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Nazi concentration camps

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For other Nazi internment facilities, see Types of Nazi camps and Extermination camp.
Nazi concentration camps

Prisoners hauling earth for the construction of the "Russian camp" at Mauthausen
Main camps

Organization
Topics
Personnel
Prisoners
Dachau

Mauthausen

Ravensbrück

Flossenbürg

Sachsenhausen
Buchenwald

Neuengamme

Auschwitz

Majdanek

Kraków-Płaszów

Natzweiler-Struthof

Stutthof

Bergen-Belsen

Gross-Rosen

Mittelbau

Warsaw

Hinzert
All of the main camps except Arbeitsdorf, Herzogenbusch, Niederhagen, Kauen, Kaiserwald,
and Vaivara (1937 borders). Color-coded by date of establishment as a main camp: blue for
1933–1937, gray for 1938–1939, red for 1940–1941, green for 1942, yellow for 1943–1944.

From 1933 to 1945, Nazi Germany operated more than a thousand concentration camps[a] on its
own territory and in parts of German-occupied Europe.

The first camps were established in March 1933 immediately after Adolf Hitler became
Chancellor of Germany. Following the 1934 purge of the SA, the concentration camps were run
exclusively by the SS via the Concentration Camps Inspectorate and later the SS Main Economic
and Administrative Office. Initially, most prisoners were members of the Communist Party of
Germany, but as time went on different groups were arrested, including "habitual criminals",
"asocials", and Jews. After the beginning of World War II, people from German-occupied
Europe were imprisoned in the concentration camps. Following Allied military victories, the
camps were gradually liberated in 1944 and 1945, although hundreds of thousands of prisoners
died in the death marches.

More than 1,000 concentration camps (including subcamps) were established during the history
of Nazi Germany and around 1.65 million people were registered prisoners in the camps at one
point. Around a million died during their imprisonment. Many of the former camps have been
turned into museums commemorating the victims of the Nazi regime, while the camp system has
become a symbol of violence and terror.
Contents
 1 Background
 2 History
o 2.1 Early camps (1933–1934)
o 2.2 Institutionalization (1934–1937)
o 2.3 Rapid expansion (1937–1939)
o 2.4 World War II
 3 Organization
 4 Prisoners
 5 Conditions
 6 Forced labor
 7 Public perception
 8 Statistics
 9 Death marches and liberation
 10 Legacy
 11 Sources
o 11.1 Notes
o 11.2 Citations
o 11.3 Sources

Background
Concentration camps are conventionally held to have been invented by the British during the
Second Boer War, but historian Dan Stone argues that there were precedents in other countries
and that camps were "the logical extension of phenomena that had long characterized colonial
rule".[3] Although the word "concentration camp" has acquired the connotation of murder because
of the Nazi concentration camps, the British camps in South Africa did not involve systematic
murder. The German Empire also established concentration camps during the Herero and
Namaqua genocide (1904–1907); the death rate of these camps was 45 percent, twice that of the
British camps.[4]

During the First World War, eight to nine million prisoners of war were held in prisoner-of-war
camps, some of them at locations which were later the sites of Nazi camps, such as
Theresienstadt and Mauthausen. Many prisoners held by Germany died as a result of intentional
withholding of food and dangerous working conditions in violation of the 1907 Hague
Convention.[5] In countries such as France, Belgium, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany,
civilians deemed to be of "enemy origin" were denaturalized. Hundreds of thousands were
interned and subject to forced labor in harsh conditions.[6] During the Armenian genocide
perpetrated by the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Armenians were held in camps during their
deportation into the Syrian Desert.[7] In postwar Germany, "unwanted foreigners"—primarily
Eastern European Jews—were warehoused at Cottbus-Sielow and Stargard.[8]

History
Early camps (1933–1934)

Main article: Early camps

Prisoners guarded by SA men line up in the yard of Oranienburg, 6 April 1933

On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany after striking a backroom deal
with the previous chancellor, Franz von Papen.[9] The Nazis had no plan for concentration camps
prior to their seizure of power.[10] The concentration camp system arose in the following months
due to the desire to suppress tens of thousands of Nazi opponents in Germany. The Reichstag fire
in February 1933 was the pretext for mass arrests. The Reichstag Fire Decree eliminated the right
to personal freedom enshrined in the Weimar Constitution and provided a legal basis for
detention without trial.[9][11] The first camp was Nohra, established on 3 March 1933 in a school.
[12]

