not fitted with their own heaters,
in-line equipment fitted to terminal pipeline systems is needed. This usually comprises the
following:-
· Shore tank
· Cargo Pump
· Booster pump
· Cargo heater
· Suitably sized loading arm
When considering a refrigerated terminal loading a fully pressurized ship, given that loading temperatures
for LPG cargoes are limited to about 00 C, loadings can normally be managed by pumping through the
refrigerated pipelines rated at 19 bar.
Operation of the system takes the following form. Firstly, until back pressure starts to build up from the
ship, loading is carried out by pumping only through the cargo heater then, as the back pressure
increases, the booster pump is also brought into operation.
At the start of loading the pressure in a ship’s tank should be at least 3 bar. This pressure will limit
flashing-off and sub-cooling as the first liquid enters the tank. At this time, in-tank cargo temperatures
should be carefully watched. Practical observation is also of value with the sighting of ice formation on
pipelines acting as a warning that temperatures on board the ship are falling below safe levels. In such
cases loading must be stopped until temperature increase and the problem is resolved.
Cargo tank loading limits
Chapter 15 of the IGC Code recognizes the large thermal coefficient of expansion of liquefied gas and
gives requirements for maximum allowable loading limits for cargo tanks. This is to avoid tanks becoming
liquid-full under conditions of surrounding fire.
The maximum volume to which any tank may be filled is governed by the following formula:-
LL = FL rR/rL
Where:
LL = loading limit expressed in per cent which means the maximum liquid volume relative to the
tank volume to which the tank may be loaded
FL = filling limit = 98 per cent unless certain exceptions apply.
rR = relative density of cargo at the reference temperature.
rL = relative density of the cargo at the loading temperature and pressure.
The Reference Temperature (in the expression rR above) is defined as the temperature
corresponding to the vapour pressure of the cargo at the set pressure of the relief valves. Some
pressurized ships with Type ‘C’ tanks have a pressure capability of up to about 18 bars with relief valves
being designed for this pressure. These loading limits impose a substantial cargo shut-out for fully
pressurized ships loading cargo when operating in ambient condition, well below 450 C which is the
maximum operating temperature for which the pressure capabilities of such tanks are designed.
In the case of cargo tanks on fully refrigerated ships, the Gas Codes envisage relief valves set to open
only marginally above the vapour pressure of the cargo at the maximum temperature it will reach over
the whole cycle of loading, transportation and discharge. Even so, the loading limit must be such that, if a
surrounding fire occurs, the tank will not become liquid-full before the relief valve opens. Thus, the
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amount of cargo shut-out required, over and above the normal operational considerations of cargo
expansion, depends upon the margin between the relief valve setting and maximum envisaged vapour
pressure on the voyage.
There are good safely reasons for minimizing cargo shut-out. The concept is very simple.
The fuller the tank, the longer the tank structure will be able to withstand fire conditions. The tank
contents, when exposed to a fire will boil at a constant temperature until the bulk of the liquid has been
vented through the relief valve system. After this the upper regions of the tank become exceedingly hot
and eventually fail. However, the greater the mass of liquid inside the tank, the longer the tank can
withstand unacceptable external temperature.
Cargo quantities can be maximized by adjustable settings on relief valves. This brings its own problems-
particularly for type ‘C’ pressurized ships – where the pressure differential between saturation
temperature at the maximum allowable pressure is considerable. Relief valves designed for, say, 18 barg
do not perform well at the reduced pressures required to minimize shut-out. When operated at such
settings, gases are ejected at velocities well below those associated with design pressures, and as a
consequence, the effluent is not propelled clear of hazardous areas.
The Gas Codes permit a further alternative solution which obviates any cargo shut-out on
loading beyond that of normal operational considerations of cargo temperature change. This solution
requires the provision of an additional pressure relieving system with relief valves set to open at the
maximum operational vapour pressure of the cargo. The system is brought into operation by the melting
of fusible elements suitably located to detect surrounding fire conditions. It is not a popular or very
practical solution.
Cargo sampling arrangements and procedures
Unlike an oil tanker or chemical tanker, cargo sampling on a gas tanker needs some thought.
Sampling is carried out for two basic reasons:
