Vectors and The Geometry of Space

Calculus 2
Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui
School of Applied Mathematics and Informatics,

Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 1 / 23

Bibliography
James Stewart, Calculus Early Transcendentals, Brooks Cole Cengage

Learning, 2012.
1 Vectors and the geometry of space: Chapter 12,
2 Vector functions: Chapter 13,
3 Multiple Integrals: Chapter 15,
4 Line Integrals: Chapter 16,
5 Surface Integrals: Chapter 16,
http://bit.ly/bai-giang

Vectors and Vector Functions
1 Vectors and vector functions

Vectors
Equations of Lines and Planes
Cylinders and quadratic surfaces
2 Vector Functions
Vector functions and space curves
Curvature
Motion in space: Velocity and acceleration

Vectors and vector functions
Vector and Geometry of Space

Vectors
2 Vector Functions
Curvature

Vectors and vector functions Vectors
Vectors
The term vector is used to indicate a quantity that has both magnitude
and direction (velocity, force,. . . ).

Vectors
Definition
1 A n-dimensional vector is an ordered a = (a , a , . . . , a ) of real
1 2 n
numbers. The numbers a1 , a2 , . . . an are called the components of a.
2 2D, i = (1, 0), j = (0, 1) : standard basic vectors.
3 3D, i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1) : standard basic vectors.

Vectors
Definition
1 2 n
The length of vectors

a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ⇒ |a| =

Vectors
Definition
1 2 n
The length of vectors

q
a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ⇒ |a| = a12 + a22 + · · · + an2 .
Operations on vectors
a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) ⇒ a + b =?, a − b =?ca =?

Vectors
Properties of vectors
Let a, b, c ∈ Rn and c, d ∈ R.
1 a+b=b+a 5 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
2 a+0=a 6 a + (−a) = 0
3 c(a + b) = ca + cb 7 (c + d)a = ca + da
4 (cd)a = c(da) 8 1 a= a

Vectors
Properties of vectors
Let a, b, c ∈ Rn and c, d ∈ R.
1 a+b=b+a 5 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
2 a+0=a 6 a + (−a) = 0
3 c(a + b) = ca + cb 7 (c + d)a = ca + da
4 (cd)a = c(da) 8 1 a= a
Dot product
If a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) and b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ), then
a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn .
1 a = (a1 , a2 ), b = (b1 , b2 ) ⇒ a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 .
2 a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) ⇒ a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

The dot product
Properties of the dot product

If a, b, c are vectors and c is a scalar, then
1 a · a = |a|2 4 (ca) · b = c(a · b) = a · (cb)

2 a·b=b·a
3 a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c 5 0·a=0

The dot product
Properties of the dot product

If a, b, c are vectors and c is a scalar, then
1 a · a = |a|2 4 (ca) · b = c(a · b) = a · (cb)

2 a·b=b·a
3 a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c 5 0·a=0
Theorem
If θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, is the angle between a and b, then a · b = |a||b| cos θ.
Corollary: B
a·b
1 cos θ = |a||b| ,
b a−b
2 a ⊥ b ⇔ a · b = 0. θ A
O a

Vectors
Direction Angles and Direction Cosines
1 The direction angles of a 6= 0 are the angles α, β, γ ∈ [0, π] that the
vector a makes with the positive x - , y - , and z- axes.
2 The cosines of these direction angles, cos α, cos β, and cos γ are
called the direction cosines of the vector a.

Vectors
Direction Angles and Direction Cosines
1 The direction angles of a 6= 0 are the angles α, β, γ ∈ [0, π] that the
vector a makes with the positive x - , y - , and z- axes.
2 The cosines of these direction angles, cos α, cos β, and cos γ are
called the direction cosines of the vector a.
Projection
−→ a·b
The scalar projection of b onto a is |OP| = |b| cos θ = .
|a|
−→ a·b

The vector projection of b onto a is OP = a.
|a|2
B
b
O θ P A
a
Cross Product
!
a a3 a3 a1 a1 a2
2
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) ⇒ a×b = , , .
b2 b3 b3 b1 b1 b2


Cross Product
!
a a3 a3 a1 a1 a2
2
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) ⇒ a×b = , , .
b2 b3 b3 b1 b1 b2

Properties
1 a × b is orthogonal to both vectors a and b.
2 |a × b| = |a||b| sin θ, where θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, is the angle between a, b.
3 The direction of a × b is given by the right-hand rule.
Corollary.
1 a/ /b ⇔ a × b = 0,
2 |a × b| = the area of the
parallelogram.
C
D
B
A
The cross product
Properties
If a, b and c are vectors and c is a scalar, then
1 a × b = −b × a 4 (a + b)c = a × c + b × c
2 (ca) × b = c(a × b) = a × (cb) 5 a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c
3 a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c 6 a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c

Scalar triple product
Definition (Scalar triple product)

The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b, and c, denoted by (a, b, c),
is a number that is defined by (a, b, c) = a · (b × c).
Theorem

a a2 a3
1
(a, b, c) = b1 b2 b3 , (a, b, c) = (b, c, a) = (c, a, b) = −(b, a, c).

c1 c2 c3

Properties
1 The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors a, b, and
c is V = |(a, b, c)|.
2 The vectors a, b, and c are coplanar if and only if (a, b, c) = 0.

