1.

What is the difference between a general purpose

system and an embedded system?
Ans: So if you say a general purpose system we can say that laptop or computers
are actually general purpose systems. Whereas if you take a printer or a digital
camera these are actually embedded system. Now what is the basic difference
between these two so the general purpose system means for example a computer
it is it can be used to do a lot of applications like you can make use of a computer
to do a lot of applications but embedded systems you can actually use for only a
specific task for example washing machine it can be only used to wash the clothes
and drain them you cannot use it for other purpose for example a printer it can be
only used for taking of printouts but if you talk about a general system like
computer you can actually make the computer do a lot of applications. You can run
a lot of applications in that system whereas for a printer you cannot make it do
other things. So they are very much application specific so that is the basic
difference between a general system and an embedded system.

What is RTOS real-time operating system?

They are operating systems which are giving a lot of importance to deadline so for
a real-time operating system every task has a deadline and every task should be
completed or should be completing within that deadline otherwise the system
cannot perform function or something that serious damage can occur. So that type
of operating system are called real-time operating system now the examples
of rtos are LINUX, UBANTU, VXWORKS all these are examples of real-time
operating systems whereas windows is a non-real-time operating system. Now the
basic difference between these real-time and non-real-time is that if you take the
case of windows. Windows is also an operating system but it is not real-time
because here the importance is more given to the accuracy the accuracy is given
more importance time is not given as much of importance whereas for the case
of rtos time is the most important parameter accuracy is coming next or after time
only. So even if the result is not very accurate but if the processing is done within
that time limit then that type of processing you can actually see in rtos. So anyway
that is the basic difference between real time and non-real time system.
Why embedded systems are less costly?
if you take the case of a printer you only have the required amount of hardware
for taking the print outs or for inserting the paper or for taking the print out so all
these components which we are putting in that embedded system. These are
hardware components which are dedicated ones there is no component which we
are not using in this process.So the components that is hardware or software both
are application specific so unwanted cost is eliminated by doing this so that is why
the embedded systems are less costly.

What is RISC-V?
Now we have an understanding of the differences between RISC and CISC architecture, let’s
complicate things by introducing RISC-V. The electronics industry seems to have gone crazy for
RISC-V (pronounced ‘risk-five’), but why?
RISC-V, like RISC and CISC, is an instruction set architecture (ISA). However, it is an open and free
ISA. That means anyone can contribute to its development and it doesn’t cost a penny to use.
This is significant because it allows smaller device manufacturers to build hardware without
having to pay royalties.
RICS-V has been designed to have a small, fixed-based ISA along with modular, fixed standard
extensions that work well with the majority of code. That leaves plenty of room for application-
specific extensions to create custom processors for specific workloads.
The benefits of RICS-V over conventional RICS and CISC architecture include:
1. Flexibility - The ability to customise the processor allows engineers to configure chipsets to be
big, small, powerful or lightweight, depending on the specific requirements of a device.
2. Innovation - Companies can implement the minimal instruction set and use custom extensions
and defined extensions to create processors for cutting-edge tools.
3. Reduced costs and faster to market - The reuse of open-source intellectual property helps to
reduce the cost of development and enables companies to get their design to market more
quickly.

Differentiate RISC and CISC processor architectures

What are the differences between RISC and CISC?

The purpose of both RISC and CISC architectures is to increase CPU performance, but they try to
achieve that goal in different ways. Generally speaking, RISC is seen by many as an improvement
over CISC. The argument for RISC over CISC is that having a less complicated set of instructions
makes designing a CPU easier, cheaper and quicker.
The primary difference between RISC and CISC architecture is that RISC-based machines execute
one instruction per clock cycle. In a CISC processor, each instruction performs so many actions
that it takes several clock cycles to complete. In a RISC processor, every instruction also has a
fixed memory size, which makes them easier to decode and execute. In a CISC machine, the
instructions can be variable lengths, which increases the processing time.
At a glance, the main differences between RISC and CISC architecture are as follows:
RISC CISC
Emphasis on software Emphasis on hardware
Small number of fixed length instructions Large number of instructions
Simple, standardised instructions Complex, variable-length instructions
Single clock cycle instructions Instructions can take several clock cycles
Heavy use of RAM More efficient use of RAM
Low cycles per second with large code sizes Small code sizes with high cycles per second

Advantages of Embedded System

The advantages of Embedded Systems are:
• They are convenient for mass production. This results in low price per piece.
• These systems are highly stable and reliable.
• Embedded systems are made for specific tasks.
• The embedded systems are very small in size, hence can be carried and loaded anywhere.
• These systems are fast. They also use less power.
• The embedded systems optimize the use or resources available.
• They improve the product quality.

