PHE Notes 1
PHE Notes 1
PHE Notes 1
PUBLIC
HEALTH
ENGINEERING
(22504)
Index
S.N. Description Marks
Syllabus ----
Chapters 70
1) Sources, Quantity and Quality of 12
water.
2) Purification of Water. 18
1.
3) Conveyance and Distribution of 10
Water.
4) Domestic Sewage and System of 18
Sewerages.
5) Characteristics and Treatment of 12
Sewage.
2. Assignments. 50
3. Practices questions. 50
4. List of Microproject. 10
5. Question papers & Models answer 70
solution.
Surface sources: - The sources of water in which the water flows over the earth surface are called
surface sources. The surface sources are mainly classified as: - River, Stream & Lakes, Impounding
reservoir.
Rivers, Stream & Lakes: - They are formed by rainfall runoff i.e. rain water flowing along the
ground into these natural drainage depressions .Quantity varies depending on the catchment.
Rivers: - Rivers are born in the hills, when the discharge of large number of springs and streams
combine together. Rivers are the only surface sources of water which have maximum quantity of
water which can be easily taken.
Streams: - In mountainous regions streams are formed by the run off. The discharge in streams is
much in rainy season than other seasons. The quality of water in streams is normally good except
the water of first run-off.
Lakes: - In mountains at some places natural basins are formed with impervious beds. Water from
springs & streams generally flows towards these basins and Lakes are formed. The quantity of
water in the lakes depends on its basin capacity, catchment area, annual rainfall & porosity of the
ground etc.
Impounded Reservoirs: - It may be defined as an artificial lake created by the construction of a
dam across a valley containing a water course. The object is to store a portion of the stream flow
so that it may be used for water supply. The reservoir consists of three parts :
(i) A dam to hold back water
(iii) A gate chamber containing the necessary valves for regulating the flow of water from
the reservoir.
Ponds: - A pond is an area filled with water, either natural or artificial, that is smaller than
a lake. Ponds are small bodies of freshwater with shallow and still water, marsh, and aquatic plants.
Underground Sources: - These are the sources of water which supply water from below the
earth surface. They include springs, wells & galleries.
Springs: - The underground water level rises and the water outflows through the sides of
naturally valley or depression. Springs are brought about under the following conditions :
(i) When the surface of earth drops sharply below the normal ground water table, the water bearing
stratum is exposed to the atmosphere and the springs are created. The formation of such springs
results from an overflow of the ground water table. This type of spring is also called as Gravity or
Shallow springs and the water table in such springs varies with the rainfall.
(ii) When due to an obstruction ground water is stored in the form of a reservoir, & this water is forced to
overflow at the surface. Springs of this type are the most common. These are formed when an impervious
stratum, which is supporting the ground water reservoir becomes outcrops (Refer Fig.).
Artesian Springs: - These are the wells from which water flows automatically under
pressure. This water can be stored in water tanks. These are mostly found in hilly regions.
Porous Pipe Galleries: - Where there is large quantity of ground water available over a large area,
it can be cheaply collected by laying porous pipes. These pipes collect and dispose collected water,
where a well is constructed to take out water.
Well: - The vertical hole dug into the ground to get sub- surface water is called a well. Wells are
generally classified as :
1. Shallow well: - A shallow well is that well in which the water is obtained from the upper most water
bearing stratum without encountering any impervious stratum. The yield of the shallow well is
uncertain due to large variation in the ground water level throughout the year.
2. Deep Well: - A deep well is that well in which the water is obtained from the underneath of an
impervious layer. The yield of a deep well is greater & constant as there is no quick fluctuation of
the water level.
Infiltration Well: - An infiltration gallery may be a line of wells closely spaced & placed across a
normal to the direction of underground flow in an aquifer. These are commonly placed close to the
bank of a river or a lake to intercept the underground flow towards the body of surface water. Wells
so placed are called Infiltration Wells. It may be more economical to draw potable water from
beneath a river by such means than to purify the surface water taken directly from the river.
1) The Source selected should provide water throughout the year to a city or town.
2) The quantity of water available from the source selected should be adequate to meet the public
demand.
3) The water source selected should be cheap.
4) The quality of water from source selected should be so good as not to require any expensive
treatments.
Intake: - A device placed in a surface water source to draw water from this source & then discharge
into a conduit through which it will flow into the water work system, is called intake. It consists of a
conduit with protective work, screen at both ends, gates and valves to regulate the flow.
Category 1:
1. Submerged intake: - It is the one which is constructed entirely under water. It is
commonly used to obtain supply from a lake.
2. Exposed intake: - It is in the form of a well or tower constructed near the bank of a river, or in
some cases even away from the river banks. Exposed intakes are more common due to ease in
operation.
Category 2:
1. Wet intake: - It is a type of intake tower in which the water level is practically the same as the
level of the sources of supply. It is sometimes known as Jack well and is most commonly used.
2. Dry intake: - In case of dry intake there is no water in the water tower. Water enters through
entry port directly into the conveying pipes. It is simply used for the operation of valves etc.
Category 3:
1. River intake: - This is located inside the river so as to get adequate supply in all seasons. Water
is drawn from the upstream side of the river, where it is comparatively of better quality. It is a
circular masonry tower well of 4 to7 m diameter. It is constructed along the river bank at a place
from where water can be drawn in required quantity.
2. Reservoir intake: - These consists of intake towers having no water inside other than
in the intake pipes. The interior of the tower is thus made available for inspection
& operation. Fig. shows a reservoir intake which is usually located either along
the upstream of an earthen dam or within the body of a masonry dam. There are
number of inlets protected by screen at different levels to draw in clear water from
near the sources. When the discharge of some river in summer remains sufficient
to meet up the demand, but some rivers dry up partly or fully & cannot meet the
hot weather demand. In such cases reservoirs are constructed by constructing weirs
or dams across the river.
3. Lake Intake: - It consists of an intake conduit laid below the bed of the lake with its inlet end
placed in the middle of the lake projecting above the bed of the lake. The inlet end of the intake
conduit is protected by concrete or timber crib and it is provided with bell mouth entry covered
with a screen.
4. Canal intake: - Canal Intake is a very simple structure constructed on the bank of a canal &
consists of a RCC or brick masonry chamber built partially in the canal bank. It has a side
opening fitted with course screen which excludes heavier matter from entering the conduit. The
end of pipe inside chamber is provided with a bell mouth fitted with a hemispherical fine screen.
The outlet pipe carries the water to the other side of the canal bank from where it is taken to the
treatment plant.
B) Introduction to Quantity of water: - As we are knowing that water is a basic and essential need of all
living and non-living beings without water no one can survive. Hence it is important to protect the water.
So it is essential to conserve the single drop of rain water. In our country, now-a-days, some of the regions
are not getting water to drink, especially in rural areas. So it is our primary duty to save the water instead
of wasting it. The quantity of water should be used as per our need.
1. Water pollution
2. Sewage pollution including septic tanks
3. Fertilizers
4. Animal faces
5. Land pollution
6. Chemical contaminants such as iron, nitrate, arsenic etc, which can be directly supplied
into the water bodies.
Draw the flow diagram of water supply scheme from source to consumer. Mention one function of
each unit
OR
Draw a neat sketch of flow diagram of water treatment plant
OR
Draw a flow diagram of water supply scheme
Demand of water: - Sustainable economic growth requires a reliable supply of water for energy,
agriculture, and a growing population. Water is necessary for urban development, power production,
growing and processing high-value crops, oil and gas development and processing, and industrial
manufacturing.
Factors affecting water demand
S.N. Content Description
1. Climatic condition Water requirements during summer are more than
winter. During summer more water is used for bathing,
drinking & also more water is consumed in running
coolers etc. Hence water consumption is much more in
summer than that in winter.
2. Size of city Generally the demand of water per head will be more
in big cities than that in small cities. In big cities lot of
water is required for maintaining clean & healthy
environments while in small towns it is not required.
3. Habits of people High class community uses more water due to their
better standard of living & higher economic status.
Middle class people use water at average rate and for
poor people, a single water tap may be sufficient for
several families.
4. Industrial And Commercial More water will be required in highly industrialized
Activities
city.
5. Cost of water More costly is the water less will be rate of demand.
Hence the cost at which water is supplied to the
consumer may also affect the rate of demand.
6. Quality of water A water works system having a protected & good
quality of water supply would always be more popular
with consumers. Hence more quantity of water will be
consumed if the quality is good.
7. Pressure in the distribution These would be of great importance in the case of
system
localities having a number of two or three storied
buildings. Adequate pressure would mean an
uninterrupted and constant supply of water.
10. Metering System The rate of water demand is more in the non-metered
system than in the metered system. In the metered
system, the bill for the water increases with an increase
in water use. This limits the demand for water from
increasing. People will use less water so that the cost of
the water they need to pay is less.
Rate of demand of water:- The rate of demand is the rate of water to be supplied per person per
day. This depends on the several factors such as requirements for domestic consumption,
industrial needs, fire demand etc.
If P is the population served, and Q is the quantity of water for the whole city required per year in
litres, then the per capita demand is given by;
𝑸
gallons or lit/capita/day
𝑷 𝒙 𝟑𝟔𝟓
Various types of demands of water: - During planning a water supply scheme, it is the duty of the
engineer to carefully examine the various types of water demand of the town & then to find out the
suitable water sources from where the demand can be meet.
a) Domestic Water Demand:-This demand includes the quantity of water required in the houses
for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, gardening, sanitary purposes etc. It mainly depends
upon the living conditions of the consumer. As per IS: 1172-1963 water required for domestic
purposes for average Indian condition per head per day may be taken as 135 liters. In developed
countries this may be as high as 350 litres. The total domestic water consumption may amount
to 50 to 60% of the total water consumption.
Detail of water requirement for Domestic purposes:-
S.N. Description Consumption of water per head per day in litres
1. Drinking 5
2. Cooking 5
3. Bathing 55
4. Washing of clothes 20
5. Washing of utensils 10
6. Washing of houses 10
7. Flushing of Latrines etc. 30
Total 135
b) Demand for public uses: - Public demand includes the quantity of water required for public
utility purposes such as watering of public parks, gardening, sprinkling on roads, use in public
fountains etc. In many water supply schemes these demands are not believed as essential and a
nominal amount not exceeding 5% of the total demand is kept on arbitrary basis.
S.N. Purpose Water requirement
1. Public Parks 1.4 lit/m2/day
2. Street Washing 1.0-1.5 lit/m2/day
3. Sewer Cleaning 4.5 lit/head/day
4. Road Side Trees 28,150 lit/km/day
c) Industrial Water Demand: - Requirement of water for various purposes and operation of
industries should be planned for existing industries and its future expansion. The quantity of
water needed depends upon the number and types of industries exist and industries likely to be
planned in future. The ordinary per capita consumption for industrial requirement of a town or
city is generally taken as 50 litres/capita/day. However, it accounts 10 to 20% of total demand
for fully developed city depending upon the intensity of industrialization.
S.N. Name of Industry Unit of production Approximate water requirement in
kilolitres/unit
1. Textile Tonne (goods) 80-140
2. Sugar Tonne (crushed cane) 1-2
3. Steel Tonne 200-250
4. Paper Tonne 200-400
5. Automobiles Per vehicle 40
6. Distillery kilolitre 122-170
7. Leather Tonne 40
8. Glass Tonne 68
9. Fertilizer Tonne 80-200
10. Straw board Tonne 75-100
d) Commercial & Institutional demand: - Water demand for commercial and institutional
centers can be taken on an average value of 20 liter/capita/day. Water demand for public
building other than residence as per IS: 1172-1963.
S.N. Type of building Liters /day
1. Offices 45 per head
2. Hostels 135 per head
3. Hotels (per bed) 180 per head
4. Nurses home and medical quarters 135 per head
5. Hospitals per bed
i) Number of beds ˃ 100 340 per head
ii) Number of beds ˂ 100 450 per head
6. Factories
i) bathrooms are provided 45 per head
ii) bathrooms are not provided 30 per head
7. Garden and sports ground 3.5m2
8. Cinema and theatres 15 per seat
9. Restaurants 70 per seat
10. Day school 45 per head
11. Boarding schools 135 per head
e) Fire Demand :- It is the quantity of water required for fighting a fire outbreak. For high value
cities , water requirement for this purpose is particularly essential. The quantity of water required
for this purpose can be found out by applying certain empirical formula. These are :-
(i) National Board of Fire Underwriters Formula:
Q = 4637 √𝑷 (1-0.01√𝑷)
Where Q = Quantity of water required in litres per minute. P = Population of the town in
thousands, where P˂ 200,000.
(ii) Freeman formula:
Q = 1135.5((P/10)+10)
(iii) Kuichling‘s Formula:
Q = 3182√𝑷
(iv) Buston’s Formula:
Q=5663√𝑷
f) Losses and wastages: - In water distribution system can be wasted due to faulty valve, defective pipe
joints, faulty fittings, cracked pipes, leakages of taps. Some quantity of water is lost because of illegal
and unauthorised water connection. Hence while calculating the total water demand for a city or town
an additional allowance of 15 % should be made for these losses and wastage of water.