· To establish safe conditions prior to cargo transfer.
· To establish that the cargo is within commercially agreed specifications at the various points of custody
transfer.
1. Standard for sampling connection fittings
It is recommended that ships tank sample access point should terminate in a G½ female
parallel threaded connector in accordance with ISO 228/1. The sampling equipment should terminate in a
corresponding male connector.
Pipe work or tubing up to the sampling connection should be robust enough to withstand
marine service and up to 3.5 kg weight of an attached sample cylinder.
The sampling connection should be isolated by two standard ball valves fitted at least one
metre apart as a precaution against hydrate formation at the primary valve. The sampling connection
locked so that it cannot be unscrewed by the normal action of making and breaking connections.
There should be a clear space of radius 250 mm around the stub piece sampling connection to allow
spanner access to the connection nuts and fitting of the sample cylinder. When not is use the stub piece
should be fitted with a screwed plug incorporating a soft washer to protect the sealing face. The
connection should be clearly labelled as to its origin, i.e. tank designation and top, middle or bottom
source.
In fully refrigerated ships where it is necessary to use a discharge pump to obtain a sample, a Standard
connection point (as above) should be fitted on the pump discharge line.
2. The provision of closed loop sampling facilities
Sample containers should be constructed to a recognised standard and of metal suitable for the gas to be
handled.
In all cases venting, purging or ullaging of sample containers must be carried out in a safe area with due
regard to prevailing wind and weather condition.
When the sample being taken might have irritant hazards in addition to flammable hazards, then means
should be provided to absorb or disperse the material in a safe area, e.g. in the case of ammonia, a hose
could be used to carry the vapour to a water surface or spray area.
When the sample might have toxic risks, e.g. VCM, butadiene, then means should be provided to avoid
release of the material to atmosphere, e.g. a closed loop system may be provided, or obtained by
connecting the container outlet valve to a vapour sample connection point or vent system.
Certain cargoes are required to be carried under a nitrogen pad (propylene oxide, ethylene oxide or
mixtures of them), product samples are therefore only drawn from the tank bottom or liquid space. The
vapour space is sampled to ensure adequate nitrogen content. Further advice is available from the IMO
Gas Codes and the data sheets
Gas sampling procedures
A connecting T-piece with bleed valve and suitable swivel should be attached to the sample cylinder inlet
valve ending in a male connection stub with parallel thread G½ to ISO 228/1; this for presentation to
ships corresponding female sampling connector point. In connecting to the ship’s sample point the
required pressure seal is made by a metal or bonded washer fitted to the male connection, which seals
against the surface surrounding the threads of the female port. NB
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The seal is NOT made on the thread.
The procedures involved in taking samples
 In all cases, PPE, including goggles, gloves and breathing apparatus (if required) must be worn.
 As laid down under Chapter 18.1 of the IGC Code, it is imperative that all concerned are properly
informed of the nature of the cargo being handled and the precautions to be observed. This should
include a full description of the physical and chemical properties, countermeasures against
accidental personal contact, firefighting and other emergency procedures.
 This information should be available and promulgated in the form of industry Data Sheets, such as
“HAZCHEM” or “TREM” cards from terminal, or as included in the appendix to the ICS publication
“Tanker Safety Guide (Liquefied Gas)”, etc.
 A responsible officer should be present when any sample is being drawn from ship’s tanks by a
terminal representative or third party inspector. The officer should be fully conversant with all
aspects of the ships sampling system including the operational characteristics of all valves. He
should clearly recognise that his duty is to ensure that sampling is authorised and carried out in a
safe manner, regardless of who is actually performing the sampling operation.
 When drawing liquid samples it is imperative that sufficient ullage or vapour space is left in the
sample container to allow for liquid expansion due to the temperature increasing to ambient.
 Proper ullage will be confirmed if the sample container is held upright after filling (ie ullage tube at
the top) and the top valve opened until only vapour (rather than liquid) is emitted.
Cargo temperature control
For all refrigerated and semi-pressurised gas carriers it is necessary to maintain strict control of cargo
temperature and pressure throughout the loaded voyage. This is achieved by reliquefying cargo boil-off