Disadvantages of Embedded System

The disadvantages of Embedded Systems are as follows:
• Once configured, these systems cannot be changed. Hence, no improvement or
upgradation on the ones designed and created can be made.
• They are hard to maintain. It is also difficult to take a back-up of embedded files.
• Troubleshooting is difficult for embedded systems. Transferring data from one system to
another is also quite problematic.
• Because these systems are made for specific tasks, hardware is limited.

Cache Memory in Computer Organization

Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and
synchronizing with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk
memory but economical than CPU registers. Cache memory is an extremely fast memory
type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data
and instructions so that they are immediately available to the CPU when needed.
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main memory.
The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently
used main memory locations. There are various different independent caches in a CPU,
which store instructions and data.

Levels of memory:
• Level 1 or Register –
It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are
immediately stored in CPU. Most commonly used register is accumulator,
Program counter, address register etc.
• Level 2 or Cache memory –
It is the fastest memory which has faster access time where data is temporarily
stored for faster access.
• Level 3 or Main Memory –
It is memory on which computer works currently. It is small in size and once
power is off data no longer stays in this memory.
• Level 4 or Secondary Memory –
It is external memory which is not as fast as main memory but data stays
permanently in this memory.
Cache Performance:
When the processor needs to read or write a location in main memory, it first checks for
a corresponding entry in the cache.
• If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, a cache hit has
occurred and data is read from cache
• If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache, a cache
miss has occurred. For a cache miss, the cache allocates a new entry and
copies in data from main memory, then the request is fulfilled from the
contents of the cache.
The performance of cache memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity
called Hit ratio.
Hit ratio = hit / (hit + miss) = no. of hits/total accesses
We can improve Cache performance using higher cache block size, higher associativity,
reduce miss rate, reduce miss penalty, and reduce the time to hit in the cache.
Cache Mapping:
There are three different types of mapping used for the purpose of cache memory which
are as follows: Direct mapping, Associative mapping, and Set-Associative mapping. These
are explained below.
1. Direct Mapping –
The simplest technique, known as direct mapping, maps each block of main
memory into only one possible cache line. or
In Direct mapping, assign each memory block to a specific line in the cache. If a
line is previously taken up by a memory block when a new block needs to be
loaded, the old block is trashed. An address space is split into two parts index
field and a tag field. The cache is used to store the tag field whereas the rest is
stored in the main memory. Direct mapping`s performance is directly
proportional to the Hit ratio.
2. i = j modulo m
3. where
4. i=cache line number
5. j= main memory block number
m=number of lines in the cache
For purposes of cache access, each main memory address can be viewed as
consisting of three fields. The least significant w bits identify a unique word or
byte within a block of main memory. In most contemporary machines, the
address is at the byte level. The remaining s bits specify one of the 2s blocks of
main memory. The cache logic interprets these s bits as a tag of s-r bits (most
significant portion) and a line field of r bits. This latter field identifies one of the
m=2r lines of the cache.
6. Associative Mapping –
In this type of mapping, the associative memory is used to store content and
addresses of the memory word. Any block can go into any line of the cache.
This means that the word id bits are used to identify which word in the block is
needed, but the tag becomes all of the remaining bits. This enables the
placement of any word at any place in the cache memory. It is considered to
be the fastest and the most flexible mapping form.
7. Set-associative Mapping –
This form of mapping is an enhanced form of direct mapping where the
drawbacks of direct mapping are removed. Set associative addresses the
problem of possible thrashing in the direct mapping method. It does this by
saying that instead of having exactly one line that a block can map to in the
cache, we will group a few lines together creating a set. Then a block in
memory can map to any one of the lines of a specific set..Set-associative
mapping allows that each word that is present in the cache can have two or
more words in the main memory for the same index address. Set associative
cache mapping combines the best of direct and associative cache mapping
techniques.
In this case, the cache consists of a number of sets, each of which consists of a
number of lines. The relationships are
m=v*k
i= j mod v

where
i=cache set number
j=main memory block number
v=number of sets
m=number of lines in the cache number of sets
k=number of lines in each set
Application of Cache Memory –
1. Usually, the cache memory can store a reasonable number of blocks
at any given time, but this number is small compared to the total
number of blocks in the main memory.
2. The correspondence between the main memory blocks and those in
the cache is specified by a mapping function.

Types of Cache –
3. Primary Cache –
A primary cache is always located on the processor chip. This cache
is small and its access time is comparable to that of processor
registers.
 4. Secondary Cache –
Secondary cache is placed between the primary cache and the rest
of the memory. It is referred to as the level 2 (L2) cache. Often, the
Level 2 cache is also housed on the processor chip.