The number of prisoners in 1933–1934 is difficult to determine; historian Jane Caplan estimated
it at 50,000, with arrests perhaps exceeding 100,000.[12] Eighty percent of prisoners were
members of the Communist Party of Germany and ten percent members of the Social
Democratic Party of Germany.[13] Many prisoners were released in late 1933, and after a
Christmas amnesty, there were only a few dozen camps left.[14] About 70 camps were established
in 1933, in any convenient structure that could hold prisoners, including vacant factories,
prisons, country estates, schools, workhouses, and castles.[12][11] There was no national system;[14]
camps were operated by local police, SS, and SA, state interior ministries, or a combination of
the above.[12][11] The early camps in 1933–1934 were heterogenous and fundamentally differed
from the post-1935 camps in organization, conditions, and the groups imprisoned.[15]

Institutionalization (1934–1937)

Heinrich Himmler inspects Dachau on 8 May 1936.

On 26 June 1933, Himmler appointed Theodor Eicke the second commandant of Dachau, which
became the model followed by other camps. Eicke drafted the Disciplinary and Penal Code, a
manual which specified draconian punishments for disobedient prisoners.[16] He also created a
system of prisoner functionaries, which later developed into the camp elders, block elders, and
kapo of later camps.[17] In May 1934, Lichtenburg was taken over by the SS from the Prussian
bureaucracy, marking the beginning of a transition set in motion by Heinrich Himmler, then
chief of the Gestapo (secret police).[18] Following the purge of the SA on 30 June 1934, in which
Eicke took a leading role, the remaining SA-run camps were taken over by the SS.[13][19] In
December 1934, Eicke was appointed the first inspector of the Concentration Camps
Inspectorate (IKL); only camps managed by the IKL were designated "concentration camps".[13]

Prisoners at Sachsenhausen, 19 December 1938

In early 1934, the number of prisoners was still falling and it was uncertain if the system would
continue to exist. By mid-1935, there were only five camps, holding 4,000 prisoners, and 13
employees at the central IKL office. At the same time, 100,000 people were imprisoned in
German jails, a quarter of those for political offenses.[20] Believing Nazi Germany to be imperiled
by internal enemies, Himmler called for a war against the "organized elements of sub-humanity",
including communists, socialists, Jews, Freemasons, and criminals. Himmler won Hitler's
backing and was appointed Chief of German Police on 17 June 1936.[21] Of the six SS camps
operational as of mid-1936, only two (Dachau and Lichtenburg) still existed by 1938. In the
place of the camps that closed down, Eicke opened new camps at Sachsenhausen (September
1936) and Buchenwald (July 1937). Unlike earlier camps, the newly opened camps were
purpose-built, isolated from the population and the rule of law, enabling the SS to exert absolute
power.[22] Prisoners, who previously wore civilian clothes, were forced to wear uniforms with
Nazi concentration camp badges. The number of prisoners began to rise again, from 4,761 on 1
November 1936 to 7,750 by the end of 1937.[23]

Rapid expansion (1937–1939)

Forced labor at Sachsenhausen brickworks

By the end of June 1938, the prisoner population had expanded threefold in the previous six
months, to 24,000 prisoners. The increase was fueled by arrests of those considered habitual
criminals or asocials.[23] According to SS chief Heinrich Himmler, the "criminal" prisoners at
concentration camps needed to be isolated from society because they had committed offenses of
a sexual or violent nature. In fact, most of the criminal prisoners were working-class men who
had resorted to petty theft to support their families.[24] Nazi raids of perceived asocials, including
the arrest of 10,000 people in June 1938,[25] targeted homeless people and the mentally ill, as well
as the unemployed.[26] Although the Nazis had previously targeted social outsiders, the influx of
new prisoners meant that political prisoners became a minority.[25]

