Thermal Resistance

Thermal resistance is defined as the ratio of the temperature difference between the
two faces of a material to the rate of heat flow per unit area.

From: Nanotechnology in Textiles, 2019

Related terms:

Solar Energy, Thermoelectrics, Heat Exchanger, Heat Pipe, Heat Sink, Phase Change
Material, Heat Flux, Thermal Conductivity, Heat Transfer Coefficient

View all Topics

Nanoporous materials
Rajesh Mishra, ... Mohanapriya Venkataraman, in Nanotechnology in Textiles, 2019

7.2.10 Thermal resistance

Thermal resistance is defined as the ratio of the temperature difference between the
two faces of a material to the rate of heat flow per unit area. Thermal resistance
determines the heat insulation property of a textile material. The higher the thermal
resistance, the lower is the heat loss. The thermal resistance, R, is connected with
the thermal conductivity, , and the fabric thickness, h, as follows:

(7.3)

The statistical analysis shows that the fabric thickness has a highly significant
influence on the thermal resistance (P = .006).

Thermal resistance is a function of the thickness and thermal conductivity of a fabric,

and is a very important parameter from the viewpoint of thermal insulation, and is
proportional to the fabric structure also. The original thickness measurements for
the three fabrics were under relaxed conditions. Fig. 7.9 indicates that the thermal
resistance of sample 1 is lower than the samples 2 and 3. If the thickness is higher
like in samples 2 and 3, the thermal resistance is also higher. Due to increase in
thickness, there is an increase in thermal insulation, and the decrease of heat losses
is due to the space insulated by the fabric. This may be attributed to aerogel particles
in the fabric.

Fig. 7.9. Thermal resistance versus thickness [9].

> Read full chapter

Other Useful Design Techniques and

Loose Ends
Marc T. Thompson Ph.D., in Intuitive Analog Circuit Design (Second Edition), 2014

Using thermal circuit analogies to determine the static semi-

conductor junction temperature
The thermal model of a semiconductor mounted to a heat sink is shown in Fig-
ure 17.4. The transistor dissipates power, and this is indicated by the current source
with a value P. The ambient temperature is TA, and the heat-sink surface temperature
and case temperature of the semiconductor are Ts and Tc, respectively. The transistor
junction temperature is Tj, and our goal in designing a heat-sink system is to
guarantee that the junction temperature does not exceed a safe level.
FIGURE 17.4. Thermal model of a semiconductor mounted to a heat sink.

The thermal resistances for heat conduction through the transistor to the heat-sink
surface are RTH,JC and RTH,CS. RTH,JC is the thermal resistance from the junction of the
transistor (where the power is dissipated) to the case of the transistor. The thermal
resistance RTH,CS is the thermal resistance from the case of the transistor to the heat
sink. This value of thermal resistance depends on the contact area, how well you
torque the transistor down to the heat sink, and on the type of thermal interface2
material that you use.

The thermal resistance from the heat sink to ambient air (RTH,SA) is a function of the
heat-sink area and whether you cool the heat sink with forced air or not. Heat-sink
manufacturers will specify this number for a given heat-sink area and air flow.

> Read full chapter

Calculation of borehole thermal resis-

tance
S. Javed, J.D. Spitler, in Advances in Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems, 2016

Abstract
The borehole thermal resistance—that is, the thermal resistance between the fluid
in the U-tube and the borehole wall—is a key performance characteristic of a
closed-loop borehole ground heat exchanger (GHE). Lower borehole thermal resis-
tance leads to better system performance. Since the original identification of bore-
hole thermal resistance by Mogensen (1983), there have been numerous methods
proposed for calculating this. In this chapter, we present methods for calculating
local borehole thermal resistance and effective borehole thermal resistance which
account for short-circuiting between the upward- and downward-flowing legs of the
GHE. We also compare a wide range of simple, relatively easy-to-calculate methods
to a detailed reference method and recommend suitable simplified methods.
> Read full chapter

Sustainable production and application

of natural fibre-based nonwoven
Sanjoy Debnath, in Sustainable Fibres and Textiles, 2017

13.2.2.7 Thermal resistance

The thermal resistance of a textile material is usually defined as the ratio of the
temperature difference between two faces of the fabric material to the rate of the flow
of heat per unit area normal to the faces. It is analogous to electrical resistance in the
case of current flow through an electrical conductor. Disc method, an application of
Lee’s disc apparatus to textiles, was employed to evaluate the thermal resistance of
polyester needle-punched nonwoven fabric samples. In this method, the material
under test is held between two metal discs, of which one has known thermal
resistance. Under steady conditions, the temperature drop across the metal disc
with known thermal resistance and across the material under test is measured; from
the values obtained, the thermal resistance of the specimen is determined by the
following techniques.