Variation in Demand: - It has been seen that the demand does not remain uniform throughout the
year, but it varies from season to season, even from hour to hour. So variation in rate of demand
may be termed as :
1. Seasonal Variation: - In Summer the water demand is maximum, because people will use more
water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering, street sprinkling etc. This demand goes on reducing &
in winter it becomes minimum, because less water will be used in bathing & there will be no
lawn watering.
2. Monthly Variation: - When need of water demand changes from month to month then it is
called as monthly variation. Water demand increase in month of April, May and June in metro
cities: town and hill station because people visit such places to enjoy their holidays and vacation.
Maximum monthly consumption is equal to 140% of annual average daily rate of demand.
3. Daily Variation: - The rate of demand may vary from day to day also. This is due to habits of
the consumer, climatic conditions, holidays etc. On hot and dry day water requirements will be
more as compared to a rainy day.
4. Hourly Variation: - The rate of demand during 24 hours does not remain uniform & it varies
according to hours of the day. On Sundays & other holidays the peak hours may be about 8 A.M
due to last awakening whereas it may be 6 A.M. on the other working days. Certain industries
may be working in day & night shifts & consuming more water.
Population Forecasting: - The method of determining the future population based on the present
and previous year population by considering the statistics of census records used to design of water
supply and waste water works is called as forecasting of population.
Purposes:-
Methods of population Forecasting:-
1) Arithmetical Increase Method:- In this method, the increase in population is assumed to be
constant and an average increase of the last 4 to 5 decades is calculated and added in the
present population to determine population of the next future decade. The population can be
found out at the end of “n” year or “n” decades.
Pn = P + n*i (where P = Present population, i = Yearly or per decade increase in
population).
a) The following data have been noted from the census department. Calculate the
probable population in the year 1980, 1990 & 2000.
Year 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population 8,000 12,000 17,000 22,500
Soln:-
Year Population Increase in population
1940 8,000 --------------
1950 12,000 4000
1960 17,000 5000
1970 22,500 5500
Total 14,500
Average 4,833
Year Population
1980 22,500 + 1* 4833 = 27,333
1990 27333 + 1 * 4833 = 32,166
2000 32166 + 1 * 4833 = 36,999
b) The following data is collected regarding population. Calculate demand of water for
small residential area/colony and forecasting the population of area after 3 decades.
Year 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001
Population 4320 5200 7120 8000 9150
Soln:-
Year Population Increase in population
1961 4320 --------------
1971 5200 880
1981 7120 1920
1991 8000 880
2001 9150 1150
Total 4830
Average 1207.5
Soln:-
Year Population Increase in Population Percentage increase in Decrease in the
population % age increase
1940 8000 ------ ----------- -------
1950 12000 4000 (4000/8000) *100 = 50 -------
1960 17000 5000 (5000/12000) *100= 41.7 - 8.3
1970 22500 5500 (5500/17000) *100= 32.4 - 9.3
Total 14500 17.6
Average 4833 8.8
5) Simple Graphical Method: - In this method, the populations of last few decades are
correctly plotted to a suitable scale on graph. The population curve is smoothly extended for
getting future population. This extension should be done carefully and it requires proper
experience and judgment. The best way of applying this method is to extend the curve by
comparing with population curve of some other similar cities having the similar growth
condition.
6) Graphical Comparison Method: - In this method, the cities having conditions and
characteristics similar to the city whose future population is to be estimated are first of all selected.
It is then assumed that the city under consideration will develop as the selected similar cities have
developed in the past. This method has a logical background, and if statistics of development of
similar cities are available quite precise and reliable results can be obtained.
Consider Fig. Let the population of a city A be given for 4 decades (say 1940, 1950, 1960 and
1970) the population time curve is then plotted.
Now, suppose it is required to estimate the population of the city A at the end of year 2010. And let
the available data show that this city A has reached the present population of 42500 in the year
1970. Then the available data of similar cities Band C is analysed. Let it be found that city B has
reached 42500 in the year 1940 then its curve is plotted beyond the year 1940 onward.
However, this curve for city B should start from point P which represents the present population of
city A. Similarly, the population of city C is plotted from the year it has reached 42500 onwards.
Now the curve for city A is carefully extended between the curves of cities B and C as shown in
Fig.
Fig. shows the development of cities A,B, C and D. The development of the city ‘X’ under
consideration has been shown by dotted line. Future expected population at any decade can be
directly determined from this graph.
6) Zoning Method or Master Plan Method: - The big and metropolitan cities are generally
not developed in haphazard manner, but are planned and regulated by local bodies according
to master plan. The master plan is prepared for next 25 to 30 years for the city. According
to the master plan the city is divided into various zones such as residence, commerce and
industry. The population densities are fixed for various zones in the master plan. From this
population density total water demand and wastewater generation for that zone can be
worked out. So by this method it is very easy to access precisely the design population.
7) Logistic Curve Method:- If the population of a town is plotted with respect to time, the
curve so obtained under normal conditions shall be as shown in Fig.
The early growth of the city is shown by curve JK at an increasing rate of dp/dt α p. The growth rate
between point K to M follows curve of dp/dt = constant. The transitional curve KM also passes
through the point of inflexion L.Later on the growth from M to N follows the decreasing rate i.e.,
dp/dt α (ps-p) where p is population of the town at point t from the origin j and ps is the saturation
value of the population. The s-shaped curve JKLMN is called logistic curve.
P.F. Verhulst after long research work has given the following mathematical solution of logistic
curve:
McLean further suggested that if three pairs of the characteristics values P0, P1 and P2 at
times t0, t1, and t2 which are extending over the useful range of the population are so chosen
that to= 0, t1, and t2 = 2t1 the saturation values Ps and constants m and n can be determined
from the following equation:
Design Period: - The future period for which a provision of water for the future expansion is made
in the water supply scheme is termed as ‘design period’. The design period neither be too short nor
too long the design period of 20-30 years is fairly good period and mostly considered in the design
of water supply scheme.
The common design period adopted for
a) Distribution system: - 20 to 25 years.
b) Filters Plants: - 20 to 25 years.
c) Pipes more than 300mm diameter: - 20 to 30 years.
Factors Affecting Design Period:-
1. Funds available for the completion of the project.
Quality of water: - A water works system having a protected & good quality of water supply would
always be more popular with consumers. Hence more quantity of water will be consumed if the
quality is good.
Pure water: - Absolutely pure water is that water which contains only two parts of hydrogen
and one part of oxygen by volume and nothing else. The rain water is an example of pure
water.
Potable or wholesome water: - Wholesome water is that water which is not chemically
pure but does not contain anything harmful to human health.
Following are the requirements of potable water:-
1. It should be free from disease causing bacteria.
2. It should be colourless and sparkling.
3. It should be tasty, free from odour and cool.
4. It should not corrode the pipes.
5. It should be free from all objectionable matters.
6. It should have dissolved oxygen and free carbonic acid so that it remains fresh.
7. It should be free from radioactive matter, phenolic compounds, iodine, fluoride and
chlorine.
8. It should be free from objectionable minerals like iron, manganese, arsenic and lead,
and other poisonous materials.
Need for Analysis of Water: - The ground water is free from organic impurities and suspended
impurities and requires no treatment. But it should be usually chlorinated before using. Water
obtained from shallow wells should be properly treated. The main advantages are:-
1. To remove pathogenic bacteria.
2. To outline the purification process.
3. To remove dissolved impurities like mineral salts.
4. To make water safe for domestic and industrial use.
5. To give palatability by removing odour and unpleasant taste.
6. To protect public health.
Characteristics of Water: - To acknowledge the purity of water, tests are to be conducted on water.
The tests can be classified as given below:-
A. Physical Test: - Physical characteristics of water (temperature, colour, taste, odour and etc.)
are determined by senses of touch, sight, smell and taste. For example temperature by touch,
colour, floating debris, turbidity and suspended solids by sight, and taste and odour by smell.
1. Temperature: - The temperature of water affects some of the important physical properties
and characteristics of water: thermal capacity, density, specific weight, viscosity, surface
tension, specific conductivity, salinity and solubility of dissolved gases and etc. Chemical and
biological reaction rates increase with increasing temperature. Reaction rates usually assumed
to double for an increase in temperature of 10 °C. The temperature of water in streams and
rivers throughout the world varies from 0 to 35 °C.
2. Colour: - Colour in water is primarily a concern of water quality for aesthetic reason.
Coloured water give the appearance of being unfit to drink, even though the water may be
perfectly safe for public use. On the other hand, colour can indicate the presence of organic
substances, such as algae or humic compounds. More recently, colour has been used as a
quantitative assessment of the presence of potentially hazardous or toxic organic materials
in water.
3. Taste & Odour: - Taste and odour are human perceptions of water quality. Human
perception of taste includes sour (hydrochloric acid), salty (sodium chloride), sweet
(sucrose) and bitter (caffeine). Relatively simple compounds produce sour and salty tastes.
However sweet and bitter tastes are produced by more complex organic compounds. Human
detect many more tips of odour than tastes. Organic materials discharged directly to water,
such as falling leaves, runoff, etc., are sources of tastes and odour-producing compounds
released during biodegradation.
4. Turbidity: - Turbidity is a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water and is
comprised of suspended and colloidal material. It is important for health and aesthetic
reasons.
B. Chemical Test: - The health concerns associated with chemical constituents of drinking-
water arise mainly from the ability of chemical constituents to cause adverse health effects
after extended exposure time. There are few chemical constituents of water that can lead to
health problems resulting from even a single exposure. An appreciable number of serious
health concerns may occur as a result of the chemical contamination of drinking-water. The
major chemical properties of the water are discussed below:
1. Chlorides: - The chloride contains especially of sodium chloride or salt, are workout for a
sample of water. The excess presence of sodium chloride in natural water indicate pollution
of water due to sewage, minerals, edible oil, mill separators, ice-cream plant effluents,
chemical industries, sea water intrusion in coastal regions etc. For portable water, the highest
desirable level of chloride content is 25mg/ltr. And its maximum permissible limit is
600mg/ltr. The presence of chlorides can corrode and such water cannot be used for boilers
because of formation HCl due to presence of magnesium chloride in water.
S.N. Name of Authorities Permissible limit Maximum Permissible
in mg/litre limit in mg/litre
1. BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) 250 1000
2. WHO (World Health organization) 200 600
3. GOI (Government of India) 200 1000
2. Hydrogen –ion concentration (pH value):- The acidity or alkalinity of water is measured
in terms of its pH value or H-ion concentration. The pure water (𝐻2𝑂) consists of positively
charged hydrogen or H-ions combined with negatively charged hydroxyl or OH-ions. But
the process of dissociation takes place in pure water and hence it contains some uncombined
positively charged H-ions and some uncombined negatively charged OH-ions. The water
becomes acidic when positively charged H-ions are in excess then negatively charged OH-
ions and it becomes alkaline when reverse is the case.
Fig. shows pH scale. Neutral water has pH value of 7. As pH value becomes less, the water
becomes acidic and when pH value is zero it indicates maximum acidity similarly the water
becomes alkaline as pH values at increase and maximum alkalinity is indicated when pH
value is equal to 14.
It is desirable to maintain pH value of water very close to 7. The acidic water causes
tuberculation and the alkaline water causes incrustation.
For portable water, the pH value should be between 6.5 and 8.5.
3. Alkalinity:-The term alkalinity with reference to the water and waste water is defined as the
capacity of substance contained in the water to take up hydronium (𝐻3𝑂+) to reach a defined pH
value 4.3 to 14.
The alkalinity is due to the presence of bicarbonate (𝐻𝐶𝑂3−) , carbonate (𝐶𝑂3−−)
or hydroxide (𝑂𝐻−).
The alkalinity is usually divided into the following two parts.
1. Total alkalinity i.e., above pH 4.5
2. Caustic alkalinity i.e. above pH 8.2
The alkalinity is measured by the volumetric analysis. The various types of indicators
are available for this purpose the commonly adopted two indicators are as follows.
1. Phenolphthalein pink above pH 8.2 and colourless below pH 8.2.
2. Methyl orange: Red below pH 4.5 and yellow orange above pH 4.5
The excess alkalinity is harmful for irrigation which leads to the soil damage and
reduce crop yields.
The highly alkaline water is usually unpalatable.
The large amount of alkalinity imparts a bitter taste to the water.
The water having alkalinity less than 250 mg/ltr. Is desirable for domestic
Consumption and for R.C.C construction.
4. Nitrogen and its compounds: -The nitrogen is present in water in the following four forms
1. Free ammonia
2. Albuminoid ammonia
3. Nitrites
4. Nitrates
The amount of free ammonia in portable water should not be exceeded 0.15 p.p.m. and
that of albuminoid ammonia should not exceed 0.3 p.p.m.
The term albuminoid ammonia is used to represent the quantity of nitrogen present in
water before the decomposition of organic matter has started.
The presence of nitrides indicates that the organic matter present in water is not fully
oxidized or in other words, it indicates an intermediate oxidation stage. The amount of
nitrites in portable water should be nil.