and returning it to the tanks. During these operations incondensable must be vented as necessary to
minimize compressor discharge pressures and temperatures. In LNG ships the boil-off is burned as fuel in
the ship’s main boilers.
Frequently, there are occasions when it is required to reduce the temperature of an LPG cargo on voyage.
This is necessary so that the ship can arrive at the discharge port with cargo temperatures below that of
the shore tanks, thus minimizing the amount of flash gas. Depending on the cargo and reliquefaction plant
capacity it can often take several days to cool the cargo by one or two degrees centigrade, but this may
be sufficient. The need for this will often depend on the contractual terms in the charter party.
In this respect poor weather conditions can sometimes present problems. Although most
reliquefaction plants have a suction knock-out drum to remove liquid, there is a risk in gale conditions that
entrained liquid can be carried over into the compressor. For this reason it is preferable not to run
compressors when the ship is rolling heavily, if there is risk of damage.
Daily boil-off rates during the loaded voyage vary with changes in barometric pressure
(unless absolute pressure control is adopted), ambient temperature and sea conditions. For this reason a
close watch must be kept on tank pressures and inter barrier space pressures. On no account should
cargo tank pressures be allowed to fall below atmospheric. Typical figures for LNG carrier boil-off rates are
from 0.10 to 0.15 per cent of the cargo volumes per day during the loaded voyage and 0.10 per cent per
day for the ballast voyage. It should be noted that LNG often contains a small percentage of nitrogen,
which will boil-off preferentially, thus reducing the calorific value of the boil off gas at the beginning of the
loaded voyage.
The method of discharging
This will depend on the type of ship, cargo specification and terminal storage. Three basic methods may
be used:-
· Discharge by pressurizing the vapour space
· Discharge with or without booster pumps
· Discharge via booster pump and cargo heater
Draining tanks and pipelines
It has already been noted that in order to avoid cavitations of a centrifugal pump, the pressure of the
liquid at the pump suction needs to exceed the saturated vapour pressure (SVP) vy an amount termed the
minimum Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH). The required minimum NPSH, expressed as an equivalent
head of liquid above the pump suction, may vary from one metre (at maximum pump capacity) to 200
millimetres (at reduced flow). If the vapour space pressure can be increased above the SVP by the supply
of extra vapour from the shipboard vaporizer, the onset of cavitations, as the liquid level approaches the
bottom of the tank, can be delayed. Such augmentation of vapour space pressure is usual practice on fully
pressurized and semi-pressurized ships and may also be carefully applied to fully refrigerated cargoes,
particularly where maximum cargo out-turn is required in preparation for gas freeing. Whether this extra
vapour pressurization is used or not, there will be a liquid level at which the pump becomes erratic.
Gradual reduction of the flow rate at this point, by careful throttling of the discharge valve, reduces the
NPSH requirement and permits continued discharge to a lower level. It should be remembered, however,
that a pump discharge valve should not be used for flow control if the pump is operating with a booster
pump since the booster pump might cavitate resulting in damage .
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On completion of discharge, liquid cargo must be drained from all deck lines and cargo hoses or hard
arms. Such draining can be done from ship to shore using a cargo compressor. Alternatively, it may be
carried out from shore to ship, normally by blowing the liquid into the ship’s tanks using nitrogen injected
at the base or apex of the hard arm. Only after depressurizing all deck lines and purging with nitrogen
should the ship/shore connection be broken.
It is frequent practice in some refrigerated trades to retain a small quantity of cargo on board after
discharge and the amount retained is known as the heel. This product is used to maintain the tanks at
reduced temperature during the ballast voyage but this procedure only applies when the same grade of
cargo is to be loaded at the next loading terminal.
In general the quantity retained on board as a heel depends on: -
· Commercial agreements
· The type of gas carrier
· The duration of the ballast voyage
· The next loading terminal’s requirements, and
· The next cargo grade
In the case of a large LNG carrier as much as 2,000 to 3,000 cubic metres of liquid may be retained in the
tanks on departure from the discharge port; the actual volume depending on the size and type of cargo
containment, the length of the voyage and fuel policy. These ships as normally fitted with spray cool-down