To house the new prisoners, three new camps were established: Flossenbürg (May 1938) near the
Czechoslovak border, Mauthausen (August 1938) in territory annexed from Austria, and
Ravensbrück (May 1939) the first purpose-built camp for female prisoners.[23] The mass arrests
were partly motivated by economic factors. Recovery from the Great Depression lowered the
unemployment rate, so "work-shy" elements would be arrested to keep others working harder. At
the same time, Himmler was also focusing on exploiting prisoners' labor within the camp system.
Hitler's architect, Albert Speer, had grand plans for creating monumental Nazi architecture. The
SS company German Earth and Stone Works (DEST) was set up with funds from Speer's agency
for exploiting prisoner labour to extract building materials. Flossenbürg and Mauthausen had
been built adjacent to quarries, and DEST also set up brickworks at Buchenwald and
Sachsenhausen.[27][28]

Political prisoners were also arrested in larger numbers, including Jehovah's Witnesses and
German émigrés who returned home. Czech and Austrian anti-Nazis were arrested after the
annexation of their countries in 1938 and 1939.[29] Jews were also increasingly targeted, with
2,000 Viennese Jews arrested after the Nazi annexation. After the Kristallnacht pogrom in
November 1938, 26,000 Jewish men were deported to concentration camps following mass
arrests, overwhelming the capacity of the system. These prisoners were subject to unprecedented
abuse leading to hundreds of deaths—more people died at Dachau in the four months after
Kristallnacht than in the previous five years. Most of the Jewish prisoners were soon released,
often after promising to emigrate.[29][30]

World War II

At the end of August 1939, prisoners of Flossenbürg, Sachsenhausen, and other concentration
camps were murdered as part of false flag attacks staged by Germany to justify the invasion of
Poland.[31] During the war, the camps became increasingly brutal and lethal due to the plans of
the Nazi leadership: most victims died in the second half of the war.[32] Five new camps were
opened between the start of the war and the end of 1941: Neuengamme (early 1940), outside of
Hamburg; Auschwitz (June 1940), which initially operated as a concentration camp for Polish
resistance activists; Gross-Rosen (May 1941) in Silesia; and Natzweiler (May 1941) in territory
annexed from France.[33][34] The first satellite camps were also established, administratively
subordinated to one of the main camps.[33] The number of prisoners tripled from 21,000 in
August 1939 to around 70,000 to 80,000 in early 1942.[34] This expansion was driven by the
demand for forced labor and later the invasion of the Soviet Union; new camps were sent up near
quarries (Natzweiler and Gross-Rosen) or brickworks (Neuengamme).[33][35]
Concentration camp prisoners at a Messerschmitt AG aircraft factory, probably 1943

In April 1941, the high command of the SS ordered the murder of ill and exhausted prisoners
who could no longer work (especially those deemed racially inferior). Victims were selected by
camp personnel or traveling doctors, and were removed from the camps to be murdered in
euthanasia centers. By April 1942, when the operation finished, at least 6,000 and as many as
20,000 people had been killed[36][37]—the first act of systematic killing in the camp system.[38]
Beginning in August 1941, selected Soviet prisoners of war were killed within the concentration
camps, usually within a few days of their arrival. By mid-1942, when the operation finished, at
least 34,000 Soviet prisoners had been murdered. At Auschwitz, the SS used Zyklon B to kill
Soviet prisoners in improvised gas chambers.[39][36]

In 1942, the emphasis of the camps shifted to the war effort; by 1943, two-thirds of prisoners
were employed by war industries.[40] The death rate skyrocketed with an estimated half of the
180,000 prisoners admitted between July and November 1942 dying by the end of that interval.
Orders to reduce deaths in order to spare inmate productivity had little effect in practice.[41][42]
During the second half of the war, Auschwitz swelled in size—fueled by the deportation of
hundreds of thousands of Jews—and became the center of the camp system. It was the deadliest
concentration camp and Jews sent there faced a virtual death sentence even if they were not
immediately killed, as most were. In August 1943, 74,000 of the 224,000 registered prisoners in
all SS concentration camps were in Auschwitz.[43] In 1943 and early 1944, additional
concentration camps—Riga in Latvia, Kovno in Lithuania, Vaivara in Estonia, and Kraków-
Plaszów in Poland—were converted from ghettos or labor camps; these camps were populated
almost entirely by Jewish prisoners.[44][45] Along with the new main camps, many satellite camps
were set up to more effectively leverage prisoner labor for the war effort.[46]

Organization
Main articles: Concentration Camps Inspectorate and SS-Totenkopfverbande
Fence at Flossenbürg. Expensive security measures distinguished the concentration camps from
other Nazi detention facilities.[47]