Locality of reference –
Since size of cache memory is less as compared to main memory. So to check
which part of main memory should be given priority and loaded in cache is
decided based on locality of reference.
Types of Locality of reference
5. Spatial Locality of reference
This says that there is a chance that element will be present in the
close proximity to the reference point and next time if again
searched then more close proximity to the point of reference.
6. Temporal Locality of reference
In this Least recently used algorithm will be used. Whenever there is
page fault occurs within a word will not only load word in main
memory but complete page fault will be loaded because spatial
locality of reference rule says that if you are referring any word next
word will be referred in its register that’s why we load complete
page table so the complete block will be loaded.

GATE Practice Questions –

Que-1: A computer has a 256 KByte, 4-way set associative, write back data
cache with the block size of 32 Bytes. The processor sends 32-bit addresses to
the cache controller. Each cache tag directory entry contains, in addition, to
address tag, 2 valid bits, 1 modified bit and 1 replacement bit. The number of
bits in the tag field of an address is
(A) 11
(B) 14
(C) 16
(D) 27
Answer: (C)
Explanation: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/gate-gate-cs-2012-question-54/
Que-2: Consider the data given in previous question. The size of the cache tag
directory is
(A) 160 Kbits
(B) 136 bits
(C) 40 Kbits
 (D) 32 bits
Answer: (A)
Explanation: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/gate-gate-cs-2012-question-55/
Que-3: An 8KB direct-mapped write-back cache is organized as multiple blocks,
each of size 32-bytes. The processor generates 32-bit addresses. The cache
controller maintains the tag information for each cache block comprising of the
following.
1 Valid bit
1 Modified bit
As many bits as the minimum needed to identify the memory block mapped in
the cache. What is the total size of memory needed at the cache controller to
store meta-data (tags) for the cache?
(A) 4864 bits
(B) 6144 bits
(C) 6656 bits
(D) 5376 bits
Answer: (D)
Explanation: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/gate-gate-cs-2011-question-43/
Article Contributed by Pooja Taneja and Vaishali Bhatia. Please write
comments if you find anything incorrect, or you want to share more
information about the topic discussed above.

List the Memory types of Embedded Systems

1. SRAM
2. DRAM
3. Masked ROM
4. PROM
5. EPROM
6. EEPROM
7. flash memory and
8. NVRAM

Why Use a System on a Chip?

Putting more elements of a computer system on a single piece of silicon lowers power
requirements, reduces cost, increases performance, and reduces physical size. All of that helps
dramatically when trying to create ever-more-powerful smartphones, tablets, and laptops that
use less battery life.

SoC Advantages
• Essentially the great benefits of using an SoC are: power saving, space saving and cost reduction
• SoCs are also much more efficient as systems as their performance is maximized per watt
• Systems on chip also tend to minimize the latency provided the various elements are strategically
placed on the motherboard in order to minimize interference and interconnection delays as well
as speed up the data transmission process

SoC Vs CPU

Gone are the days where the CPU used to be the primary and most significant part of
the entire computing system. Now, the CPU is only part of the equation that
ultimately adds up to being a system on chip. An SoC combines the power of the CPU
with several other components that it needs to perform and execute its functions.

The reason why SoCs are increasingly being preferred over simple CPU systems is
because despite being almost the same side in regards to the motherboard, an SoC
packs twice the power and capability. The CPU will still rely on several other external
hardware whereas an SoC has space for all you want to add on its negligible chip.
Compared to CPUs, SoCs also use shorter wiring and subsequently expends less
power, making it much more efficient and energy smart. The only problem that you
can argue against the SoC is the fact that compared to a CPU system, it is rather
upgrading and repairing. Where you can easily replace and use new components such
as a RAM or a GPU with a CPU, doing so is much more complicated a process with an
SoC. In fact, it is near impossible to make changes to a system on chip once it has
been manufactured, meaning if it is damaged or needs to be updated, you are better
off making a new one rather than even attempting to repair or upgrade it.
important applications of the Internet
of Things (IoT)
1. Wearables.

Virtual glasses, fitness bands to monitor for example calorie expenditure and heart
beats, or GPS tracking belts, are just some examples of wearable devices that we have
been using for some time now. Companies such as Google, Apple, Samsung and
others have developed and introduced the Internet of Things and the application
thereof into our daily lives.
These are small and energy efficient devices, which are equipped with sensors, with
the necessary hardware for measurements and readings, and with software to collect
and organize data and information about users.

2. Health.

The use of wearables or sensors connected to patients, allows doctors to monitor a

patient's condition outside the hospital and in real-time. Through continuously
monitoring certain metrics and automatic alerts on their vital signs, the Internet of
Things helps to improve the care for patients and the prevention of lethal events in
high-risk patients.
Another use is the integration of IoT technology into hospital beds, giving way to
smart beds, equipped with special sensors to observe vital signs, blood pressure,
oximeter and body temperature, among others.
3. Traffic monitoring.