The presence of nitrated indicates that the organic matter present in water is fully
oxidized and the water is no longer harmful. For portable water, the highest desirable
level of nitrates is 45mg/ltr.
5. Dissolved Oxygen: Dissolved oxygen is the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved
in an aqueous solution. It gets into water by diffusion from the surrounding air, by
aeration (rapid movement), and as a waste product of photosynthesis. The oxygen in
dissolved form is needed by most aquatic organisms to survive and grow. Organisms
such as trout and stoneflies require high.
6. Hardness: - It is the property of water which possess soap destroying ability or
preventing the formation of lather with soap.
Types of Hardness of Water:- The hardness of water can be classified into two types:
a) Temporary Hardness of Water: The presence of magnesium and calcium carbonates in water
makes it temporarily hard. In this case, the hardness in water can be removed by boiling the water.
When we boil water the soluble salts of Mg(HCO3)2 is converted to Mg(OH)2 which is insoluble
and hence gets precipitated and is removed. After filtration, the water we get is soft water.
b) Permanent Hardness of Water: When the soluble salts of magnesium and calcium are present
in the form of chlorides and sulphides in water, we call it permanent hardness because this hardness
cannot be removed by boiling. We can remove this hardness by treating the water with washing
soda. Insoluble carbonates are formed when washing soda reacts with the sulphide and chloride
salts of magnesium and calcium and thus, hard water is converted to soft water.
7. Fluorides: - Water sources usually contain natural fluorides. It is mainly found in some
sedimentary rock and igneous rock. Small concentration of fluorides can be beneficial but it is
toxic to human and other animals if present in water in large quantities. Comparator test is used to
determine fluoride content in water. In this test, when reagents are added in a sample water, then
colour is produced. This produced colour is compared with standard colour and the quantity of
fluoride content in water can easily be determined.
8. Total Solids: - The term solids with reference to the environmental engineering is defined as
the residue in water left after evaporation and drying in oven at 703°c. The total solids consist of
dissolved and suspended matter.
1. Dissolved solids: - In natural water the dissolved solids mainly consists of inorganic salts like
carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, etc. Together with small amounts of organic matter
and dissolved gases.
For measuring the total dissolved solids, the sample of water is placed in a clean porcelain
dish and it is ignited in muffle furnace. After partial cooling in the air, it is cooled in a dedicator
and is weighed. Then,
𝑨−𝑩
Total dissolved solids = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 mg/ltr
𝑽
Where A= Final weights of the dish B= Initial in mg weight of the dish in mg.
V= volume of sample in ml.
Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water and they impart displeasing color, taste
and odour.
The water with higher content of the dissolved solids has laxative or sometimes reverse
effect or the human body and it takes time for poodle to adjust with such water.
In a similar way the high concentration of dissolved solids say 3000 P.P.M may also produce
distance in livestock and many lead to sealing boilers corrosion, etc.
The estimation of total dissolved solids is useful in determining the suitability of water for
drinking purpose as well as for agriculture and industrial processes.
The permissible total dissolved solids for drinking water according to BIS is 500mg/ltr. With
tolerable limit as 1500mg/ ltr.
2. Suspended solids: - In surface water the suspended solids consists of inorganic matter like silt
and organic matter like algae. These materials are generally carried by erosive action of the
following water over land.
For measuring suspended solids the water is filtered through a fine filter and dry material
retained on the filter is weight. The drying is carried out for the hour in an oven at 105°C
𝑾𝟐−𝑾𝟏
Then total suspended solids = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 mg/ltr
𝑽
Where W1 = Initial weight in mg. W2 = Weight of dry material retained on filter in mg. V =
Volume of sample in ml.
C) BACTERIOLOGICAL TESTS: -
The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is very important. The bacteria are
very small organism and it is not possible to detect them by microscope. Hence they are detected
by circumstantial evidence or chemical reactions.
The bacteria may be harmless to mankind or harmful to mankind. The former category is
known as the non-pathogenic bacteria and the latter category is known as pathogenic bacteria.
The combined group of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria is designated by bacillus
coli (bacillus- bacterium coli = intestine) or B-coli group. This group of bacteria is present in
intestines of living warm-blooded animals.
Following are the two standard bacteriological tests for the bacteriological examination
of water:
(1)Total count or agar plate count test:- In this test, the bacteria are cultivated on specially
prepared medium of agar for different dilution of sample of water with sterilized water. *The
diluted sample is placed in an incubator for 24 hours at 37˚ c (I.e. blood heat) or 48hours at
20˚c.These represent the so called hot count and clod counts respectively .The bacterial colonies
which are formed, are then counted and the4 results are computed for i.e. For potable water, the
total count should not exceed 100 per c.c.
(2) B-coil test: This test is divided into the following three parts: (i)Presumptive test. (ii)
Confirmed test. (iii) Completed test
i) Presumptive test: following procedure is adopted in this test:
(a) The definite amount of diluted sample of waters are taken in multiples often, such as
0.1c.c., 1.0 c.c., 10 c.c. etc.
(b)The water placed in standard fermentation tubes containing lactose broth.
(c) The tube is maintained at a temperature of 37˚c for a period of 48hr.
(d) If gas is seen in the tube after this period is over, it indicates presence of B -coil group
and the result of the test is treated as +ve. If reverses is the case, it indicate absence of B-
coil group and the result of the test is treated as negative.
(e) A negative result of presumptive test indicates that water is fit for drinking.
ii) Confirmed test: This test is carried out in the following ways: (a)A small portion of lactose
both showing positive presumptive test is carefully transferred to another formation tube
containing brilliant green lactose bile ,if gas is seen in the completed test become essential . (b) A
small portion of material showing positive presumptive test is make on the plates containing Endo
or eosin-methylene- blue agar. the plates are kept at 37˚c .for 24 hrs .if colonies of bacteria are
seen after this period ,it indicates positive result and the competitive test becomes essential .the
colonies are prominent by metalize brightness and dark spots.
(iii) Completed test: This test is made by into dicing or inculcating bacteria colonies into lactose
broth fermentation tube s and agar tubes. The incubation is carried out at 37˚c for 24 to 48 hours
.if gas is seen after this period ,it indicates positive result and further detailed test are carried out
to detect the particular type of bacteria present in water .the abusers of gas indicates negative result
and the water is considered sate for drinking.
Sampling of Water: - It a plays a vital role in the analysis of water so as to obtain better
results. Analysis of water is done on the sample taken from the source. There are two types of
water samples being collected from source.
1) Grab sample or catch sample: - When a single sample of water is collected from the source
at instant so as to identify the character of the sample at that particular instant, then it is termed as
grab sample. The frequency of such type of sample depends on the magnitude of variations in the
quality at sources.
2) Composite samples: - When the mixture of grab samples get collected at the same sampling
point with different times, then it is called as composite samples. Contents are thoroughly mixed
and then the average sample is taken for examination. The composite sample of 24 hours is
considered as a standard sample for examination to be collected. Predicted interval for grab sample
to be collected are 30, 60, & 120 minutes which is proportional to flow and composite over a
period of 24 hours.
Coarse Screen: - Coarse screen consists of the steel bar grill called as bar screen as shown
in fig. Size of the bars screen is 25mm and they are spaced 75 to 100mm centre to centre. Bar
screens are located at an angles of 15° to 45° for the easy cleaning. Velocity flow of raw water
through the screens should not exceed 0.8 to 1.0 m/sec.
Medium Screen: - It consist of bars spaced about 6 to 40 mm. such type of screen is not
much used in water treatment plant.
Fine Screen: - This are located just after the provision of bar screen with the holes or
perforations about 1.5 to 6.0 mm. Disc or drum type of fine screens are generally provided and
continuously runs by electric motors.
Advantages :-
i. This method is very simple and requires simple equipment’s having no moving parts.
ii. No skilled labour is required for the operation.
iii. It does not add anything to the mineral content of water because no chemicals are required
in this process.
iv. It is very cheap and economical process.
Disadvantages:-
i. It is inefficient to remove or reduce taste and odours caused by;
a. Non –volatile substances like oils of algae.
b. Chemicals discharged in industrial wastes.
ii. Due to over oxygenation, water becomes corrosive and de-aeration may be required.
iii. Aeration is economical only in warmer climatic months.
iv. Iron and manganese can be precipitated by aeration only when organic matter is absent.
v. Possibility of air-borne contamination in water.
Methods:-
a. Cascades Aerator: - It is also known as gravity or free fall aerators. They consist of concrete
steps over which water comes down in thin sheet. Weir may be provided at the edge of each
step. Thin sheet of water which comes down over steps comes in contact with the atmosphere.
The water is allowed to fall at a height of 1 to 3 m. It is a simple type of cascade consisting of
a series of 3 to 4 steps in the following forms:-
i. Circular cascade
b. Spray Nozzles: - In such type of method, number of nozzles are located in a pool of water and these
nozzles discharges water under pressure of about 7N/cm2 to 14N/cm2. There is a considerable loss
of head. Spray nozzles removes the gases like CO2 and H2S at about 90%. There are two types of
spray nozzles such as
i) Fixed Type:-
c. Fountains: - An aeration fountain aims at bringing water in intimate contact with air. It helps in
killing bacteria to some extent due to agitation of water. It results in less corrosion to pipes because
75% of carbon dioxide is liberated as in this process oxygen is absorbed by water. An aeration
fountain easily removes hydrogen sulphide and water becomes free from odour. It also oxidizes
iron and manganese present in water.
d. Trickling beds or multiple trays: - It consists of the various components like a feeding tank,
perforated pipes, perforated trays, collection pan etc. Water is pumped into a feeding tank located at
a certain height. From this feeding tank, water is allowed to trickle down through a perforated pipe
on the beds or trays. Perforated trays or beds are filled with the coarse material like sand, broken cake
or broken slag having the sizes limited to 50 to 75mm. The perforated trays with coarser materials
are arranged serially one over the other in vertical direction. Each horizontal tray or bed has a height
of 250mm. A vertical clearance of 150mm is kept between the trays. Water which get trickled down
from one tray to another is finally collected in a collecting pan located at bottom. It is a most effective
method of removing the iron and manganese than cascade method.
e. Air Diffusion Method: - There is a network of compressed air pipes located at the bottom of the
water tank in air diffusion method. Compression air pipe are provided with holes through which
compressed air is blown against diffuser plates. Turbulence are caused by air bubbles travel upward
through water and bring about the aeration. Size of the air can be controlled by providing the suitable
nozzles fitted on the compressed air pipe. Detention period of diffusion tank is 15 min. and depth is
kept about 3 to 5 m.
(1)Floc formation: When coagulants are dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed with it. They
produced a thick gelatinous precipitate. This precipitate is known as the floc and thus floc has got
property of arresting the suspended impurities in water during its drowned travels towards the
bottom of the tank.
(2) Electric charges: The ions of floc are found to possess positive electric charge .Hence they will
attract the negatively charged colloidal particles of clay and thus they caused the removal of such
particle from the water. The surface of floc is sufficiently wide to arrest colloid and organic matter
present in water. The term flocculation is used to denoted the process of flock formation and thus the
formation and thus the flocculation flows the addition follows the addition of coagulants and its
efficiency depends on the
D. Coagulation: - The process of mixing certain chemicals in water to neutralize the electrical
charge and form an insoluble, gelatinous, flocculent precipitate for absorbing suspended and colloidal
particles or impurities is called coagulation.
Principle: - Individual particle combine together in the coagulation. If a coagulant is used in
water, it forms a spongy gelatinous precipitate. These gelatinous precipitate absorb fine size particles
in water and bind them together. The complete process makes bigger mass of particles which are
easily settable.
Process of Coagulation:-
I. Feeding:- In this two types of feeding coagulants to water are generally employed and they are as
follows:-
a. Dry Feeding: - Each unit is provided with a conical hopper tanks coagulant in powdered is placed
in a conical hopper tank and it is allowed to fall in mixing basins. Agitating plates are provided inside
the tank for preventing the arching of the powdered chemical. The speed of toothed wheel or helical
screw device regulates the dose of the coagulant. Mechanism in turn is connected to the venture
device in the mixing.
b. Wet Feeding: - In wet feeding process, the solution of a required strength is prepared and then
stored in tank. This prepared solution of coagulant is then fed to the mixing channel through
a mechanism in the required dose with respect to the proportion to the flow of water. There
are two types of mechanism used in case of wet feeding namely (i) Wet feeding by conical
plug & (ii) Wet feeding by adjustable weir. Conical plug arrangement controls the addition
of coagulant in proportion to the water flow. Adjustable weir is in the form of a sliding
cylinder with rectangular holes on its surface. Adjustable weir is provided with float device.
The raw water channel are interconnected to each other and controls the dose of coagulant
automatically.
II. Mixing: - When the quantity of coagulant is added into the complete mass of water, then it
should be entirely dispersed. Hence for complete dispersion of the added coagulant into
water, the mixing devices are used. There are various mixing devices such as
a) Compressed air device
b) Centrifugal pump
c) Mixing channel with flume
d) Mixing basin with baffle walls
e) Mixing basin with mechanical devices
III. Flocculation: - It is a slow process of agitation causing velocity gradient in the coagulated water
and forcing destabilised particles which comes together to form a large and readily settable floc. The
process of flocculation is carried out in a tank or basin called as flocculation tank. Slow mixing is
taken place in flocculation tank by revolving paddles during which there is a growth of floc.