pumps in each cargo tank to provide liquid to spray lines fitted in the upper part of each tank. This system
is used from time to time on the ballast voyage to minimize tank thermal gradients. The frequency of this
operation will depend on whip size and type and the duration of the ballast voyage.
With LPG cargoes the small amount of liquid remaining after discharge should be sufficient
to provide the necessary cooling effect during the ballast voyage. This is carried out by intermittent use of
the reliquefaction plant, returning the condensate to the tanks to ensure arrival at the loading port with
tanks and product suitably cooled.
If the ship is proceeding to a loading terminal to load an incompatible product, none of the
previous cargo should be retained on board but if small amounts exist they may be stored in the
deckmounted pressure vessels. This avoids contamination of the following cargo and allows the maximum
quantity of the new cargo to be loaded .
Of all the operations undertaken by a gas carrier, the preparation for a change of cargo is the most time
consuming. If the next cargo is not compatible with the previous cargo, it is often necessary for the tanks
to be gas-freed to allow a visual inspection
When a ship receives voyage orders, a careful check must be made on the compatibility of the next cargo.
(It is also necessary to check compatibilities and the ship’s natural ability to segregate, if more than one
cargo grade is to be carried. On such occasions special attention must be given to the ship’s reliquefaction
system). There may also be a need, when changing cargoes, to replace the lubricating oil in compressors
for certain cargoes
Tables in chapter 3 provide a guide to the compatibility of gases. The tables also cover cargo compatibility
with respect to the construction materials commonly used in cargo handling systems. For a more detailed
exposition of these points reference should be made to the IGC Code In order to obtain a gas-free
condition, the full process is as shown below, however, depending on the grade switch, it may not be
necessary to include all these steps:
· First, make the tank liquid free
· Then, warm the tank with hot cargo vapours (if necessary)
· Next, inert the tank, and
· Finally, ventilate with air]
These procedures are preliminary to tank entry for inspection or when gas freeing the ship for drydock.
Removal of remaining liquid
Depending upon cargo tank design, residual liquid can be removed by pressurization, normal stripping or,
in the case of fully refrigerated ships with type’A’ tanks, by using the puddle heating coils fitted for this
purpose. (An older method of warming type’A’ tanks with hot vapours from the compressor- but without
puddle heating – is now generally out of favour due to the extended time taken, although on some ships,
and particularly those in LNG trades, there may be no other choice).
The first operation to be carried out is the removal of all cargo liquid remaining in the tanks or in any
other part of the cargo system . Due to enhanced evaporation in a non-saturated atmosphere, residual
liquid can become super-cooled to a temperature which could result in brittle fracture of the tank.
Furthermore, any liquid retention will frustrate the future inerting operation.
As an aid to liquid removal many general purpose LPG ships are provided with special
pressure vessels mounted on deck. These tanks can be used for the recovery of liquid and vapour from
the cargo tanks. The contents of the deck tanks may also be used, at some future time, to provide vapour
for gassing-up purposes when changing grades
Warming up
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When cargo tanks have to be fully ventilated with fresh air it is often necessary, depending on tank
temperatures and design considerations, to warm-up the tanks prior to inerting. This is achieved by
controlled circulation of warm cargo vapours through the tanks and is done before inerting takes place.
As for the cool-down , the rate of warm-up should be carefully controlled in accordance with the
shipbuilder’s guidance.
Warming up is vital where cargo tanks are at very low temperature, for example on board
LNG ships. On such ships, compressors and heaters are operated to circulate warm gas. First, this
evaporates any residual liquid and, thereafter, the whole tank structure is warmed to ambient conditions.
If warming up to ambient temperature is not carried out, freezing of carbon dioxide from
within the inert gas can result. (Moreover, greater volumes of inert gas will be required at low
temperatures.)
Inerting – after discharge
Removal of cargo vapours with inert gas is carried out to reduce gas concentrations to a level where
aeration can take place without the tank atmosphere passing through the flammable envelope .
The level to which the hydrocarbon vapour must be reduced varies according to the product and details of
the varying flammable envelopes for each product are given in Reference 2.1. in general, when inerting in
