Gaseous State

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 Gaseous State
➢ The gaseous state of the matter is characterised by their properties :
1. They have neither fixed volume nor fixed shape, i.e. their volume and shape depends upon
the size and shape of their container.
2. They can expand indefinitely and uniformly to the shape available to them
3. They may be compressed by the application of external pressure
4. they can diffuse and mix each other to form mixture of any composition
5. At high pressure and low temperature, they can be converted into their liquid state.
6. They can exert pressure in the surroundings
7. The properties of gases can be fully described in terms pressure, temperature, volume and
amount of the gas
All of these properties of the gaseous state are due to their very weak intermolecular force
(nearly negligible)

Difference Between Gas and Vapour

➢ Gaseous and vapour state of substance can be mainly distinguished by using the reference of
critical temperature.
➢ The critical temperature is that temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied even by
increasing the pressure tremendously.
➢ Hence, every gas is vapour at or below the critical temperature and every vapour is gas above the
critical temperature.
➢ Hence, vapour state of the matter can be easily liquified by increasing the pressure without
decreasing the temperature. Whereas teh gaseous state of teh matter can only be liquified by
increasing teh pressure and decreasing the temperature at or below the critical temperature.
The Kinetic Molecular Theory
The kinetic molecular theory states:
1. A gas consists of small particles, either individual atoms or molecules, moving around
randomly.
2. The total volume of the gas particles is so small compared to the total volume the gas occupies
that we can consider the total particle volume to be zero. This means that a gas consists almost
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 entirely of empty space.
3. The gas particles act independently of one another. A particle is not attracted to nor repelled
from any other particle.
4. Collision between gas particles and between gas particles and the walls of the container are
elastic. This means that the total kinetic energy of the gas particles is constant as long as the
temperature is constant.
5. The average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.
The kinetic molecular theory is used throughout the discussion of gases and should become
clearer as examples are used that illustrate this theory.

Pressure (P)
➢ Gas particles are extremely small and move rapidly. When they hit the walls of a container,they
exert a pressure.
➢ If we heat the container, the molecules move faster and smash into the walls of the container
more often and with increased force, thus increasing the pressure.
➢ The gas particles in the air, mostly oxygen and nitrogen, exert a pressure on us called
atmospheric pressure. As you go to higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure is less because
there are fewer particles in the air.
➢ The most common units used for gas measurement are the atmosphere (atm) and millimeters of
mercury (mmHg), or in kilopascals.

Figure. Gas particles move in straight line within a container.

The gas particles exert pressure when they collide with
the walls of container

Temperature (T)
➢ The temperature of a gas is related to the kinetic energy of its particles. For example, if we have
a gas at 200 K in a rigid container and heat it to a temperature of 400 K, the gas particles will
have twice the kinetic energy that they did at 200 K. This also means that the gas at 400 K exerts
twice the pressure of the gas at 200 K.

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➢ Although you measure gas temperature using a Celsius thermometer, all comparisons of gas
behavior and all calculations related to temperature must use the Kelvin temperature scale.
➢ At absolute zero, - 273.15 oC, (0 K) the volume of the gas becomes zero. i.e., no gaseous state
will exist at this temperature.
➢ one has yet achieved the conditions for absolute zero (0 K), but we predict that the particles will
have zero kinetic energy and exert zero pressure at absolute zero.

THE GAS LAWS

The gas laws which we will study now are the result of research carried on for several centuries on
the physical properties of gases. The first reliable measurement on properties of gases was made by
Anglo-Irish scientist Robert Boyle in 1662. The law which he formulated is known as Boyle’s Law.
Later on attempts to fly in air with the help of hot air balloons motivated Jaccques Charles and
Joseph Lewis Gay Lussac to discover additional gas laws. Contribution from Avogadro and others
provided lot of information about gaseous state.

