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    This document provides a review of key concepts in signals and systems, including: 1. Properties of systems such as linearity, time-invariance, causality, stability. 2. Properties of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems including convolution and how it relates to operations in different domains. 3. Analysis tools for signals and systems such as the Fourier transform, Laplace transform, and z-transform and issues with their convergence.

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    This document provides a review of key concepts in signals and systems, including: 1. Properties of systems such as linearity, time-invariance, causality, stability. 2. Properties of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems including convolution and how it relates to operations in different domains. 3. Analysis tools for signals and systems such as the Fourier transform, Laplace transform, and z-transform and issues with their convergence.

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    12 views3 pages

    Review

    Uploaded by

    MohamedSamir Elbuni
    This document provides a review of key concepts in signals and systems, including: 1. Properties of systems such as linearity, time-invariance, causality, stability. 2. Properties of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems including convolution and how it relates to operations in different domains. 3. Analysis tools for signals and systems such as the Fourier transform, Laplace transform, and z-transform and issues with their convergence.

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    of 3

    55:042 Signals and Systems Review for Final { Fall 1999 1

    1 System Properties
    1. A system is memoryless if the output at time t or n only depends on the input at time
    t or n.

    2. A system is invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs.


    3. A system is causal if the output at any time only depends on the current input and
    past inputs.
    4. A system is bounded-input-bounded-output (BIBO) stable if the output is bounded
    for every bounded input signal.
    5. A system is time-invariant if a shift in the input signal results in an identical time shift
    in the output signal.
    6. For a particular system, if x (t) ;! y (t) and x (t) ;! y (t), then a system is linear
    1 1 2 2
    if ax (t) + bx (t) ;! ay (t) + by (t).
    1 2 1 2

    2 Properties of LTI systems


    If a system is linear and time invariant then the output is related to the input by the
    convolution equation, i.e.,
    1
    X
    y [n] = x[k ]h[n ; k]
    k=;1
    Z 1
    y (t) = x( )h(t ;  )d
    ;1
    When working convolution problems, remember to write down conditions on n, k, t, and 
    when replacing limits on summations and integrals.
    1. Commutative property: x[n]  h[n] = h[n]  x[n] or x(t)  h(t) = h(t)  x(t).
    2. Distributive property: x[n]  (h [n]+ h [n]) = x[n]  h [n]+ x[n]  h [n] or x(t)  (h (t)+
    1 2 1 2 1
    h (t)) = x(t)  h (t) + x(t)  h (t).
    2 1 2

    3. Associative property: x[n]  (h [n]  h [n]) = (x[n]  h [n])  h [n] or x(t)  (h (t)  h (t)) =
    1 2 1 2 1 2
    (x(t)  h (t))  h (t) .
    1 2

    4. A LTI system is memoryless if h[n] = C[n] or h(t) = C(t).


    5. A LTI system is invertible if the concatenation of its impulse response with its inverse
    produces an output equal to the input.
    6. A LTI system is causal if h[n] = 0 for n < 0 or h(t) = 0 for t < 0.
    P R1
    7. A LTI system is BIBO stable if 1 k ;1 jh [k ]
    =
    j < 1 and ;1 jh( )jd < 1.
    8. Complex exponential signals are eigenfunctions of LTI systems.
    9. Convolution in the time domain becomes multiplication in the frequency domain, s-
    domain, and z-domain.
    10. Remember: [n ; no]  h[n] = h[n ; no] and (t ; to )  h(t) = h(t ; to ).
    55:042 Signals and Systems Review for Final { Fall 1999 2

    3 Analysis Tools
    1. The Continuous-Time Fourier Series (CTFS) is an alternative representation of continuous-
    time periodic signals with fundamental
    P 1 R
    frequency ! = T and period T : x(t) =
    0
    2

    jk!0 t and a = ;jk!0 t dt.