Let TRk and TRs be the thermal resistance of the known disc and the sample under
test, respectively. Let t1 be the temperature registered by the lower surface of known
disc, t2 be the temperature registered by the lower surface of the sample under test
and t3 be the upper surface of the sample under test. Assuming a constant rate of
flow of heat at steady state, TRs is computed from the following formula (in degrees
K m2/W):

In this experiment, a guarded two-plate thermal resistance instrument is used to

measure the thermal resistance of jute-based needle-punched fabrics (Debnath
and Madhusoothanan, 2010b; 2011a,b; Debnath, 2016b) (Fig. 13.3). The thermal
resistant instrument is based on a microprocessor and provides automatic results
of thermal resistance value in ‘tog’. The area of the test specimen used is 706.85 cm2
(diameter of 30 cm). The test is nondestructive and the process of preparing the
sample is free from human error. Thermal insulation of each fabric sample is
measured randomly at five different places under a pressure of 0.3352 kPa. An
average of five readings was considered and the coefficient of variation of readings
was <2%.
Figure 13.3. Instrument for measuring the thermal resistance of fabrics (Debnath,
2016a).

The specific thermal resistance (STRs) value is use to compare the thermal resistance
of different fabric samples. STRs values of all samples are determined using the
following equation:

where STRs is the STRs (in K m2/W); TRs, the thermal resistance value of fabric (in
K m2/W); and T0, the mean thickness in metres at 1.55 kPa pressure of the fabric
sample.

> Read full chapter

Thermics, Packaging and Power Com-

ponent Technologies
Nicolas Patin, in Power Electronics Applied to Industrial Systems and Transports,
Volume 1, 2015

2.5 Choosing a heat sink

Heat sinks are selected primarily on the basis of the required thermal resistance,
but the type of package used for the cooled component may also be taken into
consideration. Different heat sink designs are better suitable for the specific form
of certain components (e.g. the heat sink shown in Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.11. A heat sink and the corresponding component package (TO-3)

Modules with metallic bases are becoming increasingly widespread in (high) power
electronics. This simplifies the choice of heat sinks, as aluminum profiles may
be used systematically in this case; designers must simply determine the length
required for a given thermal resistance (see Figure 2.12).

Figure 2.12. “Standard” aluminum profile for heat dissipation (taken from the Seem
catalog)

Thermal resistance values should be taken as qualitative indications rather than precise
quantitative data, as the orientation of the fins has a significant effect on the results.
A heat sink will attain maximum efficiency when the (vertical) movements of
air convection are unobstructed; for this reason, fins are best oriented vertically, as
otherwise the thermal resistance may increase by 20%. The results obtained will also
vary depending on whether the heat sink is painted black or left plain (in this case,
the thermal resistance may be increased by 10%5). Finally, it would be foolish to
think that a heat sink of 1 m in length would be efficient for the dissipation of
power generated by a component of 1 cm in length: the localized constant model
given here cannot be applied to non-compact equipment. In these cases, only finite
element simulations will be able to produce satisfactory results6.

A final point to address is the mechanism for heat exchange between the heat sink
and the air. Previously, we have considered exchanges by natural convection (hence,
the need to correctly align the fins in order to obtain maximum efficiency). Forced
air circulation is also possible with the use of fans. In this case, we may use:

– charts for correction (downward) of the required profile length;

– thermal resistance tables for a given heat sink according to the type of air
circulation (natural or forced).

In the cases where forced air circulation is used, the speed of circulation (in m/s) is
a key factor, as it enables us to evaluate the obtained thermal resistance.

> Read full chapter

Analytical modelling of steady heat and

mass transfers
Lyesse Laloui, Alessandro F. Rotta Loria, in Analysis and Design of Energy Geostruc-
tures, 2020

8.7.1 Application of thermal circuits to basic cylindrical and

plane problems
Thermal resistances can efficiently be associated with the transfer of heat and
represented in circuits similarly to electrical resistances. Circuit representations pro-
vide a useful tool for both conceptualising and quantifying heat transfer problems
(Bergman et al., 2011). Fig. 8.16 shows an example of thermal circuits for the
previously considered problems of the infinite cylinder and plane wall.
Figure 8.16. Equivalent thermal circuits for (A) a hollow cylinder and (B) a plane wall.