IV. Clarification: - After the process of flocculation water is taken into the basin called as clarifiers
or settling tank. Water is detained in clarifiers for a detention period of 2 to 3 hours. During the
detention period already generated floc under the process of flocculation settles down to form the
sludge. Clear water is admitted to the filtration tanks for further purification. The overflow rate of
1000 to 1200 litre/m2/hour is kept for settling. Sludge formation or deposited in clarifiers is
continuously taken by mechanical device operated by electric power.
This coagulant is found to be effective between PH range of 6.5 to 8.5. In practices the dosage of
alum varies from 5 to 30 milligrams per litre for normal water the usual being 14 milligrams per lit.
The disadvantages of using alum as a coagulant are mainly two. It is different to dewater the sludge
formal and further, it is not easy to distance it off also as it is found unsuitable for filling of lying
lands. The effective PH range for coagulation with alum is found to be too small and in some cases,
the lime or caustic soda will have to be added to adjust the PH value at a proper level. This will
increase the cost of treatment of water.
(2) CHLORINATED COPPERAS: - When chorine and solution of ferrous sulphate are fixed, the
following chemical reaction takes place.
6FeSO₄. 7H₂O+3Cl₂=2Fe₂(SO₄)₃+2FeCl₃ +42H₂O
The combination of ferric sulphate Fo₂(SO₄)₃ and Ferric chloride is known as the chlorinated
coppers, each one of the compound is effective as a flock and the combination is also quite effective.
The ferric sulphate and ferric chloride FeCl₃ both can be used independently with lime to act as
coagulant and the chemical reactions involved would be as follows.
Fe₂(SO₄)₃+3Ca (OH)₂=3CaSo₄+2Fe (OH)₃2Fecl₃+3Ca (OH)𝜏=3CaCl₂+2Fe (OH)₃.
The ferric hydroxide Fe (OH)₃ forms the flock. For ferric sulphate, the effective PH change is 4 to 7
and above 9.For ferric chloride, the effective PH range is 3.50 to 6.50 and above 8050.
(3) FERROUS SULPHATE AND LIME:- When ferrous sulphate and lime are added to the
water, the following chemical reaction takes place.
FeSO₄.7H₂O+Ca (OH)₂=Fe (OH)₂+CaSO₄+7H₂O.
The ferrous hydroxide Fe (OH)₂ thus oxygen in water and ferric hydroxide is formed as per the
4Fe (OH)₂+2H₂O=4Fe(OH)₃.
The ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)₃ forms the flock. For ferrous suphate, the effective PH range is 8.50
and above.
(4) MAGNESSIUM CARBONATE:- When magnesium carbonate is dissolved and is mixed with
water along with lime the following reaction takes place.
Mg Co₃+ Ca (OH)₂= Mg(OH)₂+Ca Co₃.
The compounds magnesium hydroxide Mg (OH)₂ and calcium carbonate are insoluble in water and
the sludge formed in this process contains a sludge of Mg(OH)₂and Ca Co₃. This coagulant is not at
present flavored.
(5) Polyelectrolyte’s:- These are special types of polymers and depending upon the charge the carry,
they are classified as anionic, cationic and nonionic only cationic polyelectrolyte‘s can be used
effectively as independent coagulants. The others varieties can be used along with alum or other
conventional coagulants. The use of polyelectrolytes is still in pilot stage and they may prove to be
an alternative to the alum in future.
OR
In other words it is the optimum dose of coagulant or approximate dosage of coagulant can be
determined by test called as jar test.
Purpose :- To determine the optimum concentration of coagulant to be added to the source
water.
Materials
Volumetric flask (1,000 mL)
Analytical balance
Coagulants and coagulant aids
Magnetic stirrer (optional)
A stirring machine with six paddles capable of variable speeds from 0 to 100 revolutions per
minute (RPM)
Beakers (1,000 mL)
Pipets (10 mL)
Watch or clock
Turbidometer and sample tubes
Procedure-
1) Fill the 6 jars with 1000 ml water sample.
2) Add the coagulant dose in increasing order and stir the sample with 60-80 RPM for one
minute.
3) After one minute reduce the speed of stirrer to 30 RPM for 15 minutes.
4) Then turn off the mixer and allow water to settle for 30 minutes.
5) Observe and measure the turbidity of each jar sample.
6) The coagulant quantity, with good floc formation, will be the optimum dose of
coagulant
Sedimentation Tank: - A sedimentation tank is structure in which wastewater is filled and stored
for some time to remove the suspended particles present in the water. These particles may settle at
the bottom of the tank and are removed by using scrapers. If the suspended particles have low
specific gravity than water, they settle at the top of the tank.
b) Continuous Flow Type Sedimentation Tank: - In this case, water is not allowed to rest. Flow
always takes place but with a very small velocity. During this flow, suspended particles are settle at
the bottom of the tank. The flow may be either in horizontal direction or vertical direction.
3. Based on Shape
a) Circular Tank: - Circular sedimentation tanks are preferred for continuous vertical flow type
sedimentation tanks. In this case influent is sent through central pipe of the tank and radial flow
takes place. Mechanical sludge scrappers are provided to collect the sludge and collected sludge is
carried through sludge pipe provided at the bottom. But circular tanks are uneconomical as
compared to rectangular tanks but they have high clarification efficiency.
b) Rectangular Tank: - Rectangular sedimentation tanks are mostly preferred sedimentation tanks
and are used widely. The flow takes place in horizontal direction that is length wise in rectangular
tanks. Sometimes baffle walls are provided for rectangular tank to prevent short circuiting.
Maintenance costs are low in case of rectangular sedimentation tanks. They are also suitable for
large capacity plants.
c) Hopper Bottom Tank :- In case of hopper bottom tank, a deflector box is located at the top
which deflects the influent coming from central pipe to downwards. Sludge is collected at the
bottom and it is disposed through sludge pump.
4) Based on Location
a) Primary Sedimentation Tank:- Primary sedimentation tank is a normal sedimentation tank
in which water is stored at rest for some time and sludge collected at bottom and oily matter
collected at top are removed. After primary sedimentation process the wastewater is discharged
into aerobic filter where activated sludge process take place.
b) Secondary Sedimentation Tank:- After activated sludge process the wastewater enters
secondary sedimentation tank in which suspended particles contains microbes are removed and
are reflected towards aerobic filter to maintain high microbe concentration in aerobic filter.
CLARIFLOCCULATOR :-
Clariflocculator is a combination of flocculation and clarification in a single tank. It has two
concentric tanks where inner tank serves as a flocculation basin and the outer tank serves as a
clarifier.
In the Clariflocculator, the water enters the flocculator, where the flocculating paddles enhance
flocculation of the feed solids. As heavy particles settle to the bottom, the liquid flows radially
upward in the clarifier zone. The clarified liquid is discharged over a peripheral weir into the
peripheral launder. The deposited sludge is raked to the bottom near the central weir from where it
is routed to the sludge chamber and discharged.
Application Areas
Municipal Water Treatment
Primary Treatment in ETP
Heavy Metal Removal
Filtration:- It is a process of removing particulate and bacterial impurities which could not be
removed in earlier processes, from water by passing it through a porous medium.
Objectives:-
1. To remove colloidal and suspended matter remaining after sedimentation.
2. To remove bacterial load.
3. To remove colur, odour, iron and manganese.
4. To make water sparkling.
5. To alter the chemical characterisitics of water.
(1) PURPOSE : Incase of slow sand filtration , the water is allowed to pass slowly through a layer of sand
placed above the base of the ,material and thus the purification process are at simultaneously improving the
biological chemical and physical characteristic of water.
The slow sand filtration is very well suited for rural are as in developing countries because of its
simple operation and maintains procedure s. It thus provides safe drinking water at low recurrent
cost.
ESSENTIAL PARTS: A slows sand filter consist of the following five parts.
(1) Enclosure tank :- A water tight tank is constructed either in stone masonry or brick masonry
.The sides & floor are also coated with water proof material . The bed slope is about b1 in 100 to 1
in 200 towards. The central drain. The depth of tank is about 2.50m to 3.50m .The surface area of a
slow sand filter may vary from 30m to 2000m or even more.
(2) Under drainage system:- The under drainage system consists of a central drain and lateral
drain as shown in the fig. The lateral drain is placed at a distance of about 2.5 m to 3.5m and they
are stopped at a distance of about 500mm to 800mm from the walls of the tanks. The drains may
be pipes which are laid with open joint.
(3) Base material:- The base material is gravels &it is placed on the top of under drainage system .
Its depth varies from 300mm to 750mm .It is usually graded and laid in layers of 150mm .The
topmost layer should be small size gravel and the lowest layer should be of bigger size gravel .
Followings is a typical section of base material.
Top most layer150mm depth –size 3mmto 6mm
150mm depth-size 6mm to 20mm
150mm depth –size 20mm to 40mm
150mm depth – size 40mm to 65mm
Total 600mm depth.
(4) Filter media or sand:-
A layer of sand placed above the gravels.
The depth of sand layer varies from 600mmto 900mm.
The effective size of sand varies from 0.20 mm to 0.30mm & the uniformity co-efficient
about 2 to 3m.
The finer the sand, the better will be the efficiency of filter regarding the removal of bacteria
but in that case , the output from the flitter is lowered.
(5) Appurtenances:-
The various appurtenances are to be installed for the efficient working of slow sand filter.
The devices for measuring loss of head for controlling depth of water above sand layer. And
for minting rate of flows through filter are to be suitably installed.
The vertical air pipe passing through layer of sand help in proper function of filtering layer.
ESSENTIAL PARTS: A rapid sand filter consist of the following five parts.
i) Enclosure Tank:- A watertight tank is constructed either of masonry or concrete.
The side and floor are also coated with waterproof material.
The depth of tank is about 2.5m to 3.5m.
The surface area of a exit of rapid sand filter varies from 10m² to 30m².
ii) Under drainage system: There are various forms of under drainage system of a rapid sand
filter and most of them are patented by the manufacturers.
*Following are two common types of under drainage system
a. Perforated pipe system:- In this system there is a central drain or manifold and to this
manifold the various lateral drains are attached as shown in fig.
The drains are usually made of cast-iron.
The lateral drains are placed at a distance of about 150mm to 300mm.
The lateral drains are provided with holes at the bottom side and such holes make an
angle of 20° with the vertical as shown in fig.
The perforated pipe system is economical and simple in operation.
b. pipe and strainer system:- In this system also there is a central drain or manifold with
lateral drains attached on either side as shown in the fig. But in this system the strainers
are placed on lateral drains instead of drilling holes.
A strainer is a small pipe of brass. It is closed at top and contains holes on its surface as
shown in fig.
The strainers are either screwed or fixed on the top of lateral drains.
When pipe and strainer system is adopted the compressed air is used for the purpose of
washing the filter. This results in saving of wash water.
Following general rules should be observed in designing the under drainage system: -
I. The ratio of length of lateral drain to its diameter should not exceed 20.
II. The cross sectional area of central drain should be about twice the cross sectional area of
lateral drain.
III. The total cross sectional area of perforations should be about 0.20% of the total filter
area.
IV. The cross sectional area of lateral should be about two to four times the total cross
sectional area of perforations in it.
V. The perforations in the lateral drain should be of diameter 6mm to 12mm.
VI. The spacing of perforation in the lateral drain should vary from 75mm to 200mm center
to center.
(iii) BASE MATERAIL: The base material is gravel and it is faced on the top .of under drainage
system.
The gravel to be used for best material should be clean and free from clay , dust, silt and
vegetable matter.
The gravel particle should be durable, hard, round and strong.
The depth of base material varies from 450mmto 600mmgravel .It is usually graded and laid in
layers of 150mm.
The topmost layer should be of small seize of gravel and the lower layer should be of big size
gravel.
Following is a typical section of base material:
Top most layer 150mmdepth –size3mm to 6 mm
Intermediate layer {150mm depth-size 6mm to 12mm
{150mm depth -size 12mm to 20mm
Lower layer 150mm depth- size 20 mm to 40mm
Total 600mm depth
(iv) FILTER MEDIA OF SAND: A layer of sand is placed above gravel. The depth of sand layer
varies from 600mm to 900mm. The coarse sand is used as filter media. The effective size of sand
varies from 0.35mmto 0.60 mm and the uniformity coefficient of sand is between 1.20 to 1.70 .Thus
the space of voids between sand particles is increased and it result in the increase rate filtration.
(v) APPURTENANCES:
a) AIR COMPRESSORS: The agitation of sand grains during washing of filter is carried out
either by compressed air or by water jet or by mechanical rakes. When air is to be used an air
compressor of required capacity should be installed.
b) WASH- WATER THROUGHS: The dirty water after washing of filter is collected in wash
water through or gutter which is placed above sand bed level.
c) RATE CONTROL: There are various devices which may be fitted at the outlet end of the filter
to control the rate of flow.