    T T x(t)e
    + 1
    k ;1 ak e
    = k

    2. The Discrete-Time Fourier Series (DTFS) is an alternative representation of discrete-


    time periodic signals with fundamental
    P P frequency ! = N and period N : x[n] =
    0
    2

    jk =N n and a = ;jk =N n .


    n <N> x[n]e
    (2 ) 1 (2 )
    k <N> ak e
    = k N =

    3. The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (CTFT) R 1 is used for frequency analysis


    R 1 of
    + ;
    continuous-time signals and systems: X (j!) = ;1 x(t)e dt and x(t) =  ;1 X (j!)ej!td!:
    j!t 1 +
    2

    4. The Discrete-Time Fourier TransformP(DTFT) is used for frequency analysis R of discrete-


    j! 1
    time signals and systems: X (e ) = n ;1 x[n]e +; j!n and x[n] =   X (ej! )ej!nd!:
    1
    = 2 2

    5. The
    R 1
    Laplace Transform is a generalization
    R  j1
    of the CTFT where s =  + j!: X (s) =
    ;1 x(t)e dt and x(t) = j ;j 1 X (s)e ds for  2 ROC.
    + ;st 1 + ; st
    2

    P+1 ;n
    6. The Z-Transform
    H is a generalization of the DTFT where z = rej! : X (z) = [ ]
    n=;1 x n z
    and x[n] =  X (z)zn; dz for r 2 ROC.
    2
    1 1

    4 Convergence Issues Associated with Analysis Tools


    1. The CTFS of x(t) exists if x(t) satis es the Dirichlet conditions:
    R
    (a) x(t) must be absolutely integrable over any period, i.e., T jx(t)jdt < 1.
    (b) x(t) must have a nite number of maxima or minima during any single period.
    (c) x(t) must have a nite number of discontinuities within any nite interval of time.
    Furthermore, each of these discontinuities is nite.
    2. The DTFS of x[n] exists for any periodic discrete-time signal.
    3. The CTFT of x(t) exists if x(t) satis es the Dirichlet conditions:
    R1
    (a) x(t) must be absolutely integrable, i.e., ;1 jx(t)jdt < 1.
    (b) x(t) must have an nite number of maxima or minima during any nite interval.
    (c) x(t) must have a nite number of discontinuities within any nite interval of time.
    Furthermore, each of these discontinuities is nite.
    P
    4. The DTFT of x[n] exists ifPx[n] is absolutely summable, i.e., 1 n ;1 jx[n]j < 1 or if
    x[n] has nite energy, i.e.,
    1 jx [ n ]j < 1 . 2
    =

    n ;1 =

    5. The Laplace Transform exists for values of s =  + j! in the region of convergence


    (ROC). The ROC is often plotted in the complex s-plane.
    6. The Z-Transform exists for values of z = rej! in ROC. The ROC is often plotted in
    the complex z-plane.
    55:042 Signals and Systems Review for Final { Fall 1999 3

    5 Sampling
    1. Sampling Theorem: Let x(t) be a band-limited signal with X (j!) = 0 for j!j > !M .
    Then x(t) is uniquely determined by its samples x(nT ), n = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; if !s >
    2!M , where !s = T . Given these samples, we can reconstruct x(t) by generating a
    2

    periodic impulse train in which successive impulses have amplitudes that are successive
    sample values. This impulse train is then processed through an ideal lowpass lter with
    gain T and cuto frequency greater than !M and less than !s ; !M . The resulting
    output signal will exactly equal x(t).
    2. The time and frequency characteristics of continuous-to-discrete-time and discrete-to-
    continuous-time converters can be studied using both the CTFT and the DTFT.
    3. Aliasing occurs if the continuous-time signal is not sampled fast enough. A frequency
    analysis using the CTFT is useful for measuring the e ects of aliasing.
    4. Sinc interpolation is the process of converting a continuous-time impulse train into a
    superposition of sinc functions using an ideal lowpass lter.
    5. Discrete-Time processing of Continuous-Time signals: In today's computer age, it is
    common to sample a continuous-time signal, perform discrete-time processing on the
    samples and then convert the discrete-time signal back to a continuous-time signal.
    Both CTFT and DTFT are often used to analyze such systems numerically or picto-
    rially.

    6 Examples of Systems
    1. Filters: lowpass, highpass, bandpass, and bandstop. Frequency analysis is often useful
    to understand how the frequency components of the signal are attenuated.
    2. Di erential Equations: One method for describing the input-output relationship for
    continuous-time systems. The CTFT or Laplace transforms are often used to solve for
    the frequency response (system function) or impulse response of the system.
    3. Di erence Equations: One method for describing the input-output relationship for
    discrete-time systems. The DTFT or Z-transforms are often used to solve for the
    frequency response (system function) or impulse response of the system.
    4. Amplitude Modulation is an example of a continuous-time communications system and
    is based on multiplying an information signal with a carrier signal. The multiplication
    property of the CTFT is used to study how signals are modulated and demodulated
    in the frequency domain. We studied double sideband modulation with (asynchronous
    modulation) and without (synchronous modulation) the carrier signal and we studied
    lower and upper sideband modulation.

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