Vectors and vector functions Equations of Lines and Planes
Equations of Lines
A line L is determined by a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) on it and its direction
vector v = (a, b, c).

Equations of Lines
1 The vector equation r = r0 + tv,
2 The parametric equation x = x0 + at, y = y0 + bt, z = z0 + ct,
x −x0 y −y0 z−z0
3 The symmetric equation a = b = c .
Equations of Planes
A plane P is determined by a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in it and its normal
vector n = (a, b, c).

Equations of Lines
1 The vector equation r = r0 + tv,
2 The parametric equation x = x0 + at, y = y0 + bt, z = z0 + ct,
x −x0 y −y0 z−z0
3 The symmetric equation a = b = c .
Equations of Planes
A plane P is determined by a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in it and its normal
vector n = (a, b, c).
1 The vector equations n · (r − r0 ) = 0,
2 The scalar equation a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0.

Vectors and vector functions Cylinders and quadratic surfaces

A quadratic surface is the graph of a second-degree equation
Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Exz + Fyz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0.
By translation and rotation it can be brought into one of two standard

forms
Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + J = 0, Ax 2 + By 2 + Iz = 0.
Example
x2 y2 z2
Ellipsoid + 2 + 2 =1
a2 b c
Example
z x2 y2 z x2 y2
Elliptic paraboloid = 2 + 2 Hyperbolic paraboloid = 2 − 2
c a b c a b
Vectors and vector functions Cylinders and quadratic surfaces
Example
x2 y2 z2
Hyperboloid of one sheet + 2 − 2 =1
a2 b c
Example
x2 y2 z2
Hyperboloid of two sheets + 2 − 2 = −1
a2 b c
Example
z2 x2 y2
Cone = + 2
c2 a2 b

Vector Functions
Vector and Geometry of Space

Vectors
2 Vector Functions
Curvature

Vector Functions Vector functions and space curves
Vector functions
Definition
A function R → Rn , t 7→ r(t) ∈ Rn is called a vector function,i.e.,
r(t) = (x1 (t), x2 (t), . . . , xn (t)).
If n = 2, then r(t) = x (t)i + y (t)j.
If n = 3, then r(t) = x (t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k.

Vector functions
Definition
r(t) = (x1 (t), x2 (t), . . . , xn (t)).
Limit, continuity and derivative

1 lim r (t) = a ⇔ lim |r (t) − a| = 0
t→t0 t→t0

Vector functions
Definition
r(t) = (x1 (t), x2 (t), . . . , xn (t)).

1 lim r (t) = a ⇔ lim |r (t) − a| = 0
t→t0 t→t0
2 2D lim r(t) = lim x (t)i + lim y (t)j.
t→t0 t→t0 t→t0
3 3D lim r(t) = lim x (t)i + lim y (t)j + lim z(t)k.
t→a t→a t→a t→a

Vector functions
Definition
r(t) = (x1 (t), x2 (t), . . . , xn (t)).

1 lim r (t) = a ⇔ lim |r (t) − a| = 0
t→t0 t→t0
2 2D lim r(t) = lim x (t)i + lim y (t)j.
t→t0 t→t0 t→t0
3 3D lim r(t) = lim x (t)i + lim y (t)j + lim z(t)k.
t→a t→a t→a t→a
4 Continuity: r (t) is continuous at t0 if lim r (t) = r (t0 ).
t→t0

Derivatives of vector functions
Definition
r(t + h) − r(t)
r′ (t) = lim .
h→0 h
Then r (t) is differentiable at t0 .

Definition
r(t + h) − r(t)
r′ (t) = lim .
h→0 h
Then r (t) is differentiable at t0 .
Definition
If the vector function r(t) is differentiable, i.e. r′ (t) exists, then
1 The vector r′ (t) is called the tangent vector to the curve C .
r′ (t)
2 The unit tangent vector is defined by T(t) = |r(t)| .