The Internet of things can be very useful in the management of vehicular traffic in
large cities, contributing to the concept of smart cities.
When we use our mobile phones as sensors, which collect and share data from our
vehicles through applications such as Waze or Google Maps, we are using the Internet
of Things to inform us and at the same time contribute to traffic monitoring, showing
the conditions of the different routes, and feeding and improving the information on
the different routes to the same destination, distance, estimated time of arrival.

4. Fleet management.

The installation of sensors in fleet vehicles helps to establish an effective

interconnectivity between the vehicles and their managers as well as between the
vehicles and their drivers. Both driver and manager/ owner can know all kinds of
details about the status, operation and needs of the vehicle, just by accessing
the software in charge of collecting, processing and organizing the data. Even, receive
alarms in real time of maintenance incidents without having been detected by the
driver.
The application of the Internet of Things to fleet management assists with geolocation
(and with it the monitoring of routes and identification of the most efficient routes),
performance analysis, telemetry control and fuel savings , the reduction of polluting
emissions to the environment and can even provide valuable information to improve
the driving of vehicles.

5. Agriculture.

Smart farms are a fact. The quality of soil is crucial to produce good crops, and the
Internet of Things offers farmers the possibility to access detailed knowledge and
valuable information of their soil condition.
Through the implementation of IoT sensors, a significant amount of data can be
obtained on the state and stages of the soil. Information such as soil moisture, level of
acidity, the presence of certain nutrients, temperature and many other chemical
characteristics, helps farmers control irrigation, make water use more efficient,
specify the best times to start sowing, and even discover the presence of diseases in
plants and soil.

6. Hospitality.

The application of the IoT to the hotel industry brings with it interesting
improvements in the quality of the service. With the implementation of electronic
keys, which are sent directly to the mobile devices of each guest, it is possible to
automate various interactions.
Thus, the location of the guests, the sending of offers or information on activities of
interest, the realization of orders to the room or room service , the automatic charge
of accounts to the room or the request of personal hygiene supplies, are activities
that can be easily managed through integrated applications using the Internet of
Things technology.
With the use of electronic keys, the check-out process is automated, disabling the
operation of doors, offering information about the rooms immediately available, and
even assigning housekeeping tasks to maintenance personnel.

7. Smart grid and energy saving.

The progressive use of intelligent energy meters, or meters equipped with sensors,
and the installation of sensors in different strategic points that go from the
production plants to the different distribution points, allows better monitoring and
control of the electrical network.
By establishing a bidirectional communication between the service provider company
and the end user, information of enormous value can be obtained for the detection of
faults, decision making and repair thereof.
It also allows offering valuable information to the end user about their consumption
patterns and about the best ways to reduce or adjust their energy expenditure.

8. Water supply.

A sensor, either incorporated or adjusted externally to water meters, connected to

the Internet and accompanied by the necessary software , helps to collect, process
and analyze data, which allows understanding the behavior of consumers, detecting
faults in the supply service, report results and offer courses of action to the company
that provides the service.
Likewise, it offers final consumers the possibility of tracking their own consumption
information, through a web page and in real time, even receiving automatic alerts in
case of detecting consumption out of range to their average consumption record,
which could indicate the presence of a leak.

9. Maintenance management.

One of the areas where the application of IoT technology is most extensive is precisely
maintenance management. Through the combination of sensors
and software specialized in CMMS/ EAM maintenance management, a multifunctional
tool is obtained whose use can be applied to a multiplicity of disciplines and
practices, with the purpose of extending the useful life of physical assets, while
guaranteeing asset reliability and availability.
When the characteristics of the software in charge of processing and arranging the
data collected by the sensors are designed to specifically address the maintenance
management needs of physical assets, their application is almost unlimited.
The real-time monitoring of physical assets allows determining when a measurement
is out of range and it is necessary to perform condition-based maintenance (CBM), or
even applying Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms such as Machine Learning or Deep
Learning to predict the failure before it happens.
IoT Design Essentials
he real measure of success for IoT design is to pack these previously
discussed technologies into a single compact device. This device should be
cost-effective and might even need additional capabilities for digital signal
processing, natural user interface processing, control operations, or analog
sensing.
There is a constant push to make IoT devices with improved performance,
power efficiency, higher range, and reduced size. A device may contain a
CPU, memory, graphics, processing, and wireless circuitry. In order to create
the smallest device possible, many of these elements can be put onto a single
system on chip (SoC)–but not all.
Due to the need for space-saving, the critical difference for IoT design is
having the entire product or board designed as a single unit, as opposed to
many smaller individual boards like in the past. This will require working
closely with mechanical designers to ensure that signal integrity, thermal
management, and size are all accounted for.
When designing IoT, keep in mind that sensors and ICs are rapidly evolving.
The chips used on a product might become out-of-date faster than you think.
For this reason, compartmentalize the design with sub-circuits, which allows
for a systematic approach and makes updating parts on the circuit easier.
Consider each sub-circuit input and output and how they integrate into the
larger device as a whole.