Beginning in the mid-1930s, the camps were organized according to the following structure:
commandant/adjutant, political department, protective custody camp, administration [de], camp
doctor, and guard command.[48] In November 1940, the IKL came under the control of the SS
Main Command Office and the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) took on the responsibility of
detaining and releasing concentration camp prisoners.[49] In 1942, the IKL was subordinated to
the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office (SS-WVHA) to improve the camps'
integration into the war economy.[50] Despite changes in the structure, the IKL remained directly
responsible to Himmler.[49]

The camps under the IKL were guarded by members of the SS-Totenkopfverbande ("deaths'
head"). The guards were housed in barracks adjacent to the camp and their duties were to guard
the perimeter of the camp as well as work details. They were officially forbidden from entering
the camps, although this rule was not followed.[51] Towards the end of the 1930s, the SS-
Totenkopfverbande expanded its operations and set up military units, which followed the
Einsatzgruppen death squads and massacred Polish Jews as well as Soviet prisoners of war.[52]
Older general SS personnel, and those wounded or disabled, replaced those assigned to combat
duties.[53] As the war progressed, a more diverse group was recruited to guard the expanding
camp system, including female guards (who were not part of the SS). During the second half of
the war, army and air force personnel were recruited, making up as many as 52 percent of guards
by January 1945. The manpower shortage was reduced by relying on guard dogs and delegating
some duties to prisoners.[54] Corruption was widespread.[55]

Most of the camp SS leadership was middle-class and came from the war youth generation [de],
who were hard-hit by the economic crisis and feared decline in status. Most had joined the Nazi
movement by September 1931 and were offered full-time employment in 1933.[56] SS leaders
typically lived with their wives and children near the camps where they worked, often engaging
prisoners for domestic labor.[57] Perpetration by this leadership was based on their tight social
bonds, a perceived common sense that the aims of the system were good, as well as the
opportunity for material gain.[58]

Prisoners
New prisoners who survived a weeklong trip in open boxcars awaiting disinfection at
Mauthausen

Prisoners lined up for roll call at Sachsenhausen, 1941

Before World War II, most prisoners in the concentration camps were Germans.[49] After the
expansion of Nazi Germany, people from countries occupied by the Wehrmacht were targeted
and detained in concentration camps.[59][49] In Western Europe, arrests focused on resistance
fighters and saboteurs, but in Eastern Europe arrests included mass roundups aimed at the
implementation of Nazi population policy and the forced recruitment of workers. This led to a
predominance of Eastern Europeans, especially Poles, who made up the majority of the
population of some camps. By the end of the war, only 5 to 10 percent of the camp population
was "Reich Germans" from Germany or Austria.[49] In late 1941, many Soviet prisoners of war
were transferred to special annexes of the concentration camps. Intended as a labor reserve, they
were deliberately subject to mass starvation.[36]

Most Jews who were persecuted and killed during the Holocaust were never prisoners in
concentration camps.[49] Significant numbers of Jews were imprisoned beginning in November
1938 because of Kristallnacht, after which they were always overrepresented as prisoners.[60]
During the height of the Holocaust from 1941 to 1943, the Jewish population of the
concentration camps was low.[30] Extermination camps for the mass murder of Jews—Kulmhof,
Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka—were set up outside the concentration camp system.[61][62] The
existing IKL camps Auschwitz and Majdanek gained additional function as extermination
camps.[43][63] After mid-1943, some forced-labor camps for Jews and some Nazi ghettos were
converted into concentration camps.[30] Other Jews entered the concentration camp system after
being deported to Auschwitz.[64] Despite many deaths, as many as 200,000 Jews survived the war
inside the camp system.[30]

Conditions
Inside a barracks at Kaufering IV, a subcamp of Dachau, after liberation

Conditions worsened after the outbreak of war due to reduction in food, worsening housing, and
increase in work. Deaths from disease and malnutrition increased, outpacing other causes of
death. However, the food provided was usually sufficient to sustain life.[49] Life in the camps has
often been depicted as a Darwinian struggle for survival, although some mutual aid existed.
Individual efforts to survive, sometimes at others' expense, could hamper the aggregate survival
rate.[65]

The influx of non-German prisoners from 1939 changed the previous hierarchy based on triangle
to one based on nationality.[49] Jews, Slavic prisoners, and Spanish Republicans were targeted for
especially harsh treatment which led to a high mortality rate during the first half of the war. In
contrast, Reich Germans enjoyed favorable treatment compared to other nationalities.[49]