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 Boyle’s Law (Pressure – Volume Relationship)
On the basis of his experiments, Robert Boyle reached to the conclusion that at constant
temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount (i.e., number of moles n) of gas varies inversely
with its volume. This is known as Boyleís law. Mathematically, it can be written as

1
P or PV = k
V
If a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature T occupying volume V1 at pressure P1 undergoes
expansion, so that volume becomes V2 and pressure becomes P2, then according to Boyle’s law :

P1V1 = P2V2

Exercise :
01. As you breathe, you inhale by increasing your lung volume. A woman has an initial lung volume
of 2.75 L, which is filled with air at an atmospheric pressure of 1.02 atm. If she increases her
lung volume to 3.25 L without inhaling any additional air, what is the pressure in her lungs?
[0.863]
02. A snorkeler takes a syringe filled with 16 mL of air from the surface, where the pressure is 1.0
atm, to an unknown depth. The volume of the air in the syringe at this depth is 7.5 mL. What is
the pressure at this depth? If the pressure increases by 1 atm for every additional 10 m of depth,
how deep is the snorkeler?
03. The air in a cylinder with a piston has a volume of
220 mL and a pressure of 650 mmHg.
To obtain a higher pressure inside the cylinder at
constant temperature and amount of gas,
should the cylinder change as shown in A or B?
Explain your choice.

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 Charles’s Law (Temperature – Volume Relationship)
Jacques Alexandre Charles (1746–1823) was an avid balloonist. Charles made
the first hydrogen-filled balloon flight in 1783 and formulated the law that bears his
name in conjunction with his ballooning research. In 1787, Jacques Charles, a balloonist as well as a
physicist, proposed that the volume of a gas is related to the temperature. This proposal became
Charles’s law, which states that the volume (V) of a gas is directly related to the temperature (K)
when there is no change in the pressure (P) or amount (n) of gas. A direct relationship is one in
which the related properties increase or decrease together. For two conditions, initial and final, we
can write Charles’s law as follows:

or
V1 V2
=
T1 T2

Exercise
01. A sample of gas has a volume of 2.80 L at an unknown temperature. When you submerge the
sample in ice water at T = 0.00 °C, its volume decreases to 2.57 L. What was its initial
temperature (in K and in °C)? [24 oC]
02. A gas in a cylinder with a moveable piston has an initial volume of 88.2 mL. If you heat the gas
from 35 °C to 155 °C, what is its final volume (in mL)?
03. Indicate whether the final volume of gas in each of the following is the same, larger, or smaller
than the initial volume, if pressure and amount of gas do not change:
a. A volume of 505 mL of air on a cold winter day at -15 oC is breathed into the lungs, when
body temperature is 37 oC.
b. The heater used to heat the air in a hot-air balloon is turned off.
c. A balloon filled with helium at the amusement park is left in a car on a hot day.

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 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles)
The volume of a gas sample (at constant temperature and pressure) as a function
of the amount of gas (in moles) in the sample is shown in Figure below.

We can see that the relationship between volume and amount is linear. As
we might expect, extrapolation to zero moles shows zero volume. This relationship, first stated
formally by Amadeo Avogadro, is Avogadro’s law .
Avogadro’s law : V  n ( constant T and P)
You experience Avogadro’s law when you inflate a balloon. With each exhaled
breath, you add more gas particles to the inside of the balloon, increasing its volume. We can use
Avogadro’s law to calculate the volume of a gas following a change in the amount of the gas as long
as the pressure and temperature of the gas are constant. For these types of calculations, we express
Avogadro’s law as:
V1 n1
=
V2 n2
where V1 and n1 are the initial volume and number of moles of the gas and V2 and n2 are the
final volume and number of moles
Exercise
01. A male athlete in a kinesiology research study has a lung volume of 6.15 L during a deep
inhalation. At this volume, his lungs contain 0.254 moles of air. During exhalation, his lung
volume decreases to 2.55 L. How many moles of gas does the athlete exhale during exhalation?
Assume constant temperature and pressure.
02. A chemical reaction occurring in a cylinder equipped with a moveable piston produces 0.621 mol
of a gaseous product. If the cylinder contains 0.120 mol of gas before the reaction and has an
initial volume of 2.18 L, what is its volume after the reaction? (Assume constant pressure and
temperature and that the initial amount of gas completely reacts.)
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 The Real Gas and Ideal Gas
➢ Ideal gas is a gas composed of molecules on which no forces act except upon collision with one
another and with the walls of the container in which the gas is enclosed; a gas that obeys the
ideal gas law, ( Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and Avogadro’s law)
➢ An ideal gas is a hypothetical concept. No gas exactly follows the ideal gas law, although many
gases come very close at low pressures and/or high temperatures. Thus ideal gas behavior can
best be thought of as the behavior approached by real gases under certain conditions.
➢ tinction between Ideal gases and Real gases
Ideal Gases Real Gases
1.They obey gas laws under all condition of 1. they deviate from gas laws. They obey the gas
temperature and pressure laws only atr high temperature and low
pressure
2. They are hypotherical He, N2, and H2 come 2. all gases are real gases
nearest to behaving as an ideal gases
3. volume occupied by their molecules 3. volume of any individual molecules cannot be
(individual) are negligible in comparison Neglected
to the total volume of the container
4. the attractive or repulsion force between 4. the pressure of gas in the container is less than
the molecules are neglected expected due to the intermolecular attraction
5. the volume occupied by 1 mole of an 5. The volume of 1 mole at STP is not exactly
ideal gas at STP is 22.4 litres 22.4 litres
6. the cooliing effect is not expected on 6. the cooling effect is observed due to the
Expansion expansion of gases

