Computer Graphics

Unit-1 Graphics System

What is computer Graphics?
Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures, lines, charts, etc. using
computers with the help of programming. Computer graphics image is
made up of number of pixels. Pixel is the smallest addressable graphical unit
represented on the computer screen.
Introduction
 Computer is information processing machine. User needs to
communicate with computer and the computer graphics is one of the
most effective and commonly used ways of communication with the
user.
 It displays the information in the form of graphical objects such as pictures,
charts, diagram and graphs.
 Graphical objects convey more information in less time and easily
understandable formats for example statically graph shown in stock
exchange.
 In computer graphics picture or graphics objects are presented as a collection
of discrete pixels.
 We can control intensity and color of pixel which decide how picture look like.
 The special procedure determines which pixel will provide the best
approximation to the desired picture or graphics object this process is
known as Rasterization.
 The process of representing continuous picture or graphics object as a
collection of discrete pixels is called Scan Conversion.

Advantages of computer graphics

 Computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used
ways of communication with computer.
  It provides tools for producing picture of “real-world” as well as
synthetic objects such as mathematical
surfaces in 4D and of data that have no inherent geometry such as survey
result.
 It has ability to show moving pictures thus possible to produce animations
with computer graphics.
 With the use of computer graphics we can control the animation by
adjusting the speed, portion of picture in view the amount of detail
shown and so on.
 It provides tools called motion dynamics. In which user can move
objects as well as observes as per requirement for example walk throw
made by builder to show flat interior and surrounding.
 It provides facility called update dynamics. With this we can change the
shape color and other properties of object.
 Now in recent development of digital signal processing and audio
synthesis chip the interactive graphics can now provide audio feedback
along with the graphical feed backs.
Definition of computer graphics:
1. It is the creation of, manipulation of, analysis of, and interaction with pictorial
representations of objects and data using computers.
2. It is a human oriented system that uses the capabilities of computer to create,
transform, and display pictorial and symbolic data.
3. Computer graphics is a process of generation of virtual scenes using computer
hardware.
4. Computer graphics is a pictorial representation and manipulation of data by a
computer.

Fundamental, core elements of computer graphics–

Modeling: representation choices, geometric processing
Rendering: geometric transformation, visibility, simulation of light
Interaction: input/output devices, tools
Animation: lifelike characters, natural
Applications “areas of Computer Graphics”

1. Presentation Graphics
2. Entertainment: Movies, Video games
3. Education and training
4. Graphical user interface (GUI)
5. Computer aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
6. Medical applications
7. Image Processing
8. Virtual Reality
9. Scientific visualization and processing

1. Presentation Graphics:-
 It is used to produce illustrations for reports or to generate 35 mm
slides or transparencies for use with projectors.
 It is commonly used to summarize financial , statistical, mathematical,
scientific, and economic data for research reports, managerial reports,
consumer information bulletins, and other type of reports.
 e.g. presentation graphics are bar charts, line graphs , surface graphs,
pie charts etc.
 3D graphs are sometimes used simply for effect, they can provide more
dramatic and more attractive presentation of data.

2. Entertainment:-
 Computer graphics has spread its wings in the area of entertainment.
 Computer Graphics is about making animation, motion pictures, music,
videos and television shows.
 Sometimes graphics scenes are displayed by themselves and
sometimes they combined with live actors and live scenes.
 In 1992 when music album of Michael Jackson called Black and White
was released , in this album faces of different people were replaced by
one another, this is an application of graphics technique called
morphing.
 Special effects of graphics also successfully used in many Hollywood
films like Terminator, Jurassic Park, Robot , Ra-van etc. Terminator is a
movie in which the actor is transformed into a robot. In the movie
 Jurassic park computer graphics gave birth to dinosaurs thousand of
years after their destruction.
 Now a days human beings need not do any risky stunts scenes, all these
scenes can be created using computer graphics systems.
e.g.

Games are very important in Computer Graphics

3. Education and training:-

 Computer generated models of physical, financial, and economic system are
often used as educational aids.
 Graphics is also used in physical system, population trends, or equipment as
the color coded dig.
 For training simulation modeling is branch on the principal of ‘learning by
doing’ . It is a system , subsystem, equipment or device by running and
executing it on a computer and also by analyzing its output.
 Many times a problem is too complex , nonlinear and also involve unknown
parameters , in such a situations it is mainly used for designing a task. E.g.
designing a bridge on a river , or dragging out a tunnel through a mountain.
 Also some risky things like pilot training can be given through computer
simulation without exposing the trainers to the field risk in initial stages.
 Equipment training (pilots, surgeons)
 generated system & process model
 Visual simulation:–Aircraft simulator–Spacecraft simulator–Naval craft
simulator–Automobile simulator–Heavy machinery simulator–Surgery
simulator
 Special hardware required