Working and cleaning: - The working of a rapid gravity filter can be understood by referring to
fig.. The numbers placed near values indicate the following:
Valve 1 – Inlet valve.
Valve 2 – Filtered water storage tank valve.
Valve 3 – Waste water Valve to drain water from inlet chamber.
Valve 4 – Wash water storage tank Valve
Valve 5 – Waste water Valve to drain water from main drain.
Efficiency of rapid sand filter: -The efficiency of rapid sand filter is as follows.
i. Bacterial load: - The rapid sand filters are less effective in the removal of bacterial load. It is
expected that they remove about 80 to 90 percent of bacterial impurity present in water.
ii. The rapid sand filters are highly efficient in colour removal and the intensity of colour can be
brought down below 10 on cobalt scale.
iii. Turbidity: - The rapid sand filter can remove turbidity to the extent of 35 to 45 p.p.m. As water
entering rapid sand filter is invariably given the treatment in coagulation sedimentation tank, it
possesses less turbidity. This turbidity is brought down easily to the permissible limits by rapid sand
filters.
Advantages:-
a) Rate of filtration is very high, 3000 to 6000 hr/m2
b) Area required for filtration is small.
Disadvantages:-
a) Cost is more.
b) Period of cleaning 2-3days.
Suitability:- Suitable for big cities as land cost is high and rate of demand is high.
Backwashing:- Backwashing a drinking water filter system means reversing and increasing the
flow of water to flush out accumulated debris and particles. Backwashing is not only vital to the life
of a filter, it is fundamental to the quality of water coming out of the filter. Sooner or later, all
filters need to be backwashed or replaced.
A separate overhead tank is constructed near the filter house to store the water required for back
washing of filter. A pump is installed to lift the sufficient quantity of filtered water to be stored in
wash water tank.
Operation –
1. Initially, the valves (1) and (4) are closed and valves (5) and (6) are opened out.
2. The wash water and compressed air are thus forced upwards from the under- drainage through
the gravel and sand beds.
3. Valve (5) is closed after supplying the required amount of air.
4. The dirty water, resulting from washings, overflows into the wash water troughs and is removed
by openingthe valve (3) through the inlet chamber into the wash water drain.
5. Now open valve (1) and (4) for some time then close valve (4) and put filter in normal working
condition by opening valve (2).
(3) Presssure filter:- These filters are more or less similar to the rapid sand filters ( gravity type).
The pressure filter does not indicate that the water is pumped through the filter under a high pressure
loss. But it indicates that a filter is enclosed in space and the water passes under pressure greater
than atmospheric pressure. This pressure can be developed by pumping and it may vary from 0.3 to
0.7 N/𝑚𝑚2.
Construction: - The pressure filters are closed cylinders either riveted or welded. They may be of
horizontal or vertical type. The diameters of pressure filters vary from 1.50m to 3.00m. and their
lengths or height varies from 3.50m. to 8.00m. the manholes are provided at top for inspection.
Working: - The water mixed with coagulant is directly admitted to the pressure filter. Thus the
flocculation takes place inside the pressure filter itself. In normal working condition, all valves are
closed except those for raw water and filtered water. The water is admitted through inlet and after
it is filtered, it is collected in the central drain and converged to the filtered water storage tank.
Cleaning: - The compressed air may be used to agitate sand grains,
The values for raw water and filtered water are in closed position and those for wash water and
wash water drain are in open position during the operation of washing of filter.
The cleaning of pressure filters may be required more be frequently.
The automatic pressure filters are available in which washing of filter is done automatically at
a predetermined interval of time or loss of head.
Rate of filtration:- The rate of filtration of pressure filters is high as compare to that of rapid
sand filters. It is about 6000 to 15000 liters/hour/𝑚2. Of filter area as compared to that of 3000 to
6000 liters/hour/𝑚2. Of rapid sand filters.
Efficiency: - The pressure filters are found to be less efficient than the rapid sand filters in terms
of bacterial loads, colour and turbidity.
Suitability: - The pressure filters are more suitable for public water supply projects. But they can
be installed for small water supply projects such as colonies of few houses, industrial plants, private
estates, swimming pools etc.
Disinfectants:- The chemicals (or substance) which are added to water for killing the bacteria are
known as disinfectants.
Disinfection:- The process of destroying (or killing) the disease producing bacteria, micro-
organisms etc. from the water and making it safe for use is called disinfection or sterilization of
water.
Objectives:- Disinfection is done to remove the following:-
1. Bacterial impurities.
2. Taste, colour and odour.
Good requirements of disinfectants:-
1. They should be economical and easily available.
2. They should not require high skill and costly equipments for their application.
3. They should destroy all the harmful pathogenic organisms from the water and make it
perfectly safe for use.
4. They should not take more time for killing pathogens, but do their taskwithin the required
time at normal temperature.
5. After their treatment, water should not become toxic and objectionable to the user.
6. Their dose should be such that it should leave some residual concentration for protection
against contamination in the water during its conveyance and retention.
Following are the various methods of disinfection used in water treatment:-
1. By boiling of water:- When water is boiled for 15-20 minutes, the harmful bacteria are
killed and water becomes safe for use.
Use:- Above method is applicable to industries and homes at the time of emergency.
Disadvantage:- a) Boiling changes taste of water.
b) Impractical to boil water for large treatment plants.
2. By ultra-violet rays:- UV rays are powerful disinfectants. They are produced by passing
electric current through mercury vapout lamp. Water is allowed in thin layers.
Use:- It is used to disinfectant swimming pool etc.
Disadvantage:- a) treatment is costly.
b) No residual action.
c) Ineffective when turbidity is greater then 15 ppm.
3. By iodine and bromine:- It has been seen that addition of iodine and bromine in the water
kills all the pathogenic bacteria. The quantity of iodine and bromine should not exceed 8 ppm
and they can kill bacteria in minimum contact period of 5 minutes. These disinfectants are
easily available in the form of pills and are very handy.
5. chlorine may remain in the water after disinfection has occurred; this may protect
drinkingwater from recontamination by harmful microorganisms during storage and
distribution to the consumer.
Chlorine Demand:- The difference between the amount of chlorine added to the water and
residual chlorine is called chlorine demand. This depends on the amount of chlorine, time
of contact, ph and temperature.
Types of chlorine:- There are 3 types of chlorine which are as follows:-
a) Free Chlorine :- The concentration of residual chlorine in water present as dissolved
gas (Cl2), hypochlorine ion and hydrochlorous acid is called as free chlorine.
Advantages:-
1. It can be stored for long time without loss of quality.
2. It is very powerful and effective disinfectant.
3. It is available cheaply.
4. Initial cost of chlorination plant is low.
5. There is no sludge formation.
6. Skilled supervision is not necessary for applying it.
b) Combined Chlorine:- The residual chlorine existing in water in chemical
combination with ammonia or organic matters which can be found in natural or
polluted water is called as combined chlorine.
c) Total Chlorine:- The sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine is called as total
chlorine.When chloramines are present in a municipal water supply, total chlorine will be
higher than free chlorine. Total chlorine is essentially equal to free chlorine while
chlorinating most potable water supplies due to very low concentration of ammonia or
organic nitrogen compounds required to form combined chlorine.
Types of Chlorination:- Depending upon the step of purification at which chlorine is added
to water and also upon the desired result of the application of chlorine, which may be of the
following forms;
i. Plain Chlorination:- Simple or plain chlorination only chlorine added in raw water and
no other treatment. and no other treatment is given and supplied to the consumers.When
raw water is relatively clear having low turbidities (not exceeding 10 NTU), plain
chlorination has resorted with the usual dosage of 0.5 to 1 ppm.
ii. Pre Chlorination:- In pre-chlorination chlorine is applied to raw water initially before any
treatment. Chlorine is added before filtration sometimes maybe before sedimentation. Dosage of
chlorine should be such that residual chlorine of 0.1 to 0.5 ppm at the time of entering to filter.
Pre-chlorination may assist or reduce the burden to other units by; controlling against the growth
of algae in the sedimentation tank, reducing the bacterial load to filter, the interval of cleaning
period of filter may prolong, coagulant dosage may reduce in sedimentation with coagulation,
eliminating taste and odor from water.
iii. Post Chlorination:- It is the application of chlorine to water after all treatments i.e. chlorine
is added to water as it leaves filters and before entering the distribution system. It is useful for
protection against contamination in the distribution system and dosage is adjusted about 0.1to
0.2 ppm.
iv. Double Chlorination:- When raw water is highly contaminated and may contain a large
number of bacteria, chlorine is added at two or more points in the purification process. Pre-
chlorination is adopted once before sedimentation and post-chlorination are in which chlorine
is added after filtration and before the distribution system.
v. Super Chlorination:- In super chlorination, chlorine is applied to water beyond the stage of
breakpoint chlorination. Normally a dosage of super chlorination may be 2 to 3 mg/lit or 0.5
to 2 ppm after breakpoint chlorination. Super chlorination is adopted during the epidemic in
a certain area to control the water-borne disease.
vi. Dechlorination:- It is the process of removing excess chlorine from water. The excessive
chlorine is to be removed from the water to avoid chlorine taste before distribution to
consumers. Which may be attained by aeration of water or adding sodium thiosulphate,
sodium meta bisulphate, sodium sulphite, ammonia, sulpherdioxde, etc to water.
vii. Break point Chlorination:- The chlorine, when added to the water, forms the function of
killing bacteria first and then starts accumulating up to point A, as shown in graph. · Further
addition of chlorine shows sudden decrease in residual chorine up to point B. This is because
of oxidation of organic matter in water.The point B on graph Q is called Breakpoint. As any
chlorine that is added beyond this point breaks through the water and appears as residual
chlorine. This type is called as break point chlorination.
is less than 5 and greater than 10 generally chlorine remains in molecular form. Hence pH is a
major factor that directly affects bactericidal removal efficiency.
5) Temperature of water:- Decrease in temperature of water results substantial decrease in killing
power of both free and combined chlorine. If the temperature is lowered, free availability is
decreased and efficiency also decreased.
6) Time of contact:- The time period after the application of chlorine required to kill pathogens
should be adequate for effective disinfection. Generally, for disinfection by free chlorine, a
contact period of 30 minutes is required while it takes twice of this for a combined chlorine path.
7) Type, Condition and Concentration of Microorganisms:- Bacteria and viruses are
microorganisms that commonly occur in water. The enteric pathogenic bacteria are less resistant
to chlorine than E-coli bacteria and viruses are more resistant hence dosage and contact time
differ with type, condition, and concentration of microorganisms.
Residual Chlorine:- Low level amount of chlorine remaining in the water after a certain period or
contact time after its initial application is called as residual chlorine.
Importance :- 1) Residual chlorine 0.2 mg/l is maintain is order to take care of all the bacteria
which will be added in distribution system may be because of exposure of water to atmosphere.
2) Presence of residual chlorine in treated water indicates the completion of disinfection process.
3) Usually, the dosage of chlorine is such that 0.2 ppm residual chlorine is obtained.
4) Amount of residual chlorine left in the chlorinated water after required contact period can be
determined by orthotolidine test.
Orthotolidine Test:- It is used for detecting the chlorine, nitrates, nitrites, ammonia etc. In short,
orthotolidine test is carried out to find the presence of both free chlorine and chloramines and
combined chlorine in water on addition of reagent. It is most common and easy test used in quality
control department of water treatment work.
Procedure :- 1) Chlorinated water sample of about 100 ml is taken in test tube.
2) 1 ml of orthotolidine solution is added in the test tube.
3) After adding the orthotolidine solution in water sample the colour is formed.
4) This formation of colour is noted and the value of the residual chlorine content is directly found
by comparing the colour with the standard colour chart of known value of chlorine residuals.
5) When yellow colour is produced and matched against charts within 10 seconds, then it gives the
amount of free chlorine.
6) When yellow colour is produced and matched with the standard colour chart after 5 minutes, then
it gives the amount of combined residual chlorine. In this way, the value of colour compared after
10 seconds gives the amount of free chlorine in water sample; while the value of colour compared
after 5 minutes gives the amount of combined chlorine.
7) It usual practice to obtain the value of combined chlorine only, by substracting the value obtained
after 10 seconds from the value obtained after 5 minutes.
8) Note that the impurities like iron, manganese, nitrate etc. can not be determined by this method.
2. Defluoridation Techniques:- It is the method of removing the excess quantity of fluoride from
potable water.
Necessity:-
Methods of defluoridation:- Following are the various methods of defluoridation as
defluoridation techniques to remove fluoride from water in developed world.
1. Bone Caracole or bone char:It is oldest technology for water defluoridation being successfully
used since 1940. It is a blackish, porous and granular material.The major components of bone
charcoal are:
Bone charcoal has good ability to adsorb the fluoride content from water.
2. Activated carbon:- The activated carbon can be produced from various materials. It has
good ability to defluoride the water.
efficiency. It is able to treat water with fluoride concentration from 4-20mg/litre. Fig. shows
activated alumina filter is conveniently integrated into the home plumbing system.