Differentiation Rules
Suppose u and v are differentiable vector functions, c is a scalar, and f is
a real-valued function. Then
d ′ ′
dt [u(t) + v(t)] = u (t) + v (t),
1
d d
dt [cu(t)] = c dt [u(t)],
2
d ′ ′
dt [f (t)u(t)] = f (t)u(t) + f (t)u (t),
3
d ′ ′
dt [u(t) · v(t)] = u (t) · v(t) + u(t) · v (t),
4
d ′ ′
dt [u(t) × v(t)] = u (t) × v(t) + u(t) × v (t),
5
d ′ ′
dt [u(f (t))] = f (t)u (f (t)).
6

Integrals of vector functions

Integrals of vector functions
! ! !
Z b Z b Z b Z b
r(t)dt = x (t)dt i + y (t)dt j + z(t)dt k.
a a a a
Arc length of space curves

Let C be the curve given by r = r(t), where a ≤ t ≤ b. Then the length
of C is Z bq Z b
L= ′ 2 ′ 2 ′ 2
x (t) + y (t) + z (t) dt = |r′ (t)|dt.
a a
The arc length function

The arc length function of the curve C is the length of the part of C
between r(a) and r(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,i.e.,
Z t
s(t) = |r′ (τ )|dτ (Note: s ′ (t) = |r′ (t)|).
a
Vector Functions Curvature
Curvature
′
(t)
Let T(t) = |rr′ (t)| be the unit tangent vector. The curvature of C at a
given point is a measure of how quickly the curve changes direction at
that point. Thus we can define
Definition
The curvature of a curve is defined by
dT

K =
,
ds
where T is the unit tangent vector and s is the arc length function.
Theorem
|T′ (t)|
K=
|r′ (t)|

Curvature
′
(t)
Let T(t) = |rr′ (t)| be the unit tangent vector. The curvature of C at a
given point is a measure of how quickly the curve changes direction at
that point. Thus we can define
Definition
The curvature of a curve is defined by
dT

K =
,
ds
where T is the unit tangent vector and s is the arc length function.
Theorem
|T′ (t)| |r′ (t) × r′′ (t)|
K= = .
|r′ (t)| |r′ (t)|3

Curvature
Curvature of plane curves

|y ′′ |
1 y = f (x ) ⇒ K = .
(1+y ′2 )3/2

x′ y′

′′
y ′′
(
x = x (t) x

2 ⇒ K = ′2 ′2 3/2

y = y (t) (x +y )

Curvature of space curves

v 2 2 2
u y ′ z ′ z′ x ′ x′ y ′
u

+ ′′ + ′′
x = x (t),
t
y ′′ z ′′ z x ′′ x y ′′


3 y = y (t), ⇒K = 3 .
 (x ′2 +y ′2 +z ′2 ) 2
z = z(t)


The normal and binormal vectors
Let r = r(t) be a smooth space curve.

r′ (t)
1 The unit tangent vector T(t) = |r′ (t)| ,
T′ (t)
2 T′ (t) ⊥ T(t) ⇒ the unit normal vector N(t) = |T′ (t)| ,
3 B(t) = T(t) × N(t) is called the binormal vector. It is perpendicular
to both T and N and is also a unit vector.

Vector Functions Motion in space: Velocity and acceleration
Suppose a particle moves on a smooth space curve C , defined by a vector

function r(t).
Velocity and acceleration
1 The velocity vector v(t) is defined from
v(t) = r′ (t).
2 The speed is |v(t)| = |r′ (t)| = ds

dt .
3 The acceleration vector a(t) is a(t) = v′ (t) = r′′ (t).

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Calculus 2

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui

School of Applied Mathematics and Informatics,

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 1 / 23

James Stewart, Calculus Early Transcendentals, Brooks Cole Cengage

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 2 / 23

1 Vectors and vector functions

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 3 / 23

Vector and Geometry of Space

1 Vectors and vector functions

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 4 / 23

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 5 / 23

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 5 / 23

The length of vectors

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 5 / 23

The length of vectors

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 5 / 23

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 6 / 23

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 6 / 23

The dot product

Properties of the dot product

1 a · a = |a|2 4 (ca) · b = c(a · b) = a · (cb)

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 7 / 23

The dot product

Properties of the dot product

1 a · a = |a|2 4 (ca) · b = c(a · b) = a · (cb)

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 7 / 23

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 8 / 23

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 9 / 23

The cross product

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 10 / 23

Scalar triple product

Definition (Scalar triple product)

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 11 / 23

Equations of Lines and Planes

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 12 / 23

Equations of Lines and Planes

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 12 / 23

Equations of Lines and Planes

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 12 / 23

Cylinders and quadratic surfaces

Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Exz + Fyz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0.

By translation and rotation it can be brought into one of two standard

Cylinders and quadratic surfaces

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 14 / 23

Vector and Geometry of Space

1 Vectors and vector functions

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 15 / 23

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 16 / 23

Limit, continuity and derivative

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 16 / 23

Limit, continuity and derivative

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 16 / 23

Limit, continuity and derivative

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 16 / 23

Derivatives of vector functions

Dr. Xuan Dieu Bui Calculus 2 I ♥ HUST 17 / 23

Derivatives of vector functions