IoT architecture can be described as three different

layers:
1. Devices layer with sensors and actuators that gather data.
2. Edge layer with data processing components that filter, aggregate,
and do preprocessing.
3. Cloud layer that connects with mobile apps or web-based apps that
do the final processing.
Low Power IoT Device Design
Because your IoT design will likely be mobile, designing it to consume the
least amount of power is crucial. As opposed to making your device always-
on, include different operating modes. Additionally, having smart power
management will increase the runtime of your device. For mobile devices,
you’ll either need to use an energy-harvesting circuit (oftentimes utilizing
inductive wireless power transfer) or rely on battery power.

Battery Power

One of the best ways to conserve battery power is to turn off portions of
your device when not in use. To do this, divide the PCB into functional blocks,
and for each block, allocate an appropriate power consumption budget.
Choose power regulating ICs that meet your specs and ensure that each
block of your design stays within its allocated budget.

Memory

The memory module of your IoT device will also consume power–choosing
the right memory is important in staying within the power budget. For
example, in using direct memory access (DMA), you’ll have better power
savings but lose some latency and throughput compared to dynamic random
access memory (DRAM).

Precise Power Budget Calculations

Avoid energy wastage from long PCB traces or numerous vias. Going from
one plane to another can contribute to unnecessary losses on your board.
Precise power budget calculations and efficient power delivery networks will
increase the longevity of your device. Use a precise power network analysis
tool to get an accurate picture of your device's efficiency before
manufacturing and testing.
Wireless Design for IoT
Your device will be connected to the rest of the world wirelessly, likely
through WiFi, Bluetooth, or some of the other previously mentioned
modalities. Therefore, it’s important to familiarize yourself with
various wireless network protocols.
Keep in mind that governments regulate the usage of the radio frequency
spectrum, and certain frequency bands are allocated for specific purposes.
WiFi operates most commonly at the 2.4 GHz frequency, NFC at 13.56 MHz,
and other RF protocols at their own frequency. For this reason, utilizing an
off-the-shelf wireless module that already meets government and industry
regulations can be purchased and incorporated into your design.
Antenna design is also another crucial aspect–when designing your PCB,
consider the orientation, gain, and directivity of your antenna, then select an
antenna that matches the desired form factor. The Z-Wave mesh network
topology can support hundreds of devices; for example, Sigfox uses the new
ultra-narrow band (UNB) for radio message exchange

IoT Protocols
IoT protcols help to establish Communication between IoT Device (Node Device) and Cloud
based Server over the Internet. It help to sent commands to IoT Device and received data from
an IoT device over the Internet. An image is given below. By this image you can understand
which protocols used.
Noise

Your device will be operating among all the other devices using their own
wireless communication standards. For this reason, noise can become a
larger factor. Devices will spend most of their time in idle or standby modes
and only briefly turn communications on for transmission and reception for
short bursts. Familiarize yourself with methods of dealing with RF EMI and
incorporate them into your design.
Temperature

Temperature can also have a significant effect on communication as well.

Consider the temperate ranges you’d like your device to operate in and
ensure your components all meet these specifications.
Medical IoT Design Tip:
If you’re designing a medical IoT device, keep in mind that transmitting
wireless signals in free air space is different than inside a human body. When
implanted, the operating frequency can be attenuated and you might get a
significant detriment to your range, so design accordingly.

What are the key components of an IoT

platform?
IoT platforms are multi-layered solutions. They can greatly simplify the
consolidation of many different IoT devices and come with a variety of
services. The building blocks of an IoT platform typically include the
following IoT architecture layers:

Connectivity
Connectivity is the one absolutely necessary component of any IoT
development effort. And, on a very basic level, an IoT platform can be as
simple as a software infrastructure enabling and overseeing the
connectivity between objects in the physical world.
Within today’s complex connectivity environment, solid connectivity
management will allow the secure and effortless incorporation of
diverse IoT devices as well as the administration of multi-protocol &
multi-network connections.
Other than that, every IoT platform has a connectivity layer that enables
a variety of services. These include but are not limited to data collection,
monitoring & control, as well as the management of assets.

IoT data management

Data management is the practice of developing, executing, and
overseeing architectures and software that increase the value and
availability of data. This includes but is not limited to logging, storage,
processing, and transaction management. IoT data management takes
care of data coming from many different locations and many different
data types. It covers data extraction, storage, processing, and analysis.