6. Soils, clays and minerals:- Various soil, clay types and minerals have long been used for
water treatment.The chief advantage of using clay and soils is that it is locally available and
cheap.Number of soils have been used in defluoridation including magnesite, apophylite,
natrolite, gibbsite, kaolinite, zeolite, acidic clay, china clay, bentonite and many other. Clay
is fine-textured, plastic when it is moist and retains in shape when dried and become hard
when fired. Both the clay powder and fired clay are capable to absorb the fluoride as well as
other pollutants from water.
7. Lime soda process:- In lime-soda process of water softening, the excessive fluoride are
removed along with the removal of magnesium.
2. Reverse Osmosis:-
services, rain water system etc. 3. Good electric insulators 2. Not strong enough as
These are strong & can 4. Light in weight and it is compare to GI or CI.
withstand much high pressure easy to bend, join and 3. Thermal expansion
for a given wall thickness. It is install. coefficient is higher than GI
quite resistance to salt water, 5. Easy to transport. or CI.
corrosive fumes , corrosive soil 4. Less resistant to heat.
etc. 5. Unpleasant taste to water.
The platic pipes are available in
the following forms:-
a) Low density polyethylene
pipe (LDPE)
b) High density polyethylene
pipe (HDPE)
c) Polyvinyl chloride pipe
(PVC).
5. Wrought Iron pipes 1. More lighter. 1. More costly.
2. Easily cut, threaded. 2. Less durable.
3. Good in appearance, if used
in interior works.
6. Steel pipes 1. Light in weight, so easy to 1. Affected by corrosion.
transport . 2. 25 to 50 years of life period.
2. Due to large in length, 3. Difficult in making
hence less number of joints connections.
are their. 4. High maintenance cost.
3. Cheap. 5. Rusty due to acidic or
4. Flexible to some extent and alkaline water.
they can therefore be laid
easily on curves.
7. Copper pipes 1. Not liable to corrode.
2. Bent easily. -------
3. Do not sag, if hot water is
used.
8. Lead pipes 1. Bent easily. 1. Cause poisoning.
Types of joints:-
1) Spigot & Socket joint :- This type of joint is commonly used in case of cast-iron-pipes. For the
construction of this joint the spigot or normal end of one pipe is centred into the socket of the other
pipe. Hemp yarn is then wrapped around the spigot, leaving unfilled the required depth of socket
for lead. A kneeled clay ring is then placed around the barrel & against the face of the socket. After
this molten pig lead is poured into fill the remainder of the socket.
2) Flanged Joint :- These joints are rigid & are easy to disjoint, as such used where pipe joints have
to occasionally opened out for carrying out repair work as in pumping chamber. The pipe in this
case has flanges on its both ends, casted, welded or screwed with the pipe. A gasket of rubber,
canvass or lead is introduced between the two flange of cast iron pipes, which are then tightened
with bolts & nuts.
3) Expansion Joint :- These joints are used on pipes exposed to considerable differences of
temperature allowing for free expansion or contraction without setting up thermal stresses in the
pipes. Here when the pipe expands , the socket end moves forward & when pipe contracts , it moves
back word in the space provided for it & the elastic rubber gasket in every position keeps the joint
water tight.
4) Flexible Joints :- These joints are used for pipes to be laid submerged under water , where the
bottom of the river is uneven with the possibility of settlement & consequent damage. If one pipe is
given any defection, the ball shaped portion will move inside the socket , & the joint will remain
water proof in all the position .
5) Collar Joint :- This joint is mostly used for joining concrete & Asbestos cement pipe having bigger
diameter. A rubber gasket is placed between steel rings in the groove after bringing the ends of the
two pipes in one level. Then the collar is placed at the joint so that it should have the same lap on
both the pipes. After this cement mortar (1:1) is filled in the gap between the pipes & the collar.
6) Screwed & Socket Joints :- This is a simple type of joint commonly used for jointing screwed
wrought iron or Galvanised iron pipes. In this joint , two ends of the pipes are threaded on the
outside and on them a suitable jointing compound should be used before screwing socket over it
having corresponding threads from inside.
Laying of Pipes:- Pipes are generally laid with a flat slope parallel to the hydraulic gradient to
avoid any air locking trouble. Where there is slope, pipe laying should be done in an uphill
direction to facilitate joint making.
Testing of Pipe Lines:- After a new pipe line has been laid & jointed, it shall be subjected
to the following two tests :
(a) Pressure Test:-The procedure adopted for pressure testing of pipes is as follows :-
(i) The pipe line is tested from section to section. At a time only one section lying between two
sluice valves is taken up for testing.
(ii) First the downstream sluice valve of the section is closed & water is admitted in the section
through the upstream sluice valve. During filling air valve is properly operated to remove all
air from the pipe.
(iii) Then the upstream valve is close to completely isolate the section from the rest of the pipe
line.
(iv) Pressure gauges are then fitted along the pipe length of the section at suitable interval
(generally 100 mm or so) on the crown through holes left for this purpose.
(v) The pipe section is then connected to the delivery side of a pump through a small by-pass
valve & the pump is started to increase the pressure in the pipe. The operation is continued
till the pressure inside the pipe reaches a pressure at least double of the maximum working
pressure.
(vi) The by-pass valve is then closed & the pump is discontinued .
(vii) The pipe is kept as it is for 24 hours & inspected for any fall of pressure. This completes
the pressure testing of pipes.
(b) Leakage Test:- After successfully completing The pressure test , the leakage test is carried out.
Leakage Test is to test maximum allowable leakage which is determined by the formula :
Q = (NDP1/2)/3.3
Where Q = allowable leakage in cm3/hr
N = number of joints in the length of pipe line
D = diameter in mm
P = the average test pressure during the leakage test in kg/ cm2
Causes of corrosion in water system pipes :- Pipes used to distribute drinking water are made of
plastic, concrete, or metal (e.g., steel, galvanized steel, ductile iron, copper, or aluminium). Plastic
and concrete pipes tend to be resistant to corrosion. Metal pipe corrosion is a continuous and variable
process of ion release from the pipe into the water. Under certain environmental conditions, metal
pipes can become corroded based on the properties of the pipe, the soil surrounding the pipe, the
water properties, and stray electric currents. When metal pipe corrosion occurs, it is a result of the
electrochemical electron exchange resulting from the differential galvanic properties between
metals, the ionic influences of solutions, aquatic buffering, or the solution pH.
Remedies :-
1) Avoid placing of old pipes.
2) Avoid placing of rust pipes.
3) Control dissolved gases from water which flows through the pipes.
4) Rust preventives like lubricants , greases, oils are used to form a protective film to prevent
corrosion.
Valves:-Generally valves are needed to control the flow of water to regulate pressure to release
or admit air to prevent flow of water in opposite direction. Valves are fitted according to the
purpose of distribution. Some different types of valves are given below.
Purposes:- a) To control the rate of flow of water.
b) To release or admit air into the pipeline.
c) To prevent or detect leakage.
d) To meet the demand during emergencies.
e) To make the distribution system more efficient.
a. Sluice valves:- These are also known as gate valves and are mostly used in water work. This
is cheap and offer less resistance to flow of water. Gate valves control the flow of water through
pipes and fixed in the main lines bringing water from the source to a town at 3 to 5 km interval.
Use/Function :- These valves are used to control flow of water in distribution system.
Location:- These valves are located at distance of about 150 to 200 m and at all junction or
located at the intersection of pipelines or at streer corner.
b. Reflux or Check or Non-Return Valves:- This is also known as return or non return valves.
It automatically allows water to flow only in one direction and prevent it flowing in reverse
direction. This type of valves has typical rises in one directional flow of water.
Use/Function :- a) Such valves opens only in the direction of flow; hence , in case the pump
fails or stops, the water will not come back to the pump and due to this, pumping equipment get
saved from damage.
b) It also prevents the entry of polluted water into the treated water.
Location:- This types of valves are located in long pumping mains to avoid back pressure on the
engine.
c. Air Relief valves:- When water enters in pipe line some it also carries some air with it which
tends to accumulate at high point of the pipe. When the quantity of air increases it causes seviour
blockage to the flow of water therefore it is most essential to remove the accumulated air from
the pipe line. Air valves are used for this purpose.
Use/Function :- To release accumulated air that can obstruct the flow of water.
Location:- They are provided at summit points in the alignment of pipe.
d) Pressure Relief valve:- These are also called safety valves, provided at a point along the
pipeline where pressures are likely to exceed permissible limit.
Use /Function:- When the pressure becomes maximum or exceeds the permissible limit, in such
case relief valve operate automatically and prevents the hammer effect or bursting of pipe.
Location:- a) Two pipelines connecting pipe networks.
b) At two different elevations in pipeline.
e) Scour valves:- These valves are also known as the blow-off or drain or wash out valves. They
are ordinary sluice valves and are operated manually with hand and closed down immediately
after clear water is seen passing through them.
Use/ Function:- These are used to remove sand or silt deposited in pipeline.
Location:- These type of valve are located at every depression and dead ends, if there is any
scouring or silt deposited in water pipe.
Distribution of water:- After complete treatment of water, it becomes necessary to distribute it
to a number of houses, estates, industries and public places by means of a network of distribution
system. The distribution system consists of pipes of various sizes, valves, meters, pumps,
distribution reservoirs, hydrants, stand posts etc. The pipe lines carry the water to each and every
street, road. Valves control the flow of water through the pipes. Meters are provided to measure
the quantity of water consumed by individual as well as by the town. Hydrants are provided to
connect the water to the fire fighting equipments during fire. Service connections are done to
connect the individual building with the water line passing through the streets. Pumps are provided
to pump the water to the elevated service reservoirs or directly in the water mains to obtain the
required pressure in the pipe lines.
3) Combined System:- In this system, the treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated
distribution reservoir. The excess water during low consumption remains in the elevated reservoir
and it is supplied during the peak period. The pumps are generally worked at constant rate and this
rate of pumping is so adjusted that the excess quantity of water stored in reservoir during low
consumption is nearly equal to the extra demand of water during peak period. Fig. shows the
combined gravity and pumping system with hydraulic gradients during maximum and minimum
demand.
Advantages:- 1) The pumps work at constant speed.
2) Failure of power does not affect the system .
3) This system is economical, reliable and efficient .
4) Special supervision is not required.
5) Fire demands can be easily fulfilled.
5. This method is simple, reliable and This system is not economical due to pumping
economical. cost.
6. Less maintenance cost. More maintenance cost.
7. Sufficient pressure is not available for farther Sufficient pressure is available in distribution
sections. system due to pumps.
8. Power supply is not necessary, hence more This system is not reliable in case of power
reliable. failure as pumps will stop working.
SYSTEMS OF SUPPLY OF WATER: - Following are the two systems of supply of water which
are based on the duration of supply.
1) Continuous system: - In this system of supply, the water is supplied to the consumers for 24
hours of day. This is the most ideal system of supply and it should be adopted as far as possible.
The only disadvantage of this system is that considerable wastage of water occurs, if consumers do
not possess civic sense regarding the importance of treated water. One recommended way to avoid
this defect of this system is to supply water through meters. Whether it is desirable to install meters
or not is a debatable question and hence, the decision to install meters should be taken after careful
considerations and deliberations.
2) Intermittent system: - In this system of supply the water is supplied during certain fixed hours
of day only. The usual period is about one to four hours in the morning and about same period in
the afternoon. For instance, the water may be supplied from 6.30 a.m. to 10.30 p.m. and from 5.30
p.m. to 8.30 p.m. The timing of supply of water may be changed to suit the seasons of year and it is
more or less a matter of convenience only. This system of supply of water proves to be useful for
the following two conditions:
I. The available pressure is poor and
II. The quantity of water available is not sufficient to meet with various demands for water.
Methods of layout of distribution of pipes:- Following are the four main methods of laying
distribution pipes:
1) Dead end method:- This is also known as the free system of layout and it consists of one supply
main from which sub-mains are taken. The sub-mains again divided into several branch lines from
which service connections are given to the consumers.
Suitability:- This system is adopted for cities, which are developed in haphazard manner.
Advantages:- 1) This system is simple and economical.
2) The number of sluice valves required to control the flow of water are less.
3) The system can be extended and expanded according to the growth of the area.
4) Method of laying the pipe is simple.
5) It is very easy to workout the discharge and pressure head at various points.
Disadvantages:- 1) During repairs, a large portion of the distribution area is affected.
2) Due to limited discharge in the mains, the water available for fire fighting will
be limited in quantity.
3) Water acquires odour and red colour.
2) Grid-iron method: - This is also known as the interlaced system or reticulation system. The
mains, sub-mains and branches are interconnected with each other as shown in fig
Advantages: - i. In case of repairs a very small portion of the distribution area will be affected.
ii. There is free circulation of water and hence, it is not liable for pollution due to stagnation.
Disadvantages: - i. The cost of laying water pipe is more.
ii. The grid- iron system of layout requires longer lengths of pipes.
3) Circular method:- This is also known as the ring system and a ring of mains is formed around
the distribution area as shown in fig. This system possesses advantages and disadvantages as those
of grid-iron system.