this way it is necessary to reduce the hydrocarbon content in the inert atmosphere to about 2 per cent
before air blowing can begin. (Although this is conservative for methane, it is in accord with common
practice).
In the past some grade-changing operations involved the replacement of existing tank vapours with the
vapours of the next cargo to be loaded. However, this is now seldom carried out. As shown in chapter 3,
this method can only ever be appropriate when switching to compatible grades and when air is not to be
introduced into the tank.
Once the cargo system has been satisfactorily freed of liquid and warmed up, inerting operations may
start.
This involves the replacement of the vapour atmosphere with inert gas or nitrogen. The need of inerting
will depend on: -
 · A desire to gain tank entry for inspection
 · Last cargo
 · Next Cargo
 · Charter party terms
 · Requirements of the loading terminal
 · Requirements of the receiving terminal, and
 · Permissible cargo admixture
Where tanks must be opened for internal inspection, inerting is always necessary. This is to reduce the
hydrocarbon content within tank atmospheres to the safe level required before blowing through with fresh
air. This safe level will correspond to a point below the critical dilution line as found on a graph for the
product in question. The procedure for inerting after cargo discharge is similar to that described earlier.
During inerting operations, when venting to atmosphere, care must be taken to safeguard personnel and
to ensure the absence of any source of ignition.
Show a cargo pipeline system may be set for inerting cargo tanks when using an inert gas
generator on board. This diagram shows hydrocarbon gas being returned to the shore but during the
operation it is often the case that the gases to be exhausted are directed to the forward vent riser.
Aerating
After the foregoing procedures have been addressed the cargo tanks can be ventilated with air.
The air is supplied using compressors or air blowers and air dryers in the inert gas plant. This should
continue until the oxygen content of the whole tank is at 21 per cent and hydrocarbon levels are at the
zero percentage of the Lower Flammable Limit. In order to ensure uniformity in the tank atmosphere,
various levels and positions in the tank should be monitored prior to tank entry. Figure
shows a pipeline set up for aerating tanks.
It is important to note that ventilation with air should only take place once the ship’s tanks are warmed to
ambient conditions. If the tank is still cold when air is allowed inside, any moisture in the air will condense
on tank surfaces. This can cause serious problems when preparing the tank for new cargoes. If
condensation is allowed to form, its removal can be a protracted and costly operation.
As covered in 2.5 aeration should continue not only until oxygen levels are satisfactory but
also until safe levels of carbon monoxide are established.
Ammonia – special procedures
Certain cargoes present particular difficulties when trying to remove all traces of the product.
Ammonia is one such case. When a ship is switching from ammonia to LPG, most traces of vapours must
be removed from the system. Prior to loading the next cargo an allowable concentration of ammonia
vapors in a tank atmosphere is usually quoted at 20 parts per million by volume. This results in a time
consuming operation which is covered in more detail below.
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The first operation when switching from ammonia is to remove all liquid ammonia from the system. This is
important as ammonia, when evaporating to air, is particularly likely to reach supercooled conditions.
Therefore, unless all liquid is removed, dangerously low liquid temperatures can result and tank fractures
could ensue. Confirmation that all liquid has been removed can be established, during warming-up, by
carefully observing tank temperature read-outs.
Once cargo tank temperatures have been warmed to above the dew point of the air, the ammonia vapours
are usually dispersed by blowing warm fresh air through the system. (For ammonia the inert gas plant
must not be used as the ship’s inert gas plant is not suitable for this purpose due to carbonate formation.)
The continued use of warm dry air should avoid water vapour condensation, thus limiting the seepage of
ammonia into porous tank surfaces. The ventilation of tanks and the cargo system at the highest practical
temperature is advantageous as this encourages release of ammonia from rusty surfaces. (Ammonia is
released ten times faster at 45oC than at 00 C).
Washing with fresh water to remove ammonia is sometimes carried out. This can be most
effective as ammonia is highly water-soluble. However, the following points should be noted:
· The benefit of water washing is limited to certain types of tank. (This technique is not always practical
for large fully refrigerated ships with prismatic tanks.
· When switching from ammonia to LPG, water can hold ammonia in solution and this can be a