4. Graphical User Interface:

 It is common for software packages to provide graphical interface. It allow a
user to display multiple windows areas.
 GUI Integral part of everyday computing
 Graphical elements everywhere–Windows, cursors, menus, icons, etc
 Nearly all professional programmers must have an understanding of graphics
in order to accept input and present output to users.
5. Computer Aided Design and manufacturing :-

 CAD methods are now used in design of buildings , automobiles ,aircraft ,

watercraft, spacecraft, computers , textiles and many other products.
 For some designs wire frameworks shows overall shape and internal features
of objects, it allow designers to quickly see the effects of interactive
adjustment to design shapes
 e.g. a circuit design, simulation of vehicle performance during lane changes
etc.
 Architect also used CAD to lay out floor planes such as positioning of rooms,
doors, windows , stairs counters , and other building features.
 CAD package also provide facilities for experimenting with three dimensional
interior layout and lighting.
 Architecture, Engineering, Construction
 Final product appearance: surface rendering, realistic lighting
 Construction planning: architects, clients can study appearance before actual
construction
6. Medical Imaging is another driving force:-

 Medical imaging applications also make use of image processing techniques

for picture enchancement. In tomography and in simulations of operations.
Tomography CT and x-ray both used projection methods to reconstruct cross
sections from digital data.
 Image processing typically combines with many other applications like
medicine, e.g. using this technique to model and study the physical
functions, to design artificial limbs, to plan and practice surgery.

7. Image Processing, Analysis, and Synthesis:-

 Image processing mainly deals with manipulating and interpreting the

existing images rather than developing and creating them. Many
 applications of image processing in remote sensing, weather
forecasting, medical sciences etc.
 e.g. when an image is taken from satellite, it is important how that
image is interpreted. Many times obtained images has noise , this noise
removal is also important operations of computer graphics.

8. Virtual Reality:-
 It is an area in which a real situations is created virtually.
 VR is an artificial environment created with computer hardware and
software and presented to the user in such a way that it appears and
feel like a real environment.
 It includes training, simulations for doing experiments, entertainment,
gaming etc.
 User interacts with objects in a 3D scene
 Special devices (input, output)
 Virtual walkthroughs

9. Scientific/ Information Visualisation and processing:-This is a

field which deals with pattern recognition. E.g. geographic information
system (GIS), biometric applications like finger print matching , iris matching
etc. In biometrics iris matching are used to analyzed the authenticate user or
not.
Raster Graphics and Vector Graphics
Raster Graphics:
 Raster is when an image is based off of pixels (tiny squares each filled with a
single color).
 These are easiest to make, modify and save, but if you want to resize it, you
will be limited by the original pixel resolution.
 They are made up of dots of color and black and white.
 Digital photographs are raster based.
 Photoshop is a raster based image editing program, Because the images are
made up of dots, they are resolution dependent: each image only has so
many dots (the information in the image), so generally when you try to
enlarge such as image, it will lose quality because all you are essentially
doing is making those dots larger.
 This is why you always want to start with a high quality (high resolution)
image: it is easy to make the image smaller—remove information—but you
can't really make it bigger, which would be trying to add info that isn't there
already.
 Raster artwork

(also known as bitmaps):

 are composed of lots of small dots. This lends itself to photographic or

artistic effects because color gradations can be made very smooth in a
bitmap format. However, bitmap images lose their clarity when they are
increased in size because the dots get bigger. Take an image that's 10 pixels
wide by 10 pixels high, stretch it to 100 x 100 pixels and it looks like it's made
of big squares.
 File Formats used in Raster Graphics are as follows
 Graphic Interchange Format (.GIF)
 Joint Photographers Expert Group (.JPEG, .JPG)
 Tagged Image File Format (.TIFF, .TIF)
 Encapsulated PostScript (.EPS)*

Vector Graphics:

 Vector is when an image is based off of mathematical equations, shapes, and

things that will remain the same no matter the size.
 For example: clip art, you can resize clip art to whatever size you want and it
will never become pixelated.
 Vector programs use mathematics: they are based on points, lines and
curves.
 The program/computer makes the calculations (you don't have to know
anything about the underlying math, the program handles it).
 Because of this, vector graphics are resolution-IN dependent.
 That is their great advantage: you can make a design in a vector based
program (such as Adobe Illustrator) at one size, and resize it pretty much as
 needed without losing quality. You could, for example, make a logo for use
on a business card and also be able to enlarge it to use on a billboard.

 Vector artwork
(sometimes called line art)

 This kind of artwork is made up of lines and filled areas only, which are
mathematically drawn and calculated (hence the term vector) by the
software you use. They can be stretched in size without losing any clarity or
sharpness. Because of their mathematical origins, vector images are readily
scalable without distortion.
 For vector image editing, use either Adobe Illustrator or Macromedia
Freehand. Either program will also allow users to import raster images into
their vector files.
 File Formats of Vector Graphics are as follows:
 Illustrator (.AI)*
 Encapuslated PostScript (.EPS)*
 PostScript (.PS)*
 Windows Meta File (.WMF)
 Flash Movies (.fla, .swf)

Vector/Raster
When and Why?:

 If you are working with mainly solid color objects, manipulated text or many
small objects, the clear answer is that a VECTOR program will save you time.
 If you are working with complicated drop shadows, or other 3D effects,
texture or photographs, RASTER is the correct choice.
 Video Display Devices
Display devices
 Display devices are also known as output devices.
 Most commonly used output device in a graphics system is a video monitor.