4) Radial method:- This method of layout is just the reverse of the ring method. In this system, the
water is taken from the mains and pumped into the distribution reservoirs which are situated at
centres of different zones as shown in fig. The water is then supplied through radially laid pipes.
The radial method of layout gives quick service and the calculations for design of sizes of pipes are
simple. The radial method is most suitable for towns having roads laid out radially.
Service Reservoir:- The reservoir, which stores the treated water for supply water during
emergencies, is called as service reservoir.
Necessity:-
a. It stores treated water.
b. It brings economy in a distribution system.
c. It supplies water during emergencies.
d. It avoids the continuous operation of pumps.
Importances:-
a. They provide and maintain the desires constant pressure in the distribution system,
including remote areas.
b. They reduce pressure fluctuation.
c. They provide emergency storage for fire, failure of pumps of power and bursting if mains.
d. They absorb hourly variation in demand.
e. They enable the pumps to run at uniform speed during designed pumping hours.
f. In case of small installation they avoid 24 hours pumping.
Types
i) Physical characteristics:-
(a) Colour & Odour:- Fresh domestic sewage has a slightly soapy and cloudy appearance
depending upon its concentration. As time passes the sewage becomes stale, darkening
in colour with a pronounced smell due to microbial activity.
(b) Temperature:- The observations of temperature of sewage are useful in indicating
solubility of oxygen, which affects transfer capacity of aeration equipment in aerobic
systems, and rate of biological activity. Extremely low temperature affects adversely on
the efficiency of biological treatment systems and on efficiency of sedimentation. In
general, under Indian condition the temperature of the raw sewage was observed to be
between 15 to 350C at various places in different seasons.
(c) Turbidity:- The turbidity of the sewage directly depends on the quantity of the solid
matter present in it in suspension state.
(d) Solids: Though sewage contains only about 0.1 percent solids, the rest being water, still
the nuisance caused by the solids cannot be overlooked, as these solids are highly putrescible
and therefore need proper disposal. The sewage solids may be classified into dissolved solids,
suspended solids and volatile suspended solids. Knowledge of the volatile or organic fraction
of solid, which decomposes, becomes necessary, as this constitutes the load on biological
treatment units or oxygen resources of a stream when sewage is disposed of by dilution? The
estimation of suspended solids, both organic and inorganic, gives a general picture of the load on
sedimentation and grit removal system during sewage treatment. Dissolved inorganic fraction is to
be considered when sewage is used for land irrigation or any other reuse is planned.
(ii) Chemical characteristics:- Sewage contains complex organic matters derived from urine,
faeces etc and organic chemicals. The organic compounds can be divided as containing nitrogen
and free from nitrogen .urea, proteins, amines and amino acids are nitrogenous compounds. The
salts and alkalies as inorganic matters are also present in sewage, which come from bathrooms,
kitchens and industrial plants.
(iii) Biological characteristics:- Sewage contains large quantity of bacteria which come from
excremental matter. All the bacteria present in sewage are not harmful. more quantity is of
harmless bacteria, which help to treat the sewage and reduce the cost of treatment plants only
pathogenic bacteria which are discharged by the sick persons having infections diseases such
as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea etc are to harmful to the human and give difficulties at
the treatment plants. Following are the main living organism in sewage:
a) Bacteria:- The disease causing bacteria are known as pathogens and come under the
category of lower bacteria. The pathogens in sewage from the of sick people having
infectious disease the pathogens may cause typhoid, fever, paratyphoid fever, bacillary
dysentery and cholera. The bacteria are very sensitive in their environments and if they are
kept in different circumstances not suiting them, they die or their growth stooped.
b) Algae:- The algae are unicellular plants containing chlorophyll and often additional
pigments on which these have various names the presence of pigments enable the algae to
utilize the radiant energy. the physiological process involved is called photosynthesis and
helps algae in absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.,
c) Fungi:- The cells of fungi do not contain chlorophyll and pigments. These are usually
colourless and are filamentous having branches. The yeasts, bacteria and molds come under
the group of fungi. The size of mold flora usually present in sewage is large. They have the
property of decomposing starches sugars, cellulose, fats, proteins, higher alcohols and
nitrogen substances.
d) Protozoa:- These include all the unicellular animals. There are various types of protozoa
such as amoeboid, flagellae and ciliate protozoa, amoeboid protozoa are irregular in shape,
naked or shekked, single or colloinal. They move by means of false feet. Mostly all the
protozoa are bact eria eaters and destroy the pathogens.
Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Norms for the Discharge of the Treated Sewage
Tolerance limit for Tolerance limit for
Tolerance
Industrial effluents inland surface
limit for
discharged into water, when used
sewage
as raw water for
S.N. Characteristics effluents Inland Public
public water
discharged surface sewer
supplies and
into inland water IS: IS:3306-
bathing ghats IS:
surface water 2490-1974 1974
2296-1974
1. B.O.D.(5 day 20°C),mg/l 20 30 500 3
2. C.O.D.,mg/l --- 250 --- ---
3. pH --- 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0 6.0-9.0
Total suspended solids,
4. 30 100 600 ---
mg/l
5. Temperature, °C --- 40 45 ---
objection. Thus the main objective of the treatment units to reduce the sewage contents from the
sewage and remove the entire nuisance in such a way that it can be safely discharged in the
natural water course applied on the land.
Flow diagram of sewage treatment plant:-
PRIMARY TREATMENT The sewage contains various suspended, floating, and oily substances.
By primary treatment these substances are removed from the sewage so that the working of the
sedimentary treatment units may be easy and there are no disturbances in the operation of those
units. The units of the primary treatments are as follows:
1. SCREENS The screen is the first unit of primary treatment plant. The function of screen is to
remove all the floating debris like wood pieces, cloth and paper pieces, decayed fruits and vegetables
etc. If these floating matters are not eliminated, it may choke the pipe lines or it may cause damage
to the pumping unit.
Construction: The screens may be constructed of M.S bar s or rods, gratings, wire meshes or
perforated plates. The M.S. bar screen is made by placing parallel bars with spacings according to
the following types.
Coarse screen: The spacing of bars is more than 40mm centre to centre.
Medium screen: The spacing of bars is less than 40mm.
Fine screen: The spacing of bars vary from 1.5mm to 6mm. The screens may be fixed or movable.
The inclination of the screen varies from 30° to 60° . The screens are placed at designed inclination
in an oblong rectangular chamber. The ends of the chamber are tapered. It is constructed with brick
masonry. The inner surfaces are plastered and finished with neat cement polish. A perforated
rectangular channel is provided at the top of the screen for collecting floating debris.
Operation: The raw sewage is allowed to enter the chamber through the inlet pipe. The floating
debris are obstructed by the screen and collected near it. The sewage containing the other
suspended materials passes through the screen and is taken to the next unit.
Cleaning: The debris may be cleaned by manual labours or mechanical device. In manual system,
the debris are taken by rackers and collected in the perforated channel from where these are
disposed of. In mechanical device system, a raking arm like crane is provided which collect the
debris at regular interval and throws in a collecting basin from where these are disposed of.
Disposal Dumping : The debris are dumped in low-lying areas far away from the locality.
Burning: After drying the debris are burnt to ashes.
Composting: God quality manure may be obtained by composting the debris in compost plant.
2. GRIT CHAMBER The function of grit chamber is to remove the inorganic substances like grit,
sand and other suspended materials. The velocity of flow in the grit chamber is kept low so that a
detention period is available for the settlement of the above substances.
Construction The grit chamber is an oblong rectangular chamber and constructed with brick
masonry. As shown in fig the floor of the chamber is mad sloping for the collection of grits at a
particular zone. The inner surfaces are plastered and finished with neat cement polish. It consists of
an agitator for agitating the deposited grit at the time of cleaning. A pipe line with valve is provided
at the bottom of the chamber for periodical removal of the grits. The length, width and depth are
designed according to the volume of sewage.
Operation: The sewage from the screen chamber is allowed to enter the grit chamber and flow at a
low velocity of 20 cm to 30 cm per sec. Due to the low velocity; the grits, sands, etc are settled
down at the bottom of the grit chamber.
Cleaning: At the time of cleaning, the deposited grits are agitated by agitator and the muddy water
comes out through the removal pipe. The grits may also be cleared from top by manual labours
with the help of buckets.
Disposal The grits are generally dumped in low-lying areas for the reclamation of land.
3. PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK The function of primary sedimentation tank is to remove
colloidal particles like silt and clay and some organic substance. Moreover it reduces the load on the
secondary treatment. Coagulants may be used, if necessary.
Construction: It is a rectangular tank constructed with brick masonry. Baffle walls are provided in
zigzag way so as to lengthen the path of the flow of the sewage. Inlet and outlet pipes are provided on
opposite corners and these are provided with valves. A sludge removal pipe is provided at the bottom of
the tank.
Operation: The sewage enters the tank through the inlet pipe and flows along the zigzag path and
hence the velocity of flow is reduced. Thus the sewage is detained for a considerable period in the
tank. The colloidal particles and organic substances are settled down at the bottom of the tank. The
comparatively clear water passes out through the outlet pipe.
Cleaning: The sludge is cleaned periodically through the removal pipe by opening the valve.
Disposal: The sludge may be disposed of by pumping in ditches or low-lying areas or may be dried
in sludge drying beds and can be used as manure.
4. SECONDARY TREATMENT In the primary treatment, the larger solids in sewage are
removed.But the effluent still contains organic matters, bacteria, colloidal matters etc. Such effluent
cannot be discharged into the natural water course. So secondary treatments are given to the effluent
of primary treatment to make it safe in all respects and suitable for discharging it into the river. The
units of the secondary treatments are as follows:
Contact Bed:- Contact bed is a method of filtration of sewage. Its rate of filtration is low. In
contact bed, the sewage is brought in contact with the filtering media for some specified period.
During this period, a biological film is formed around the particles of the filter media and the
bacterial colonies are formed in the film. These bacteria are responsible for the oxidation of organic
matters.Again, when the bed is kept empty for some period, the filter gets oxygen from atmosphere
and oxides the organic matters if they remain deoxidised.
Construction: It is a rectangular tank which is divided into several beds. The depth of bed varies
from 1m to 2m. Each bed is filled up with filtering media of gravel, ballast or broken stones as
shown in fig.The effective size of ballast varies from 15mm to 50mm. A siphonic dosing tank is
provided for the supply of sewage to all the bed simultaneously. Generally the rate of filtration is
500 litres per m3 of filter media.
Operation: The bed is filled with sewage through the siphonic dosing tank and it may take about
two hours. The sewage is allowed to stay in the filter media for about 2 hours. The effluent is
allowed to flow through the effluent pipe for the disposal to natural water course. This may
take about 2 hours. The bed is allowed to stay empty for about 4 hours. Thus, the cycle of
operation continues during the working period.
5. SLUDGE DIGESTION:- The decomposition of complex organic matters in sludge by the bio-
chemical reactions created by anaerobic bacteria is termed as sludge digestion. A portion of solids
is converted into liquid and gases due to which the volume is reduced by 60-75%.
Necessity of Sludge Digestion: The following are the necessity of sludge digestion
To destroy pathogenic bacteria.
To reduce the volume of sludge so that it can be disposed of easily.
To obtain combustible gases.
To obtain good fertiliser.
To reduce the moisture content for the facility of handling and transporting.
The sludge digestion is done in sludge digesters. There are 2 types of sludge digesters.
1. SLUDGE DIGESTION TANK
Constructional features
1.Enclosure tank : The enclosure tank is generally circular in shape and is constructed with R.C.C.
The diameter of the tank is varies from 5-20 m and depth varies from 3-5m.however the actual size
depends upon in the volume of the sludge. The floor of the tank is made sloping like hopper and the
slope is generally 1:2 or 1:3.
2. Gas Dome: A gas dome is provided with the floating roof for the collection of gas formed during
the process of digestion.
3.Inlet and Outlet: An inlet pipe is provided for the entry of raw sludge. A sludge outlet pipe is
provided at the bottom. Supernatant liquid outlets are provided at different levels. A gas outlet pipe
is provided at the top for drawing the gases from dome.
4. Mixing Device: A suitable mixing device should be provided for mixing the incoming raw sludge
with the digested sludge.
5.Scum breaking device: Some devices should be provided to break up the scum which may form
at the top surface.
Working principles
1. The raw sludge is allowed to enter the tank through the inlet pipe and is thrown at the centre of
the tank.
2. The sludge is digested by the decomposition of complex organic matters by anaerobic bacteria.
3. The digested sludge is settled at the bottom of the tank which is withdrawn through the outlet
valve and left for drying. The gases are collected at the dome. The gases are withdrawn through
the outlet pipe and are used as fuel.
4. The supernatant liquid is collected, at the space between the digested sludge zone and the gas
dome. This illiquid is withdrawn from different levels and disposed of in the natural water course.
2. IMHOFF TANK: In Inhoff tank, the sedimentation and digestion are carried out simultaneously.
The following are the parts and working of Inhoff tank.
(a) Shape : It is circular in shape with hopper like bottom and constructed in R.C.C.