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➢ The main reason why gases behave less ideally at low temperature is because the intermolecular
forces of attraction become comparable in size to the bouncing forces the molecules experience.
This causes the collions between the molecules to be inelactic
Exercise :
01. Explain the following observation in terms of the sizes of molecules and the intermolecules
forces between them.
• At room temperature, carbon dioxide can be liquefied by subjecting it to a pressure of 10 atm.
Nitrogen, however, cannot be liquefied at room temperature, no matter how much pressure is
applied.
02. Place the following gases in order of decreasing ideality, with the most ideal first. Explain your
reasons for your ordes.
CH4 CH3Br Cl2 HCl H2

The Ideal Gas Law

The relationships that we have discussed so far can be combined into a single law that encompasses
all of them. So far, we have shown that:

Combining these three expressions, we find that V is proportional to nT/P:

We can replace the proportionality sign with an equals sign by incorporating R, a proportionality
constant called the ideal gas constant:

This equation is the ideal gas law, and a hypothetical gas that exactly follows this law is an ideal
gas. The value of R, the ideal gas constant, is the same for all gases and has the value:

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 Dalton’s law of Partial Pressure
➢ The total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases in a definite volume ( closed
container ) is always equal to the sum of the their individual pressure which each gas would exert
if it occupies the same space (volume) at a constant temperature
➢ if p1, p2, p3 are individual pressures (partial pressures) of the non-reacting gases in the gaseous
mixture and P is the pressureexerted by the mixture, then :
P = p1 + p2 + p3
➢ Partial Pressure and its relation with Mole Fraction
PT = PA + PB
from the gas law : PV = nRT
nT
PT∙V = nTRT ➔ PT = RT ..... (1)
V
nT = nA + nB
nA
PA∙V = nART ➔ PA = RT ............ (2)
V
from equation (1) and (2)
nA
PA RT nA
= V
nT
➔ PA =  PT
PT V RT nT
PA = XA∙PT, where XA is the mole fraction.

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 Diffusion and Effusion
➢ The process by which gas molecules spread out in response to a concentration gradient is
diffusion

➢ effusion is the process by which

a gas escapes from a container
into a vacuum through a small hole

➢ Graham’s Law of diffusion or effusion

the rate of diffusion (or effusion) of agas at constant temperature and pressure is inversely
propotional to the square root of its density.
where :
1 D = density
r r = rate
D
M = molecular weight

r1 D2 or r1 M2
= =
r2 D1 r2 M1

Temperature and Pressure (Gay-Lussac’s Law)

➢ In the temperature–pressure relationship known as Gay-Lussac’s law, the pressure of a gas is
directly related to its Kelvin temperature. This means that an increase in temperature increases
the pressure of a gas, and a decrease in temperature decreases the pressure of the gas as long as
the volume and amount of gas do not change.

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Collect the Gases
Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia and chlorine can be made using chemical
reactions. These gases are collected in different ways, depending upon their density and solubility in
water
➢ Upward delivery
If a gas is less dense than air, it is often more convenient to collect
it in a gas jar or test tube by upward delivery. The gas produced in
a chemical reaction is passed through a delivery tube into the gas
jar, where it rises and takes up the space at the top of the jar -
pushing the air in the jar down, and out at the bottom.
This works well for hydrogen and ammonia, which are both less
dense than air. The equipment must be used in a fume cupboard
when ammonia is collected, because ammonia is harmful
and has a sharp, choking smell