Cloud computing services

Handling large amounts of data in commercial IoT settings usually
involves a cloud backend that reliably and securely streamlines data
collection, storage, data processing, and analytics while performing
service orchestration on top.

IoT device management

IoT device management may cover the entire lifecycle of an IoT device.
It involves device registration, device identification, updates,
authentication, logging, remote administration, troubleshooting,
rebooting, and device diagnostics. This is how you oversee all of your
connected physical assets from within one platform.

Application development
A recent thing in the world of IoT platforms is the ability to code directly
in a cloud IDE fully integrated into the platform environment. Platforms
such as Portainer.io, Particle.io, and Record Evolution make it possible to
write apps and deploy them in seconds while getting live feedback from
the device and observing app performance. Over-the-air development
(OTA) is currently offered by the fewest IoT platforms and is especially
well received in the developer community.

IoT application enablement

Essentially, this means providing action management to define rules and
triggers for automated jobs and services, including the provision of
application logic to coordinate the flows of data and execute certain
actions. Thanks to this capability, developers can build, integrate, and
manage custom applications.
Security by design
Most IoT platforms on the market right now come with built-in security
features. These guarantee high standards of privacy and identity
management across networks, devices, and cloud services. Data
integrity, the extra protection of certain proprietary data types,
authorization mechanisms, safeguarding privacy, authentication,
identification, and encryption are all part of the security layer of the IoT
platform and can operate on a variety of levels.

capabilities of IoT device management platforms include

the following:
• device provisioning,
• device authentication,
• logging,
• remote device monitoring and control,
• administration over the air,
• software updates,
• security patching,
• troubleshooting, and more.

• Raspberry Architecture
The ARMv8-A architecture, which encompas s es the 64-bit AArch64
architecture and as s ociated A64 ins truction s et, was firs t introduced into the
Ras pberry Pi line with Ras pberry Pi 3 in 2016. From that point on, it has been
pos s ible to run a full 64-bit operating s ys tem on our flags hip products , and
many third-party operating s ys tems are available. However, we have
continued to build our Ras pberry Pi OS releas es on the 32-bit Ras pbian
platform, aiming to maximis e compatibility between devices and to avoid
cus tomer confus ion.

Debian/Raspbian ARM Architecture

Product Processor ARM core
port (maximum) width
Raspberry Pi 1 BCM2835 ARM1176 arm6hf 32 bit
Raspberry Pi 2 BCM2836 Cortex-A7 armhf 32 bit
Raspberry Pi Zero BCM2835 ARM1176 arm6hf 32 bit
Raspberry Pi Zero 2 BCM2710 Cortex-A53 arm64 64 bit
Raspberry Pi 3 BCM2710 Cortex-A53 arm64 64 bit
Raspberry Pi 4 BCM2711 Cortex-A72 arm64 64 bit

Arduino BME688 sensor basic how to

About BME688 - gas scanner with AI, air quality sensor, temp., hum. and pres.
sensor

BME688 ( manufactured by Bosch Sensortec) is the first gas sensor with Artificial Intelligence
(AI) and integrated high-linearity and high-accuracy humidity and temperature sensors. The
integrated gas sensor it's able to detect Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Volatile Sulfur
Compounds (VSCs) and other gases as carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen in the ppb (part per
billion) range.

The new BME 688 sensor its backward compatible with BME680. Additionally, to all features of the
BME680, the BME688 has a gas scanner function. In standard configuration, the presence of VSCs is
detected as indicator for e.g. bacteria growth. The gas scanner can be customized with respect to
sensitivity, selectivity, data rate and power consumption as well. The BME AI-Studio tool enables
customers to train the BME688 gas scanner on their specific application, like in home appliances, IoT
products or Smart Home.

The gas sensor in the BM688 has a broad sensitivity and reacts to most volatile compounds as well as
many other gases polluting indoor air. The intensity of the signal typically scales with the chemical
reactivity of the gases. In contrast to sensors selective for one specific component, the BME688 is
capable of measuring the sum of VOCs/contaminants in the surrounding air. This enables the BME688
to detect e.g. out-gassing from paint, furniture and/or garbage, high VOC levels due to cooking, food
consumption, exhaled breath and/or sweating.

Bosch Sensortec BME688 sensor main features:

- ambient range for operation -40 ~ +85C, 0%-100% r.H., 300-1100hPa
- gas sensor major outputs (via BSEC) IAQ, bVOC & CO2 equivalents (ppm), gas scan results (%) &
intensity level
- sensor to sensor IAQ deviation +-15% / +-15IAQ
- relative humidity accuracy tolerance / hysteresis +-3% / <= 1.5%
- absolute temperature accuracy +-0.5C (at +25C)
- pressure sensitivity error +-0.25%

Arduino BME688 sensor hardware integration (wiring)

First, identify if your Arduino it's 5V or 3.3V compliant!