(b) Sedimentation Chamber: it is the central zone of imhoff tank. The sewage containing heavy
sludge from the secondary clarifier is allowed to enter this chamber and is detained for specified
period.
(c) Baffle plates and Slots : The tank consists of baffle plates with hopper like bottom. Slots are
provided between the baffle plates and the body of the tank. The sludge is generally settled down
through the slots and deposited in the digestion chamber.
(d) Digestion Chamber: This is the lower part of the Inhoff tank. In this chamber, the sludge is
digested under anaerobic condition.
(e) Neutral Zone: The space between the slot and the top digestion chamber is known as neutral
zone. The depth of this zone is generally 30m. This zone prevents the entry of digested sludge into
the sedimentation chamber.
(f) Gas Chamber:It is the upper zone of the Inhoff tank. In this chamber, the gases (mainly
methane) are collected which are withdrawn and used as fuel.
(g) Sludge Removal: The digested sludge from the digestion tank is withdrawn through the sludge
removal pipe and taken to the drying bed.
DISPOSAL OF DIGESTED SLUDGE:- The sludge obtained from all the sources has an
objectionable odour and it possesses the property of pollution if not properly disposed of. The
following are the methods of sludge disposal.
1. The sludge is disposed by spreading on drying bed to a thickness of 30cm. After 7 days, the
sludge is ready to removed and stored suitably for the use as manure. It should not come in contact
with vegetables and fruits directly on soil.
2. The sludge is disposed by spreading over barren land at an interval of about 7 months and
ploughed frequently which enhances the fertility of the land.
3. The sludge is disposed by pouring in trenches on barren land. The trenches are excavated on land
perpendicular to each other at an interval of disposal period (about 1 month).
4. Where there is no utility of sludge, very easy and cheap method of sludge disposal is throwing
the sludge into the deep sea very far away from the shore ensuring that the sludge may not return to
the shore.
5. The sludge is disposed by incineration. The sludge is burnt in incinerator of flash type (consists
of a tower) or multiple hearth type (consists of a furnace). Ashes from incinerated sludge is used as
a landfill .
6. Lagooning is one of the process of sludge disposal. A lagoon is an artificial pond of depth of
about 1m with the embankments on 2 sides. The lagoon is filled up with wet sludge and left for
few months.The sludge is dried and cracks are formed on the surface. Then the dried sludge is
removed and used as manure. This is a very cheap method, if sufficient land is available.
ISOLATED TREATMENT UNITS
A. SEPTIC TANK:- Septic tank is based on the principle of sedimentation of sewage and digestion
of sludge. In this tank the sewage is detained for some period. During this detention period, the
sewage is decomposed by anaerobic bacteria and the sludge is deposited at the bottom (as
sedimentation tank). The digestion of sludge is carried out by the anaerobic bacteria (as digestion
tank). The effluent is clear and it is discharged into the soak pit constructed at a suitable place.
Use : the septic tank is suitable for the towns where it is not possible to establish the water carriage
system. It is provided in residential buildings, hostels, hotels, hospitals, schools, colleges, etc.
Constructional features: Fig shows a septic tank. The following are the constructional features of
septic tank:
(i) It is a rectangular tank constructed with brick masonry over concrete foundation. The length is
usually 3 times the breadth.
ii) The liquid depth varies from 100-180 cm.
(iii) A free board of 30-50-cm is provided above the liquid level.
(iv)The inlet pipe and outlet pipe consist of ‘T’ or ‘elbow‘ which are submerged to a depth of about
25cm below the liquid level
(v)The outlet level is about 15cm lower than the inlet level.
(vi) The inside surface of tank should be plastered and finished with neat cement polish to make it
complete watertight.
(vii) For smaller tank single baffle wall should be provided. But for larger tank two baffles should
be provided near both the ends.
(viii) The top of the baffle should be at least 15cm above the liquid level.
(ix) Openings should be provided near the bottom of the baffle for the flow of effluent from first
chamber to second chamber. Sometimes, hanging baffles may be provided.
(x) R.C.C. slab with manhole is provided at the top of the tank.
(xi) Ventilation pipe is provided for the removal of foul gas.
Working Of Septic Tank: The fresh sewage from the latrines enters the first chamber directly
where the scum start floating at the beginning. Within few days, the anaerobic bacteria decompose
the scum and sludge is formed which is settled down at the bottom of the tank, and it is digested
further by those bacteria. The effluent from the first chamber flows to the second chamber through
the opening in the baffle wall and finally disposed of to the soak pit. During the decomposition, the
gases like carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen sulphide are formed which are released through
the vent pipe. Due to the deposition of sludge, the capacity of the tank goes on reducing gradually.
So, the tank should be cleared every year, or at some reasonable period.
Design Aspects: Following are the design aspects of the septic tanks:
(i) Capacity: The volume of septic tank is decided by taking into consideration the quantity of flow
and detention period. It can also be designed on per capita basis which varies from 60-110 litres
person to be served by the septic tank. The pace for sludge is kept usually at the rate of 15 to 45
litres per capita per year.
(ii) Detention Period: The detention period varies from 12 to 72 hours, the common being 24 hours.
(iii) Freeboard: This should be about 400mm to 600mm.
(iv) Shape: The septic tanks are generally rectangular in shape . The ratio of length to width is about
2 to 4.
(vi) If the soaking capacity of the pit is destroyed, it should be cleaned and filling materials may be
replaced.
6. TRICKLING FILTER Trickling filter is a method of filtration of sewage. The rate filtration is
high as compared to contact bed. The principle of trickling filter is that the bacterial film which is
formed around the filtering media is the source of formation of the bacterial colonies. These bacteria
decompose the organic matters for their survival. So the trickling filter serves the purpose of
breaking the complex organic matter by fertilising the bacteria.
Elements of trickling filter
Construction of filter: Generally the trickling filter is circular in shape. It consists of 4 nos. of
rotary distributing arms which have perforation at the bottom. The arms are fitted with a central
support which is rotated by a suitable device. The floor of the filter is made of concrete and its slope
is made towards the periphery.
Dosing of filter: A siphonic dosing tank is provided with the trickling filter for intermittent supply
of effluent over the filtering media.
Filtering media: It consists of broken stones, clinkers etc with their size varying from 20-50mm.
The larger size stones are placed at the bottom layer and the smaller size stones are arranged towards
the top. The stones or clinkers should of good quality.
Under drainage system: It consists of a channel along the periphery of the filter. The channel is
again connected to the outlet pipe.
Ventilation: The ventilation of the filter is necessary for the smooth working of the filter. The
ventilation is achieved by providing vent pipes at the periphery.
Working of trickling filter- Trickling filter consists of RCC rectangular or circular tank provided
with filter media (stones or broken bricks material) and under drainage system to collect the
effluent. Revolving distributor having four arms. Sewage is distributed or sprays by distribution
arms through which it trickles to the under drains. As sewage trickles through the filter media, a
biological slime layer consisting of aerobic bacteria build up around the media surfaces in two
weeks makes the filter ready for use. Organic matter in sewage is absorbed by bacteria in slime
layer. It removes 80% colloidal matter, reduces B.O.D. up to 75%. It gives highly nitrified and
stabilized effluent and flexibility in operation.
Cleaning: After working for long period, the upper surface of the media may be clogged by
sediments. The rate of filtration may be decreased or stopped due to this. At that time , the upper
layer of stones are scrapped off and fresh layer of stones of same size are replaced properly.
S.N. Particulars Low rate trickling filter High rate trickling filter
1. Operation cost. More Less
2. Interval of closing. Should not be more than 5 min. Should not be more than 15 sec.
3. Filter depth. 1.8 to 2.4 m 0.9 to 1.8 m
4. Effluent. The effluent is highly nitrified The effluent is nitrified upto nitrite
and stabilized. stage only and hence it is of an
inferior quality.
5. Land required. More. Less.
6. Method of operation. Less flexible and reuires less More flexible and reuires more
skilled supervision. skilled supervision.
7. Quantity of Black and highly oxidized with Brown and not fully oxidized with
secondary sludge slight fine particles. fine particles.
produced.
8. Loading rate of filter. 1000-2200 kg/ha.m/day. 8000-14000 kg/ha.m/day.
Advantages:-
1. It is cheap, economical and easy in operation.
2. Rate of filter loading is much higher.
3. It is self-cleansing filter.
4. Mechanical wear and tear is very less.
5. It is suitable to carry the biological process.
6. Do not require any skilled supervision as the working is simple.
Disadvantages:-
1. It needs large area to install.
2. High construction cost.
3. Develop bad smell and nuisance.
4. There is high head loss through filter.
5. Requires primary treatment.
6. ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS Definition The sludge which is made powerful by
the process of aeration is known as activated sludge. It contains high content of oxygen and high
no. of aerobic bacteria. It possesses unusual property to oxidise the organic matters.
Action:- The following are the actions of activated sludge:
(i) The activated sludge when mixed with sewage, the microorganisms multiply rapidly.
(ii) The activated sludge oxidises the organic substances rapidly.
(iii) It converts the colloidal matters to settleable size rapidly.
Operational features:-
1. Mixing of activated sludge : Some portion of the activated sludge settled at the bottom of
secondary settling tank is recirculated and mixed with the effluent of primary settling tank just
before its entry to the aeration tank.
2. Aeration: Aeration tank is the first unit of the activated sludge process. Here, the effluent of the
primary settling tank and air are brought in intimate contact by agitating with some mechanical
devices. The devices are as follows:
a) Air diffuser system
b) Mechanical aeration system
c) Combination of Air diffuser and mechanical aeration system
Air diffuser system may be achieved by (i) Jet diffuser (ii) Plate diffuser (iii) Tube diffuser
Sludge settlement: The secondary sedimentation tank is the second unit. After agitation in aeration
tank, the effluent is taken to the secondary settling tank and detained for a specified period, generally
of 1 hr. During this detention period, the sludge is termed as activated sludge. Some portion of this
sludge is recirculated to aeration tank and the remaining portion is sent to digestion tank. Thus, the
cycle of activated sludge process goes on working.
Advantages:-
1. Intial cost is less.
2. Small dispoal to work area due to compactness of design.
3. Clear effluent and no fly nuisance.
4. Small operational head.
5. Degree of purity can be varied as per our desire.
6. No need of plumbing and effluent is free from offensive odour.
Disadvantages:-
1. High operational cost.
2. Troublesome, when it goes out of order.
3. Large quantity of wet sludge.
4. Skilled supervision is necessary.
5. The process is sensitive to certain types of industrial wastes.
S.N. Particulars Trickling filter Activated Sludge Process
1. Land required Large small
2. Initial cost High Low
3. Operating cost Low high
4. Skilled supervision Little much
5. Nature of sewage Suitable for strong sewage. Sensitive to shocks of strong sewage.
6. Pumping Sometimes needed. Not needed.
Disposal of sewage:-
Oxidation Pond:- An artificial pond having shallow depth in which sewage can be retained for
a sufficient time so as to satisfy the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is termed as oxidation
pond or stabilisation pond.
The oxidation pond is an excavation of rectangular ditch of shallow depth. The sewage is stored
in this pond for a considerable time. During this period, the sewage is decomposed by the action
of aerobic bacteria, algae and sunshine. That means, it is a natural method of sewage treatment.
The aerobic bacteria absorb oxygen from the atmosphere for their survival and break up the
organic matters in sewage to simple stable compounds.
Construction and Operation The oxidation pond is constructed by excavating a rectangular
ditch of shallow depth. The length varies from 50-100m, the width from 30-50m and the depth
varies from 0.9-1.5m. The pond is divided into several compartments. The sewage is allowed to
enter the pond through the inlet channel at one corner. The sewage flows in a zig-zag manner
until the whole pond is filled up. The detention period varies from 7-14 days. The decomposition
of sewage is achieved by the aerobic bacteria. After complete decomposition black humus is
obtained which may be used as manure.
Advantages:- (a) It is a natural method of decomposition, so it is cheap.
(b) Its operation and maintenance is simple.
(c) It is highly efficient in removing B.O.D.
Disadvantages:- (a) Large area is required for treatment.
(b) It creates bad smell and mosquito nuisance.
(c) In rainy season or cloudy weather, the sewage becomes septic and this may
cause insanitary condition.
OXIDATION DITCH:- The oxidation ditches are aeration units in the shape of long channels
150 to 1000m long, 1 to 5m wide and 1 to 1.5m deep. mechanical aeration devices mainly consists
of cylindrical cage about 75cm in diameter made of C.I., angle iron webs on which short
(15cmx5cmx5cm), Tees or angle irons are mounted. These cylinders are kept at such a level that
about 10 to 15 cm of them dipped in sewage. These cylinders are rotated at about 75 r.p.m . The
rotor aerator aerates the sewage at a velocity of more than 30 cm/sec and keeps the solid content
of the sewage in suspension condition. After aeration the sewage is allowed to settle in the settling
tanks. The activated sludge is returned back to the aeration units. No primary treatments are given
to sewage, so the methods are cross simplified. Sometime it acts as a settling unit. The rotors are
stopped for 2 hours and the suspended solids settle in the bed, the effluent is taken out and disposed.