contaminant for future cargoes. Accordingly, water washing is only recommended for cargo tanks which
are completely clean, rust-free and have minimum internal structure, so allowing full and effective
drainage.
· All traces of water must be removed at the end of washing to stop the formation of ice or
hydrates.
· The high solubility of ammonia in water (300:1) can lead to dangerous vacuum conditions being created
within a tank. It is, therefore, essential to ensure adequate air entry into the cargo tank during the water
washing process.
After water washing it is essential that all water residues are removed using either fixed or
portable pumps. Subsequently, tanks and pipelines must be thoroughly dried before further preparations
for cargo loading are made. In order to maintain maximum dryness it is important to continue ventilation
of the tanks using air with a dew point lower than the tank atmosphere for the reasons discussed above.
Ship – to – Ship transfer
In recent years the transfer of LPG cargoes from one ship to another has become a common practice in
many areas where there is insufficient terminal infrastructure. Detailed recommendations for the safe
conduct of such operations are given in the ship-to-ship Transfer Guide (Liquefied Gases) . Before any
such operations are arranged, it is recommended that this publication be consulted and its procedures be
adopted.
Most ship-to-ship transfer operations involve LPG, but there have been a few instances where LNG has
been transferred from ship to ship with complete success. However, these instances have been casualty
operations occasioned by the disablement of one of the ships. For transfers of LNG it is usually hoses of a
composite type which are used .
GENERAL CHEMICAL TANKER OPERATIONS & CARGO INFORMATION
All cargo and ballast operations should be done in accordance with regulations. The Master or qualified
officer appointed by him is responsible for the safety of the vessel and all cargo and ballast operation. The
personnel involved in cargo and ballast operations should be familiar with the arrangements of tanks, lines
and pumps. It is important to conduct a function test of all equipment in the cargo system prior to any
cargo operations. Such a function test should be conducted under the close supervision of the responsible
officer.
Emergency procedures for each cargo being handled should be available to all concerned. It is
recommended that the emergency procedures are posted on the notice boards in public spaces on board.
The equipment of personnel protection should be used when handling toxic cargoes whose liquid or vapour
is hazardous to health. Safety and first aid equipment should be ready for immediate use. Information
about the cargo handled is essential to the safety of the vessel and her crew. Such information may be
found on cargo data sheets for each product. The data sheets also include all necessary data for the safe
handling and carriage of the cargo. The cargo information for most chemical cargoes are kept on board,
and available for concerned. The Tanker Safety Guide (Chemicals) includes the data sheets for a large list
of chemicals in its appendices. It must be borne in mind that if sufficient information necessary for the
safe handling and transportation of a cargo is not available, that cargo should not be loaded. Cargo
information is fundamental in cargo planning. The responsible officer should ensure that necessary cargo
information is posted on the notice board prior cargo operations are undertaken. All personnel should
familiarize themselves with the cargoes carried by studying the cargo data sheets posted on the notice
boards.
The cargo data sheet for Phenol is appended to this chapter. Similar data sheets are available in the
Tanker Safety Guide (chemicals) for a large number of liquid chemicals.
CARGO PLANNING
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Cargo operations are always pre-planned. Through cargo planning is essential for safe and correct cargo
handling. The main purpose of planning a cargo operation is to ensure safe and efficient operations. It is
not uncommon on a chemical tanker to have simultaneous loading, unloading and tank cleaning in
progress in different tanks on different products. Under these circumstances it is of prime importance that
there is close coordination between ship and shore. The planning of these operations is done in co-
operation between the vessel and a shore based operating team. Cargo pre-planning is based on cargo
information, port information and a though knowledge of the ship and its cargo systems.
The points to be considered during planning of cargo operations are:
 Rules and regulations
 Seamanship
 Port rotation for loading
 Ballasting and deballasting
 Draft and stability
 Cargo properties (flammability, toxicity, reactivity)
 Tank capacity
 Tank cleanliness
 Suitability of coatings
 Cargo maintenance in passage (heating, padding, etc.)
 Port rotation for unloading
 Tank cleaning procedures
 Slop retention and disposal
Heated cargoes should not be loaded adjacent to polymerisable cargoes, inhibited cargoes, highly volatile