➢ Downward delivery
If a gas is denser than air, it is often more
convenient to collect it in a gas jar or test tube
by downward delivery. The gas produced in a
chemical reaction is passed through a delivery
tube into the gas jar, where it sinks and pushes
the air out of the top.
This works well for carbon dioxide and
chlorine, which are both denser than air. The
equipment must be used in a fume cupboard
when chlorine is collected, because chlorine is
toxic and has a sharp, choking smell.
➢ Collecting gases over water
Sometimes gases are collected over water. The gas
produced in a reaction is bubbled through a trough of
water and into an upturned gas jar filled with water. The
bubbles of gas collect in the top of the gas jar and push
the water out of the bottom. If enough gas is produced it
completely replaces the water in the gas jar. A glass lid is
then slid under the gas jar, which is then removed from
the trough of water and turned the right way up.
This works well for insoluble gases such as hydrogen, or
gases that do not dissolve easily in water, such as oxygen
and carbon dioxide. Ammonia and chlorine are readily
soluble in water and are not collected this way.

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Exercise :
I. MCQ
01. A gas cylinder is placed in each of the four corners of a square room. Each cylinder contains a
different gas stored under the same pressure. The gases are released at exactly the same time.
Which gas will reach the centre of the room first?
A. ammonia, NH3 B. argon, Ar C. carbon monoxide, CO D. chlorine, Cl2
02. Why does ammonia gas diffuse faster than hydrogen chloride gas?
A. Ammonia has a higher boiling point than hydrogen chloride.
B. Ammonia is a base, hydrogen chloride is an acid.
C. The ammonia molecule contains more atoms than a hydrogen chloride molecule.
D. The relative molecular mass of ammonia is smaller than that of hydrogen chloride.
03. Ethylamine gas, C2H5NH2, an hydrogen chloride gas, HCl, react together to form a white solid
ethylamine hydrochloride.
At which position in the tube would a ring of solid white ethylamine hydrochloride form ?

04. In an experiment, 1 cm3 of gaseous hydrocarbon X required 4 cm 3 of oxygen to complete

combustion to give 3 cm3 of carbon dioxide. All gas volume are measured at r.t.p.
Which formula represent X ?
a. C2H2 b. C2H4 c. C3H4 d. C3H8
05. Hydrogen chloride is very soluble in water, whereas chlorine is only slightly soluble in water.
Both gases can be dried using concentrated sulfuric acid.
Which diagram represents the correct method of obtaining pure dry chlorine from damp chlorine
containing a small amount of hydrogen chloride ?
A. C.

B. D.

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06. An inflated balloon goes down because gas molecules can deffuse through the rubber.
Four balloons are filled with different gases at the same temperature and pressure.
Which balloon would go down quickest ?
A B C D

07. The diagram shows a simple laboratory apparatus for the preparation and collection the gas.
What is the gas ?
A. Carbon dioxide
B. Chlorine
C. Hydrogen
D. Hydrogen chloride

08. The gas laws can be summarised in the ideal gas equation below.
PV = nRT
0.96 g of oxygen gas is contained in a glass vessel of volume 7.0 x 10 -3 m3 at a temperature of
30 oC. Assume the gas behaves as an ideal gas. What is the pressure in the vessel ?
a. 1.1 kPa b. 2.1 kPa c. 10.8 kPa d. 21.6 kPa
09. What is the volume of steam produced when 1.00 g of ice is heated to 323 oC at a pressure of 101
kPa ?
a. 0.27 dm3 b. 1.3 dm3 c. 2.7 cm3 d. 48 dm3
10. Two glass vessels M and N are connected by a closed valve

M contains helium at 20 oC pressure of 1 x 105 Pa. N has been evacuated, and hes three times the
volume of M. In experiment, the valve is opened and the temperature of the whole apparatus is
raised to 100 oC . What is the final pressure in the system ?
a. 3.18 x 104 Pa b. 4.24 x 104 Pa c. 1.25 x 105 Pa d. 5.09 x 105 Pa
11. Which statement, 1 cm3 of gaseous propane, C3H8, and carbon dioxide, CO2, diffuse at the same
rate at room temperature and pressure ?
a. Both are denser than air c. both molecules contain covalent bonds
b. both compound contain carbon d. They have the same relative molecular mass, M r