The BME688 I2C sensor breakout it's shipped in default auto 3-5V compliant configuration. In a nut
shell, wire as bellow:

BME688 breakout Arduino 5V [Eg.: UNO] Arduino 3.3V [

Vin PAD 5V 3.3V

Vdd PAD (3V3) do not connect do not connect

SDA PAD SDA SDA

SCL PAD SCL SCL

GND PAD GND GND

Comparison of Wireless Technologies

Advantages and disadvantages of

wireless technologies
Advantages

1. Wireless network systems are easy to set up, cheaper to install and also
maintain.
2. Information (data, videos, etc.) is transferred quickly and faster.
3. Low maintenance and installation cost compared to wired networks.
4. Advanced coverage. You can access the wireless technologies
anywhere at any time.
5. They are no more carrying wires and cables to get the connection.
6. Enables professionals to work anywhere remotely.
7. Emergencies can now be sorted out quickly with wireless
communication. Immediate support is rendered via cellular networks.
8. You can carry and re-install anywhere, anytime.
9. Wireless technologies are more adaptable to new environments than
wired networks.

Disadvantages
 1. It’s less secure. This is because communication is practiced via open
space.
2. Unreliability/undependable. Wireless technologies are prone to signal
interference, radiation, etc.
3. They have an increased chance of jamming.
4. Speed varies to the user’s location in relation to the network.
5. Radio signals have a limited range.

There are so many wireless technologies now, and there’s a possibility of

more in the future as technology advances and the needs of humans evolve.
Here are some of the main systems:

• The Radio and Television Broadcasting

• The Mobile Telephone System (Cellular Communication)
• The Cordless Phones System
• Global Positioning System (GPS Paging)
 • The Radar
• The Infrared Communication
• The Satellite Communication
• The WLAN (Wi-Fi)
• The Microwave Communication
• The Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
• The Zigbee
• The Bluetooth

What are the main elements of a wireless

communication system?
A basic Wireless Communication System has 3 main elements:

• The transmitter

It has an encoder that receives information from the source and converts it
into a readable signal. The info is then encrypted by an Encryption standard
then transferred to an Encoder. The Encoder minimizes faults in the
information like noise to get a modulated signal. It’s then multiplexed and sent
to the channel.

• The Channel

It’s the medium of transmitting information signals from the sender

(transmitter) to the recipient (receiver).

• The Receiver

It’s work is to reproduce the source information signal after receiving it from
channel. The receiver undoes what the transmitter did, and that’s why the
receiver path has the demultiplexing, demodulation, channel decoding,
decryption, and source decoding.
Difference between COAP and MQTT protocols

CoAP, MQTT, AMQP, XMPP & DDS: Which Prot ocol Should You
Choose for IoT?

In t h e p ro c e s s o f e s t a b lis h in g yo u r n e t w o rk fo r Io T a p p lic a t io n s , yo u w ill n e e d

t o c o n s id e r a fe w t h in g s . O n e is t h e t yp e o f n e t w o rk t o b e u s e d : LP W AN
(Lo Ra W AN , NB-Io T), P AN (Blu e t o o t h ), o r LAN (W iFi). An o t h e r t h in g t o b e
c o n s id e re d is t h e n e t w o rk p ro t o c o l t o b e im p le m e n t e d w it h it . Th is p ro t o c o l
w ill m a n a g e t h e t ra n s m is s io n o f d a t a a n d c o n t ro l t h e s e c u rit y o f t h e d e live ry.
To d a y w e a re d is c u ss in g s o m e o f t h e m o s t p ro m in e n t p ro t o c o ls u s e d b y Io T
d e vic e s .

Th e g e n e ra l fo rm u la fo r h o w t e le c o m m u n ic a t io n s a re e st a b lish e d is
re p re se n t e d g lo b a lly b y t h e O SI (O p e n Syst e m s In t e rc o n n e c t io n ) Mo d e l.
Th e m o d e l d ivid e s t h e st ru c t u re in t o 7 d iffe re n t la ye rs, a s sh o w n in t h e
fig u re b e lo w .
Th e a p p lic a t io n la ye r c o m m o n ly u se d fo r Io T a p p lic a t io n s in c lu d e :

• Co AP
• MQ TT
• AMQ P
• XMP P
• DDS

An o t h e r a p p lic a t io n la ye r t h a t ’s c o m m o n ly u se d in t e le c o m m u n ic a t io n
syst e m s is HTTP o r Hyp e rTe xt Tra n sp o rt P ro t o c o l. Ho w e ve r, it is
a rg u a b ly n o t su it a b le fo r Io T a p p lic a t io n s d u e t o it s c h a ra c t e rist ic s:

