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Review
Review
1 System Properties
1. A system is memoryless if the output at time t or n only depends on the input at time
t or n.
3. Associative property: x[n] (h [n] h [n]) = (x[n] h [n]) h [n] or x(t) (h (t) h (t)) =
1 2 1 2 1 2
(x(t) h (t)) h (t) .
1 2
3 Analysis Tools
1. The Continuous-Time Fourier Series (CTFS) is an alternative representation of continuous-
time periodic signals with fundamental
P 1 R
frequency ! = T and period T : x(t) =
0
2
5. The
R 1
Laplace Transform is a generalization
R j1
of the CTFT where s = + j!: X (s) =
;1 x(t)e dt and x(t) = j ;j 1 X (s)e ds for 2 ROC.
+ ;st 1 + ; st
2
P+1 ;n
6. The Z-Transform
H is a generalization of the DTFT where z = rej! : X (z) = [ ]
n=;1 x n z
and x[n] = X (z)zn; dz for r 2 ROC.
2
1 1
n ;1 =
5 Sampling
1. Sampling Theorem: Let x(t) be a band-limited signal with X (j!) = 0 for j!j > !M .
Then x(t) is uniquely determined by its samples x(nT ), n = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; if !s >
2!M , where !s = T . Given these samples, we can reconstruct x(t) by generating a
2
periodic impulse train in which successive impulses have amplitudes that are successive
sample values. This impulse train is then processed through an ideal lowpass lter with
gain T and cuto frequency greater than !M and less than !s ; !M . The resulting
output signal will exactly equal x(t).
2. The time and frequency characteristics of continuous-to-discrete-time and discrete-to-
continuous-time converters can be studied using both the CTFT and the DTFT.
3. Aliasing occurs if the continuous-time signal is not sampled fast enough. A frequency
analysis using the CTFT is useful for measuring the eects of aliasing.
4. Sinc interpolation is the process of converting a continuous-time impulse train into a
superposition of sinc functions using an ideal lowpass lter.
5. Discrete-Time processing of Continuous-Time signals: In today's computer age, it is
common to sample a continuous-time signal, perform discrete-time processing on the
samples and then convert the discrete-time signal back to a continuous-time signal.
Both CTFT and DTFT are often used to analyze such systems numerically or picto-
rially.
6 Examples of Systems
1. Filters: lowpass, highpass, bandpass, and bandstop. Frequency analysis is often useful
to understand how the frequency components of the signal are attenuated.
2. Dierential Equations: One method for describing the input-output relationship for
continuous-time systems. The CTFT or Laplace transforms are often used to solve for
the frequency response (system function) or impulse response of the system.
3. Dierence Equations: One method for describing the input-output relationship for
discrete-time systems. The DTFT or Z-transforms are often used to solve for the
frequency response (system function) or impulse response of the system.
4. Amplitude Modulation is an example of a continuous-time communications system and
is based on multiplying an information signal with a carrier signal. The multiplication
property of the CTFT is used to study how signals are modulated and demodulated
in the frequency domain. We studied double sideband modulation with (asynchronous
modulation) and without (synchronous modulation) the carrier signal and we studied
lower and upper sideband modulation.