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II. Essay
01. A balloon is filled with helium gas with a pressure of 1.00 atm and neon gas with a pressure of
0.50 atm. For each of the following changes of the initial balloon, select the diagram (A, B, or C)
that shows the final volume of the balloon:
a. The balloon is put in a cold storage unit (P and n
constant).
b. The balloon floats to a higher altitude where the
pressure is less (n and T constant).
c. All of the helium gas is removed (T and P
constant).
d. The Kelvin temperature doubles, and half of the
gas atoms leak out (P constant).
e. 2.0 mol of O2 gas is added at constant T and P.
02. An airplane is pressurized to 650. mmHg.
a. If air is 21% oxygen, what is the partial pressure of oxygen on the plane? [140 mmHg]
b. If the partial pressure of oxygen drops below 100. mmHg, passengers become drowsy. If this
happens, oxygen masks are released. What is the total cabin pressure at which oxygen masks
are dropped? [480 mmHg]
03. A gas sample has a volume of 4250 mL at 15 oC and 745 mmHg. What is the final temperature,
in degrees Celsius, after the sample is transferred to a different container with a volume of 2.50 L
and a pressure of 1.20 atm, when n remains constant? [ - 66 oC ]
04. A Heliox breathing mixture of oxygen and helium is prepared for a scuba diver who is going to
descend 200 ft below the ocean surface. At that depth, the diver breathes a gas mixture that has
a total pressure of 7.00 atm. If the partial pressure of the oxygen in the tank at that depth is
1140 mmHg, what is the partial pressure, in atmospheres, of the helium in the breathing
mixture?
05. A spherical balloon of 21 cm diameter is to be filled up with hydrogen gas at STP from a
cylinder containing the gas at 20 atm at 27 oC. If the cylinder can hold 2.82 liter of water,
calculate the number of balloons that can be filled up. [10]
06. When 2 gram of a gas A is introduced into an evacuated flask kept at 25 oC the pressure is
found to be one atmosphere. If 3 gram of another gas B is then added to the same flask, the
total pressure becomes 1.5 atm. Assume an ideal gaseous behavior, the ratio of molecular
weights MA: MB. [1 : 3 ]
07. Two gasses A and B, having molecular weight 60.0 and 45.0 respectively are enclosed in a
vessel. The weight of A is 0.500 g and that of B is 0.200 g. The total pressure of the mixture is
750 mmHg. Calculate the partial pressure of the two gases. [490 mmHg; 260 mmHg]
08. A 1.5 liter flask contains 0.4 g O2 and 0.06 g H2 at 100 oC.
a. What is total pressure in the flask? [0.867 atm]
b. If the mixture is permitted to react to form H 2O (g) at the same temperature,
what materials will be left and what will be their partial pressure? [0.102 atm; 0.51 atm]
09. A 10 liter flask at 298 K contains a gaseous mixture of CO and CO 2 at a total pressure of 2.0
atm. If 0.20 mole of CO is present, find its partial pressure and also that of CO2?
[0.49 atm; 1.51 atm]
10. A mixture of 4.0 gram of H2 and unknown quantity of He is maintained at STP. If 10.0 g of H 2
is added to the mixture while conditions are maintained at STP, the gas volume doubles. What
mass of He is present? [12 g]

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11. 180 ml of a hydrocarbon diffuses through a porous membrane in 20 min while 120 ml of SO 2
water identical conditions diffuses in 20 min. what is the molecular weight of hydrocarbon?[16]
12. Under same conditions of temperature and pressure, a hydrocarbon of molecular formula
CnH2n-2 was found to diffuse 3 3 times slower than H2. Find the value of n. [4]
13. Colorless NO comes in contact of oxygen of air to produce NO 2. In an experiment NO and O2
gasses were introduced at the ends of one meter long tube simultaneously (the glass tube has
uniform cross section). At what distance from NO and brown fume of NO 2 will be seen first
inside the tube? [50.8 cm]
14. A 5.0 liter box contains 28.4 g of mixture of gasses C xH8 and CxH10. The pressure of the gas
mixture at 27 oC is 2.46 atm. The analysis of the gas mixture shows that carbon is 84.5 %. How
many moles of each gas are present? Identify the gases. [C4H8 = 0.3 mol; C4H10 = 0.2 mol]
15. 10 cm3 of hydrocarbon CaHb were exploded with excess oxygen. A contraction of 25 cm3
occurred. On treating the product with sodium hydroxide, a further contraction of 40 cm 3
occurred. Deduce the values of a and b in the formula of the hydrocarbon. All measurements of
gas volume are at STP. [C4H6]
16. 10 cm3 of hydrocarbon C4H8 were exploded with an excess of oxygen. A concentration of a
cm3 occurred. On adding sodium hydroxide solution, a further contraction of b cm 3 occurred.
What are the volumes, a and b? All gas volumes are at STP. [30 ; 40]

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