For the cylinder, since is constant throughout the network, it follows that

(8.81)

The thermal power per unit length may also be expressed in terms of the overall
temperature difference, , and the total thermal resistance, , as

(8.82)

where, considering the analysed thermal circuit in series,

(8.83)

For the wall, since is constant throughout the network, it follows that

(8.84)

The thermal power per unit surface may also be expressed in terms of the overall
temperature difference, , and the total thermal resistance, , as

(8.85)
where, considering the analysed thermal circuit in series,

(8.86)

> Read full chapter

Calculations to Determine the Effec-

tiveness and Control of Thermal and
Sound Transmission
Sidney M. Levy, in Construction Calculations Manual, 2012

Thermal Resistance (R-value)

The thermal resistance (R-value) is the reciprocal of l (1/l) and is used for calculating
the thermal resistance of any material or composite material. The R-value can be
defined in simple terms as the resistance that any specific material offers to the heat
flow. A good insulation material will have a high R-value. For thicknesses other than
1 m, the R-value increases in direct proportion to the increase in thickness of the
insulation material. This is x/l, where x stands for the thickness of the material in
meters.

> Read full chapter

Cold weather clothing for military ap-

plications
ScottR.A. , in Textiles for Cold Weather Apparel, 2009

14.7 Thermal insulation materials

Thermal insulation is an intrinsic property of combat clothing layers which provides
an advantage in cold climates, but is a distinct disadvantage in hot climates dur-
ing high activity operations. Textile fibres and structures form very light, resilient,
easy-care, durable, and efficient insulators, although the fibres themselves merely
act as a medium with a large surface area for trapping still air. Air is trapped on the
surfaces of fibres, and in the interstices between them. The thermal resistance of
still air is about 25–30 times greater than that of fibrous polymers. An efficient
insulation medium typically comprises about 5– 20% of fibres and 80–95% air
(Cooper, 1979).

There are secondary effects on insulation efficiency that are influenced by the
diameter of the fibres. Large numbers of fine fibres have a high specific surface area,
thus trapping more still air. These fine fibres tend to form dense, thin, feltlike bat-
tings that resist compression well, so are ideal for insulating footwear and handwear.
Thinsulate® is such a material, based upon melt blown polyolefin fibres, including
microfibres. Conversely, battings made from large diameter hollow tubular fibres
have excellent ‘loft’ or resilience, enabling them to recover from compression and
maintain thickness. This makes them ideal for sleeping bags, duvets and outer wear.
Table 14.4 lists special synthetic fibres used for modern thermal insulation.

Table 14.4. Special synthetic fibres for thermal insulation

Polymer type Trade names Description

Polyester Numerous Solid fibres used in knitted and
brushed fabrics for fleece gar-
ments, often made from recy-
cled bottles.
Polyester Coolmax® (Du Pont) Quadrilobal cross-section to
wick moisture. Used in sports
underwear.
Polyester Thermastat® (Du Pont) Hollow tubular fibre, used ini-
tially for cold weather under-
wear.
Polyester Hollofil® (Du Pont) Single hole hollow tubular fibre.
6 dtex version used in sleeping
bags and duvets.
Polyester Quallofil® (Du Pont) Hollow fibres with 4- or 7- hole
versions. For sleeping bags and
duvets.
Polyolefin (PE) Thinsulate ‘M’® (3 M) Microfibre, melt blown spun,
dense felts for lining gloves,
boots, etc.
Polyolefin (PE) Thinsulate ‘CS’® Mixtures of microfibre and con-
ventional solid fibres for cloth-
ing.
Polyacrylate Inidex® Special flame retardant filling.
Acrylic Numerous Solid fibre, soft handle, for pile
fabrics.

Synthetic fibres have certain practical advantages over natural fillings such as down,
feathers and kapok. They are rot resistant, hygienic, easy care, dry rapidly after
wetting or laundering, resistant to compression damage, and are cheaper than down
and feathers. They have in many cases superseded natural fillings for arduous heavy
duty military use.

14.7.1 Measurements of thermal efficiency of textiles

Thermal resistance measurements using standard equipment such as the Togmeter
to ISO 5085 give limited information. Military forces need insulation which is
lightweight and compact, so the efficiency of insulative properties is much more
important. Thus, we tend to measure warmth/thickness and warmth/ mass ratios.
Figures 14.2 and 14.3 show measurements for a wide range of textiles for clothing,
from woven and knitted fabrics through pile fabrics to fibrous battings and quilts
(Scott, 2000).