• O n ly a b le t o su p p o rt o n e -t o -o n e c o m m u n ic a t io n i.e . w o u ld o n ly
se rve o n e c lie n t t o o n e b ro ke r/se rve r.
• Hig h p o w e r c o n su m p t io n , fo r e ve ry o n e -t o -o n e c o n n e c t io n
e st a b lish e d , a n u n d e rlyin g TCP c o n n e c t io n sh o u ld b e o p e n a s
w e ll. Th is w ill p u t a h e a vy lo a d o n t h e se rve r a n d h e n c e , c o n su m e
m o re p o w e r t h a n a n e d g e d e vic e c a n su st a in .
 • O p e ra t e s o n a re q u e st -b a se d re sp o n se . Se n so rs, w h ic h a c t a s a
c o n t in u o u sly re p o rt in g c lie n t (su b sc rib e r) in a n Io T syst e m
t yp ic a lly d o n ’t h a ve a n y c o m p u t a t io n a l fe a t u re im p le m e n t e d
t o g e t h e r w it h it .

CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)

Th e Co AP w a s d e sig n e d t o e n a b le c o m m u n ic a t io n u sin g c o n st ra in e d
n o d e s a n d n e t w o rks fo r Io T a p p lic a t io n s, a n d c o n n e c t in g t h e m t o t h e
in t e rn e t . Sin c e Io T syst e m s w o u ld re q u ire n u m e ro u s n o d e s, w h e re e a c h
n o d e m ig h t n o t h a ve h ig h m e m o ry fo r c o st e ffic ie n c y, Co AP w a s
d e sig n e d t o a llo w d a t a t ra n sm issio n t o o c c u r w it h m in im u m re so u rc e s
w it h o n ly a 4 -b yt e fixe d h e a d e r. Co AP u se s UD P e xc lu sive ly t o e n h a n c e
it s c o m p a c t c o m m u n ic a t io n p ro c e ss. Th is b e in g sa id , t h e
c o m m u n ic a t io n p ro c e ss b e t w e e n d e vic e s w o u ld b e a b le t o o c c u r
w it h o u t n e e d in g a n y c o n n e c t io n t o b e e st a b lish e d p rio r.
Co AP , like HTTP , is st a n d a rd ize d b y t h e IETF Co n st ra in e d RESTfu l
En viro n m e n t s (Co Re ) W o rkin g Gro u p . Th e se rve r p ro vid e s re so u rc e s in
t h e fo rm o f URLs, a n d t h e c lie n t s w ill a c c e ss t h e re so u rc e s b y u sin g
se ve ra l sp e c ifie d fu n c t io n s like GET, P UT, P O ST, a n d DELETE.

1. Constrained Application Protocol (COAP): The constrained application

protocol is a client server-based protocol. With this protocol, the COAP packet can
be shared between different client nodes which are commanded by the COAP server.
The server is responsible to share the information depending on its logic but has not
acknowledged it. This is used with the applications which support the state transfer
model.
2. Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT): The message query telemetry
transport protocol is a communication-based protocol that is used for IoT devices.
This protocol is based on the publish-subscribe methodology in which clients
receive the information through a broker only to the subscribed topic. A broker is a
mediator who categorizes messages into labels before being delivered.
Difference between COAP and MQTT protocols:

Basis of COAP MQTT

Message Queuing Telemetry

Abbreviation Constrained Application Protocol Transport

Communication
Type It uses Request-Response model. It uses Publish-Subscribe model

This uses both Asynchronous and

Messaging Mode Synchronous. This uses only Asynchronous

Transport layer This mainly uses User Datagram This mainly uses Transmission
protocol protocol(UDP) Control protocol(TCP)

Header size It has 4 bytes sized header It has 2 bytes sized header

No it does not uses REST

RESTful based Yes it uses REST principles principles

It supports and best used for

Persistence support It does not has such support live data communication

It provides by adding labels to

Message Labelling the messages. It has no such feature.
 Basis of COAP MQTT

It is used in Utility area networks It is used in IoT applications

Usability/Security and has secured mechanism. and is secure

Effectiveness Effectiveness in LNN is excellent. Effectiveness in LNN is low.

Communication Communication model is one- Communication model is many-

Model one. many.

Time synchronization is used to save energy; it will allow the nodes to

sleep for a given time and then awaken periodically to receive a beacon signal.
Many wireless nodes are battery powered, so energy efficient protocols are necessary.

Time Synchronization in wireless networks is extremely important for

basic communication, but it also provides the ability to detect movement,
location, and proximity. The synchronization problem consists of four parts: send
time, access time, propagation time, and receive time.