cargoes. Toxic cargoes should not be stowed adjacent to edible cargoes.
LOADING
All personnel must follow standing instruction at all times whether or not cargo to be unloaded is
dangerous. Personnel on watch or involved in loading operation should wear appropriate protective
clothing as indicated in the ICS data sheets when handling dangerous cargoes.
Cargoes are unloaded according to a planned sequence of emptying prepared before unloading. Prior
unloading, cargo samples from each tank and from cargo lines are analysed to check if a product has been
contaminated on board during passage. Tanks containing cargoes which present a major fire hazard are
unloaded ensuring that air is not allowed to enter the tank by providing the ullage space in the tank with
nitrogen or inert gas under positive pressure. For high vapour pressure cargoes it may be necessary to
assist the unloading and drainage by pressurizing the cargo tanks. When pressuring the cargo tanks the
tank pressure must be carefully monitored and not allowed to exceed the design pressure.
The vessels trim, list and stability may be adjusted necessary, during loading, by filling or emptying
ballast tanks. The vessel should be unloaded so that the trim enables best possible drainage of cargo
tanks.
TANK CLEANING AND GAS FREEING
The reasons for tank cleaning are as follows:
 Rules and regulations;
 The prevention of contamination of the cargo to be loaded;
 The prevention of contaminated ballast; and
 Maintenance of cargo tanks and equipment.
 Tank washing machines are used
 Tank washing machines may be fixed or portable
 A typical tank washing machine is shown in fig. 5.5.1.
 Tank cleaning equipment must be properly earthed to avoid generation of static electricity.
 Electric bonding of tank cleaning hoses should be tested for electrical continuity in a dry condition prior
to use and in no case should the resistance exceed 6 ohms per meter length.
 Portable tank washing machines and hoses
The outer casing of portable machines should be of a material which on contact with the internal structure
of a cargo tank will not give rise to an incendive spark.
Bonding wires should be incorporated within all water hoses. Couplings should be connected to the hose in
such a way that effective bonding is ensured between them.
The coupling arrangement for the hose should be such that effective bonding can be established between
the tank washing machine, the hoses and the fixed tank cleaning water supply line.
Hoses should be indelibly marked to allow identification. A record should be kept showing the date and the
result of electrical continuity testing.
Washing machines should be electrically bonded to the water hose by means of a suitable connection or
external bonding wire.
When suspended within a cargo tank, machines should be supported by means of a rope and not by
means of the water supply hose.
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The total water throughout per cargo tank should be kept as low as practicable and must in no case
exceed 180 m3/h
1. Personnel involved in tank cleaning operations may be exposed to cargo vapours and should if
necessary use equipment for personal protection.
2. Different cargoes require different tank cleaning procedures
3. Cleaning may be done with hot or cold sea or fresh water, or by ventilation only.
4. With some cargoes water cannot be used for tank cleaning.
5. In some cases detergents are added to the washing water.
6. In some cases solvents are used for tank cleaning.
7. The phase in a tank cleaning operation are:
 Pre-wash;
 Main-wash;
 Fresh water rinse;
 Gas freeing;
 Drying; and
 Inspection/testing.
8. The purpose of gas freeing is to replace cargo vapours, inert gas or any other gases with air.
9. Gas freeing may be done by fixed or portable fans driven by air, steam, water or hydraulics.
10. The gas freeing operation is verified by regular checks of the tank atmosphere.
11. Atmosphere checks are done by measuring the percentage of oxygen and ppm valves of cargo
vapours or toxic inert gas constituents.
12. A cargo tank is gas free only when the oxygen content is 21% by volume and no vapours from
cargo or toxic constituents of inert gas can be measured in valves above TLV.
SLOPS AND SLOPS DISPOSAL
 Slops are defined as tank washings, or any residues/water mixtures from pump room bilges,
engine room bilges or slop tanks.
 Modern chemical tankers are fitted with tanks for the storage of slops.
 Cargo tanks may also be used to contain slops.
 In general, the discharge of slops into the sea is prohibited unless certain conditions are satisfied.
 International regulation covering slop discharge are given in MARPOL 73/78.
 International regulations covering discharge of slops containing noxious chemicals are given in
Annex II of MARPOL 73/78.
 Slops from certain noxious chemicals have to be discharged to shore facilities.
 All slop handling operations on chemical tankers are recorded in the cargo record book.
Page 124 of 124