14.2. Warmth/thickness ratios for textiles.

14.3. Warmth/mass ratios for textiles.

It is clear from Fig. 14.2 that the warmth/thickness ratios only vary between about 2.0
and 3.5 Togs/cm. The two Thinsulate® microfibre types exhibit the highest values,
as expected from the previous discussion. We can conclude that a certain thickness
of any type of textile – whether woven, knitted, pile or quilt – will exhibit a narrow
range of thermal insulation values.

By contrast, Fig. 14.3 compares the same materials on a warmth to mass basis.

Here the differences are significant, ranging from about 1–3 Tog m2/kg for woven
and knitted fabrics up to a maximum of 18 Tog m2/kg for quilted battings. Pile
fabrics exhibit intermediate values between 6 and 7 Tog m2/kg. The conclusion is
that quilts and non-woven battings are the most efficient insulators. Performance
specifications for insulation media should specify both a maximum mass and a
minimum thickness in order to achieve optimum efficiency of the fibre filling.
Table 14.5 lists thermal insulation materials for cold weather clothing and sleeping
bags in UK military service.

Table 14.5. The range of thermal insulation materials in UK military service

Item Description Specification

Materials for sleeping bags A range of polyester fillings UK/SC/5226
based on hollow 4- and 7-hole
fibres
Warm weather sleeping bag One × 100 g/mbatting using UK/SC 5492
80% 4-hole and 20% 7-hole
polyester
Temperate sleeping bag One × 150 g/m2 batting using UK/SC/5609
100% 4-hole polyester
Arctic sleeping bag Two × 100 g/m2 battings us- UK/SC/5610
ing 80% 4-hole and 20% 7-hole
polyester
Sleeping bag fleet (Royal Navy) Zirpro® treated F.R. wool filling UK/SC/4594
with Proban® F.R. cotton cover
Boots, combat, cold/ wet weath- Thinsulate® microfibre poly- —
er (lining) olefin
Shirt, cold weather (Norwegian) Cloth, cotton, knitted, plush UK/SC/5283
terry loop pile, 300 g/m2
Jacket, fleece pile Cloth, knitted, polyester fleece, UK/SC/5412
double faced, green
Jacket and trousers thermal Mixture of polyester hollow and UK/SC/5919
micro-fibre battings, 200 g/m-
2, 20 mm thick

14.7.2 The effects of moisture on thermal insulation

Protecting the individual against cold/wet climates is the most challenging problem,
as it is essential to keep all thermal insulation layers dry. The thermal resistance of
wet fibrous insulation media is significantly reduced, due to the replacement of low
conductivity still air with high conductivity water in the structure. Fibrous battings
also tend to soak up large amounts of water by capillary action. Some claim that
synthetic fibre fillings are not deleteriously affected by the presence of moisture,
i.e., do not lose thermal insulation when wet. However, Fig. 14.4 shows the effect of
increasing amounts of water on a range of synthetic fibre fillings. In most cases these
battings can lose between 40 and 75% of their dry insulation when they contain 50%
by weight of moisture.

14.4. Loss of thermal resistance in wet fibrous insulation.

> Read full chapter

Developing thermophysical sensors

with textile auxiliary wall
H. Gidik, ... D. Dupont, in Smart Textiles and their Applications, 2016

19.2.1.2 Thermal resistance

Thermal resistance (Rth, m² K/W) depends on thermal conductivity ( , W/m K) and
thickness (h, m) of the material as defined Eq. [19.1] [24].

[19.1]

Concerning a textile fabric's geometry, fabric thickness appears to have the most
influence on thermal and hydroscopic behavior, explaining the majority of the
phenomenon. This is because the increase in the thickness of fabric influences fabric
porosity due to the corresponding increase of fabric volume, which is generally
followed by an increase in the amount of air in the fabric interstices [4].

In addition to the thermal characteristics of fibers (Table 19.1) and the fabric thick-
ness, yarn properties have an impact on the thermal properties of the fabric. Coarser
yarns produce fabrics with more intra-yarn air spaces but with fewer inter-yarn air
spaces, resulting in lower air permeability. Higher twist yarn produces a less dense
fabric, resulting in higher air permeability. It was found that thermal resistance
decreases with increasing air permeability because lower air permeability implies a
superior cover and hence improved fabric warmth [28].