A minority of prisoners obtained substantially better treatment than the rest because they were
prisoner functionaries (mostly Germans) or skilled laborers.[42] Prisoner functionaries served at
the whim of the SS and could be dismissed for insufficient strictness. As a result, sociologist
Wolfgang Sofsky emphasizes that "They took over the role of the SS in order to prevent SS
encroachment" and other prisoners remembered them for their brutality.[66]

Forced labor
Main article: Forced labor in Nazi concentration camps

Mauthausen prisoners forced to work at the Wiener Graben quarry, 1942

Hard labor was a fundamental component of the concentration camp system and an aspect in the
daily life of prisoners.[67] However, the forced labor deployment was largely determined by
external political and economic factors that drove demand for labor.[68] During the first years of
the camps, unemployment was high and prisoners were forced to perform economically
valueless but strenuous tasks, such as farming on moorland (such as at Esterwegen).[35] Other
prisoners had to work on constructing and expanding the camps.[69] In the years before World
War II, quarrying and bricklaying for the SS company DEST played a central role in prisoner
labor. Despite prisoners' increasing economic importance, conditions declined; prisoners were
seen as expendable so each influx of prisoners was followed by increasing death rate.[70][71]

Private sector cooperation remained marginal to the overall concentration camp system for the
first half of the war.[36][72] After the failure to take Moscow in late 1941, the demand for
armaments increased. The WVHA sought out partnerships with private industry and Speer's
Armaments Ministry.[73] In September 1942, Himmler and Speer agreed to use prisoners in
armaments production and to repair damage from Allied bombing. Local authorities and private
companies could hire prisoners at a fixed daily cost. This decision paved the way for the
establishment of many subcamps located near workplaces.[73][74] More workers were obtained
through transfers from prisons and forced labor programs, causing the prisoner population to
double twice by mid-1944.[73] Subcamps where prisoners did construction work had significantly
higher death rates than those that worked in munitions manufacture.[75] By the end of the war,
main camps were functioning more and more as transfer stations from which prisoners were
redirected to subcamps.[45]

At their peak in 1945, concentration camp prisoners made up 3 percent of workers in Germany.
[76]
Historian Marc Buggeln estimates that no more than 1 percent of the labor for Germany's
arms production came from concentration camp prisoners.[76]

Public perception

Gate of Natzweiler-Struthof after liberation

This factory building in Dresden was the site of a subcamp of Flossenbürg

Arrests of Germans in 1933 were often accompanied by public humiliation or beatings. If

released, prisoners might return home with visible marks of abuse or psychological breakdown.
Using a "dual strategy of publicity and secrecy", the regime directed terror both at the direct
victim as well as the entire society in order to eliminate its opponents and deter resistance.[77]
Beginning in March 1933, detailed reports on camp conditions were published in the press.[78]
Nazi propaganda demonized the prisoners as race traitors, sexual degenerates, and criminals and
presented the camps as sites of re-education.[79][78] After 1933, reports in the press were scarce but
larger numbers of people were arrested and people who interacted with the camps, such as those
who registered deaths, could make conclusions about the camp conditions and discuss with
acquaintances.[80]

The visibility of the camps heightened during the war due to increasing prisoner numbers, the
establishment of many subcamps in proximity to German civilians, and the use of labor
deployments outside the camps.[81] These subcamps, often established in town centers in such
locations as schools, restaurants, barracks, factory buildings, or military camps, were joint
ventures between industry and the SS. An increasing number of German civilians interacted with
the camps: entrepreneurs and landowners provided land or services, doctors decided which
prisoners were healthy enough to continue working, foremen oversaw labor deployments, and
administrators helped with logistics.[82] SS construction brigades were in demand by
municipalities to clear bomb debris and rebuild.[83][84] For the prisoners, chances of survival rarely
improved despite the contact with the outside world, although those few Germans who tried to
help did not encounter punishment.[85] Germans were often shocked to see the reality of the
concentration camps up close, but reluctant to aid the prisoners because of fear that they would
be imprisoned as well.[86] Others found the poor state of the prisoners to confirm Nazi
propaganda about them.[87]