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PONDICHERRY MARITIME ACADEMY-TFC COURSE BOOKLET

PONDICHERRY MARITIME ACADEMY

1.1 ENTRY STANDARDS

An existing certificate may be suitably endorsed by the issuing Administer

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF TANKERS

Figure: Important stages in the development of tankers and oil shipping

Figure: Early design of bulk oil carrier

Important stages in development of Liquefied gas Shipping

Important stages in development of Bulk Chemical Shipping

Chemical tankers may be engaged in “dedicated” or “parcel” trades.

1.3 TANKER TERMINOLOGY

 = the liquid density in kg/m 3

h = liquid column in meter.

Other common ions are listed in the table below:

Positive ions (cations) Negative ions (anions)

NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

NAMING BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

CHARGES IN THE ATOM

WHAT IS A LEWIS DIAGRAM?

WHAT IS A LEWIS STRUCTURE?

Incorrect Structure Correct Structure

2.3 Physical properties of oil carried in bulk

Saturated vapour pressure

Figure 2.6 Pressure/temperature relationships for liquefied chemical gases

Effect of Inert Gas on Flammability

4.2 Methods of controlling hazards on tankers Fire Safety

Figure 7.2(a) Oxygen indicator – circuit diagram

Figure 7.3(a) Combustible gas indicator –

Non-catalytic heated filament gas indicators

Figure 7.4 Infra-red gas analyser

Figure 7.5 Toxic gas indicator

Water - spray system

Enclosed Spaces on Gas Carriers Include

Checks for missing or trapped personnel

8.1 General cargo handling equipments onboard oil tankers

The same tanker – with the tank layout.

And part of the pump room layout of the same tanker.

Another detail of the same centrifugal pump.The

Tank layout of a crude oil tanker:

The Pipeline system:

It is generally of a square or circular layout.

8.2 Cargo handling equipments onboard chemical tankers

CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL AND COATINGS

8.3 Cargo Handling Equipments on board Gas Tankers

1.1.3 Submerged pump

1.1.4 Booster pumps

1.1.5 Hold spaces and inter barrier spaces

1.2 LOADING LINES, PIPES AND VALVES

Sketch of operation of drainage hull:

Sketch on spring-loaded seal valve:

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7. Indirect cargo cooling plant

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9. Direct cargo-cooling plant

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