> Read full chapter

Shallow geothermal and ambient heat

technologies for renewable heating
Javier F. Urchueguia, in Renewable Heating and Cooling, 2016

5.2.2.3 Heat transfer within a borehole heat exchanger and its

main affecting factors
In accordance with the main principles discussed before when dealing with strongly
coupled ambient heat sources, in the design of a borehole heat exchanger (BHE),
it is fundamental to ensure—in a cost-effective way—that heat can be injected or
extracted from the ground without excessive temperature differences between the
heat carrier fluid and the surrounding ground, thus minimizing the difference be-
tween T2r and T2 (refer to Figure 5.1). This temperature difference strongly depends
on a parameter known as fluid-to-ground thermal resistance, in which the two major
parts of this resistance are the thermal resistance between the heat carrier fluid
and the borehole wall, known as the borehole thermal resistance, and the thermal
resistance of the surrounding ground from the borehole wall to some suitable
average temperature level termed ground thermal resistance (see Eskilson, 1987;
Hellström & Kjellsson, 1998).

Ground thermal resistance involves the surrounding ground from the borehole wall
to some reference temperature level, usually the natural undisturbed ground tem-
perature T2 in GSHP-type applications.5 In this type of application, it is convenient
to consider the thermal response due to a step change in specific heat injection rate
q (W/m)6 given per unit length of the borehole and to associate the temperature
evolution with a time-dependent ground thermal resistance Rg, so that:
(5.2)

where Tb is the temperature in the borehole wall. The unit of the ground thermal
resistance Rg is K/(W/m). The other important factor for the design of borehole
systems is the thermal resistance between the heat carrier fluid in the borehole flow
channels and the borehole wall. The fluid-to-borehole wall thermal resistance gives
the temperature difference between the fluid temperature in the collector (Tf) and
the temperature at the borehole wall (Tb) for a certain specific heat transfer rate q
(W/m):

(5.3)

As Tf is representative of the real temperature at which the heat pump actually is

taking heat from the cold reservoir , from the combination of Eqn (5.2) and Eqn
(5.3) we can easily deduce:

(5.4)

Hence, from the perspective of system performance, we can see that it is important
to minimize ground thermal as well as borehole thermal resistance. However,
ground thermal resistance depends strongly on factors such as the ground heat
resistivity (depending on soil type or composition) that cannot be changed by the
designer. It is also important to note that usually multiple borehole arrays are used.
Thermal interaction between adjacent boreholes will develop after a relatively short
time, affecting the value of Rg. The usual approach here is to measure—by the
so-called pulsed or transient response test (TRT) methods (ASHRAE, 2002; Gehlin,
1998)—the individual borehole value of Rg, which is then extrapolated by modeling,
via appropriate so-called g-functions, to the behavior of the whole borehole field.
Finally, Rg also depends on how intensively the ground was used before for thermal
extraction/injection and thus on the energy behavior of the system (characterized by
the number of hours the system has been used at full load throughout the heating
season).

Borehole thermal resistance depends on the arrangement of the flow channels and
the thermal properties of the materials involved. Typical values observed in field tests
range from 0.01 K/(W/m) for the open coaxial arrangement to about 0.25 K/(W/m)
for single U-pipes in bentonite grout with poor thermal contact to the surround-
ing borehole wall. For a typical heat transfer rate of 50 W/m, the corresponding
temperature differences that may arise due to borehole thermal resistance would
range from 0.5 °C to values as high as 12.5 °C, with a potentially very significant
effect on the system performance. To minimize Rb, filling materials (e.g., bentonite,
concrete, etc.) in grouted boreholes are used to ensure better heat transfer. However,
in water-filled boreholes—very popular in the north of Europe—the heat transfer
 induces natural convection in the borehole water and in the surrounding permeable
ground. This effect is only possible when certain ground conditions are met and
leads to a reduction of the overall borehole thermal resistance.

In general, borehole thermal resistance depends:

• On the quality of the grout

• On the borehole pipe material

• On the fluid flow inside the BHE—if flow conditions are laminar, thermal
contact is much poorer than in turbulent flow conditions
• On possible thermal short-circuiting between the downward and upward legs
inside the BHE

Using higher flow rates can minimize the last two factors, but there is a trade-off with
the increased pumping needs that result.

Finally, a different way to go when looking at Eqn (5.4) is to keep the specific rate of
heat extraction, q, limited. This is the approach of some of the best known standards
for shallow geothermal development such as German VDI norm 5450 (VDI, 2008).
Here, maximum tolerable heat extraction rates are fixed as a function of different
soil and operation parameters of a given system. In the early years of BHE in Europe
a value of 50 W/m was given as a standard value for Germany (whereas 55 W/m was
the value usually adopted for Switzerland). These values were used for the design of
residential GSHP at that time—and 50 W/m is still the rule-of-thumb value for the
sizing of smaller installations. However, it is apparent from all considerations made
before, that a BHE system should not be designed following such types of rules.

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