Historian Robert Gellately argues that "the Germans generally turned out to be proud and
pleased that Hitler and his henchmen were putting away certain kinds of people who did not fit
in, or who were regarded as 'outsiders', 'asocials', 'useless eaters', or 'criminals'".[88] According to
historian Karola Fings, fear of arrest did not undermine public support for the camps because
Germans saw the prisoners rather than the guards as criminals.[89] She writes that demand for SS
construction brigades "points to general acceptance of the concentration camps".[83]

Statistics

Number of prisoners in the system

Timeline of the establishment of camps (black for main camps, orange for early camps and
subcamps)

There were 27 main camps and, according to historian Nikolaus Wachsmann's estimate, more
than 1,100 satellite camps.[90] This is a cumulative figure that counts all the subcamps that existed
at one point; historian Karin Orth estimates the number of subcamps to have been 186 at the end
of 1943, 341 or more in June 1944, and at least 662 in January 1945.[91]

The camps were concentrated in prewar Germany and to a lesser extent territory annexed to
Germany. No camps were built on the territory of Germany's allies that enjoyed even nominal
independence.[92] Each camp housed either men, women, or a mixed population. Women's camps
were mostly for armaments production and located primarily in northern Germany, Thuringia, or
the Sudetenland, while men's camps had a wider geographical distribution. Sex segregation
decreased over the course of the war and mixed camps predominated outside of Germany's
prewar borders.[93]

Around 1.65 million people were registered prisoners in the camps, of whom, according to
Wagner, nearly a million died during their imprisonment.[63] Historian Adam Tooze counts the
number of survivors at no more than 475,000, calculating that at least 1.1 million of the
registered prisoners must have died. According to his estimate, at least 800,000 of the murdered
prisoners were not Jewish.[94] In addition to the registered prisoners who died, a million Jews
were gassed upon arriving in Auschwitz; including these victims, the total death toll is estimated
at 1.8 to more than two million.[95][96] Most of the fatalities occurred during the second half of
World War II, including at least a third of the 700,000 prisoners who were registered as of
January 1945.[95]

Death marches and liberation

Major evacuations of the camps occurred in mid-1944 from the Baltics and eastern Poland,
January 1945 from western Poland and Silesia, and in March 1945 from concentration camps in
Germany.[97] Both Jewish and non-Jewish prisoners died in large numbers as a consequence of
these death marches.[98]

Many prisoners died after liberation due to their poor physical condition.[99]
The camps as seen by Western Allied liberators in 1945 upon their liberation have played a
prominent war in perceptions of the camp system as a whole.[100]

Legacy

Memorial at Buchenwald

Since their liberation, the Nazi concentration camp system has come to symbolize violence and
terror in the modern world.[101][102] After the war, most Germans rejected the crimes associated
with the concentration camps, while denying any knowledge or responsibility.[103] Under the
West German policy of Wiedergutmachung (lit. 'making good again'), some survivors of
concentration camps received compensation for their imprisonment. A few perpetrators were put
on trial after the war.[104]

Accounts of the concentration camps—both condemnatory and sympathetic—were publicized

outside of Germany before World War II.[105] Many survivors testified about their experiences or
wrote memoirs after the war. Some of these accounts have become internationally famous, such
as Primo Levi's 1947 book, If This is a Man.[106] The concentration camps have been the subject
of historical writings since Eugen Kogon's 1946 study, Der SS-Staat [de] ("The SS State").[107][108]
Substantial research did not begin until the 1980s. Scholarship has focused on the fate of groups
of prisoners, the organization of the camp system, and aspects such as forced labor.[106] As late as
the 1990s, German local and economic history omitted mention of the camps or presented them
as exclusively the responsibility of the SS.[109] Two scholarly encyclopedias of the concentration
camps have been published: Der Ort des Terrors and Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos.[110]
According to Caplan and Wachsmann, "more books have been published on the Nazi camps than
any other site of detention and terror in history".[111]

Stone argues that the Nazi concentration camp system inspired similar atrocities by other
regimes, including the Argentine military junta during the Dirty War, the Pinochet regime in
Chile, and Pitești Prison in the Romanian People's Republic.[112]

Sources
Notes

1.
 1. German: Konzentrationslager, KL (officially) or KZ (more commonly).[1] The Nazi
concentration camps are distinguished from other types of Nazi camps such as forced-
labor camps, as well as concentration camps operated by Germany's allies.[2]

Citations

1.

 Wachsmann 2015, p. 635, note 9.

  Stone 2017, p. 50.
  Stone 2017, p. 11.
  Stone 2017, pp. 19–20.
  Stone 2017, pp. 23–24.
  Stone 2017, p. 25.
  Stone 2017, p. 28.
  Stone 2017, p. 31.
  White 2009, p. 3.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 19.
  Buggeln 2015, p. 334.
  White 2009, p. 5.
  White 2009, p. 8.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 20.
  Orth 2009a, p. 183.
  White 2009, p. 7.
  White 2009, p. 10.
  Wachsmann 2009, pp. 20–21.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 21.
  Wachsmann 2009, pp. 21–22.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 22.
  Wachsmann 2009, pp. 22–23.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 23.
  Wachsmann 2015, pp. 295–296.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 24.
  Wachsmann 2015, pp. 253–254.
  Wachsmann 2009, pp. 24–25.
  Orth 2009a, pp. 185–186.
  Wachsmann 2009, pp. 25–26.
  Dean 2020, p. 265.
  Wachsmann 2015, pp. 342–343.
  Wachsmann 2015, p. 402.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 27.
  Orth 2009a, p. 186.
  Wagner 2009, p. 130.
  Orth 2009a, p. 188.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 28.
  Orth 2009b, p. 52.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 29.
  Wachsmann 2009, pp. 29–30.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 30.
  Orth 2009a, p. 190.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 31.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 32.
  Orth 2009a, p. 191.
  Wachsmann 2009, p. 34.
  Dean 2020, p. 267.
  Orth 2009b, p. 49.
  Orth 2009a, p. 187.
  Orth 2009b, pp. 52–53.
  Orth 2009b, pp. 45–46.
  Orth 2009b, pp. 46–47.
  Orth 2009b, p. 47.
  Orth 2009b, p. 48.
  Orth 2009b, p. 53.
  Orth 2009b, pp. 49–50.
  Orth 2009b, p. 51.
  Orth 2009b, p. 54.
  Stone 2017, pp. 44–45.
  Stone 2017, p. 44.
  Sofsky 2013, p. 12.
  Wachsmann 2009, pp. 30–31.
  Wagner 2009, p. 127.
  Dean 2020, p. 274.
  Stone 2017, pp. 46–47.
  Buggeln 2014, p. 160.
  Fings 2008, p. 220.
  Wagner 2009, p. 129.
  Orth 2009a, p. 185.
  Buggeln 2015, p. 339.
  Wagner 2009, pp. 130–131.
  Buggeln 2015, p. 342.
  Orth 2009a, p. 189.
  Fings 2009, p. 116.
  Orth 2009a, p. 192.
  Buggeln 2015, p. 359.
  Fings 2009, p. 110.
  Fings 2009, pp. 110–111.
  Stone 2017, pp. 36, 38.
  Fings 2009, pp. 112–113.
  Fings 2009, pp. 113–114.
  Fings 2009, pp. 116–117.
  Fings 2008, p. 217.
  Knowles et al. 2014, pp. 35–36.
  Fings 2009, pp. 117, 119.
  Fings 2009, pp. 117–118.
  Fings 2009, p. 119.
  Gellately 2002, p. vii.
  Fings 2009, p. 113.
  Wachsmann 2015, p. 15.
  Orth 2009a, p. 195, fn 49.
  Knowles et al. 2014, pp. 28, 30.
  Knowles et al. 2014, pp. 38–39.
  Tooze 2006, p. 523.
  Orth 2009a, p. 194.
  Goeschel & Wachsmann 2010, p. 515.
  Blatman 2010, p. 9.
  Blatman 2010, p. 10.
  Blatman 2010, p. 2.
  Stone 2017, p. 54.
  Buggeln 2015, p. 333.
  Stone 2017, p. 39.
  Fings 2009, p. 108.
  Marcuse 2009, p. 204.
  Stone 2017, pp. 35–36.
  Caplan & Wachsmann 2009, p. 5.
  Blatman 2010, p. 17.
  Caplan & Wachsmann 2009, p. 3.
  Fings 2009, p. 114.
  Caplan & Wachsmann 2009, pp. 5–6.
  Caplan & Wachsmann 2009, p. 6.

112.  Stone 2017, p. 81.

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