Cathode-Ray Tubes(Refresh CRT)

 It is an evacuated glass tube.

 An electron gun at the rear of the tube produce a beam of electrons
which is directed towards the screen of the tube by a high voltage
typically 15000 to 20000 volts
 Inner side screen is coated with phosphor substance which gives light when it
is stroked bye electrons.
 Control grid controls velocity of electrons before they hit the phosphor.
 The control grid voltage determines how many electrons are actually in
the electron beam. The negative the control voltage is the fewer the
electrons that pass through the grid. Thus control grid controls
Intensity of the spot where beam strikes the screen. INTENSITY means
the number of electron that should reach phosphor coating, this is
controlled by a pair of controlled coils.
 The focusing system concentrates the electron beam so it converges to
small point when hits the phosphor coating.
 Deflection system directs beam which decides the point where beam strikes
the screen.
  Deflection system of the CRT consists of two pairs of parallel plates
which are vertical and horizontal deflection plates.
 The focusing coil which gives the positions to the beam and deflection
coils which gives exact location on the screen to the beam
 Voltage applied to vertical and horizontal deflection plates is control
vertical and horizontal deflection respectively.
Color CRT monitors
 A CRT monitors displays color pictures by using a combination of
phosphors that emit different colored light.
 It produces range of colors by combining the light emitted by different
phosphors.
 There are two basic techniques for color display:
1. Beam-penetration technique
2. Shadow-mask technique

1. Beam-penetration technique

Fig. 1.5: - Beam-penetration CRT

 This technique is used with random scan monitors.

 In this technique inside of CRT coated with two phosphor layers usually
red and green. The outer layer of red and inner layer of green phosphor.
 The color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the
phosphor layer.
 A beam of fast electron penetrates more and excites inner green layer
 while slow electron excites outer red layer.
 At intermediate beam speed we can produce combination of red and
green lights which emit additional two colors orange and yellow.
 The beam acceleration voltage controls the speed of the electrons and hence
color of pixel.
 It is a low cost technique to produce color in random scan monitors.
 It can display only four colors.
 Quality of picture is not good compared to other techniques.

2. Shadow-mask technique


Fig. 1.6: - Shadow-mask CRT.

 It produces wide range of colors as compared to beam-penetration technique.

 This technique is generally used in raster scan displays. Including color TV.
 In this technique CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel
position. One dot for red, one for green and one for blue light. This is
commonly known as Dot Triangle.
 Here in CRT there are three electron guns present, one for each color
dot. And a shadow mask grid just behind the phosphor coated screen.
 The shadow mask grid consists of series of holes aligned with the phosphor
dot pattern.
 Three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the
shadow mask and when they pass through a hole they excite a dot
triangle.
  In dot triangle three phosphor dots are arranged so that each electron
beam can activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes
through the shadow mask.
 A dot triangle when activated appears as a small dot on the screen
which has color of combination of three small dots in the dot triangle.
 By changing the intensity of the three electron beams we can obtain
different colors in the shadow mask CRT.

Raster and Random(vector) scan display devices

There are two techniques used for producing images on the CRT screen:
1. Raster scan display.
2. Vector scan/Random scan display.
1.Raster scan display.
 A raster –scan system displays an object as a set of discrete points across
each scan line.
 Raster scan display is based on television technology. In a raster scan system
the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from top to
bottom.
 As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned
on and off to create a illuminated pattern spots on the screen.
 Picture definition is stored in a memory are called the refresh buffer or
frame buffer. This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all
screen points.
 Home television sets and printers are examples of raster scan method.
 Refreshing on raster scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80,
frames per second, although some systems are designed for higher refresh
rates.
 At the end of each scan line the electron beam returns to the left side of
screen to the begin displaying the next scan line is called Horizontal retrace
of electric beam. And at the end of each frame the electron beam returns to
 the top of left corner of the screen to begin next frame is called Vertical retrace.

 The screen image is maintained by repeatedly scanning the same image. This
process is known as Refreshing of Screen.
 In raster scan displays a special area of memory is dedicated to graphics
only. This memory is called Frame Buffer.
 Frame buffer holds set of intensity values for all the screen points.
 That intensity is retrieved from frame buffer and display on screen one row at
a time.
 Each screen point referred as pixel or Pel (Picture Element).
 Each pixel can be specified by its row and column numbers.
 It can be simply black and white system or color system.
 In simple black and white system each pixel is either ON or OFF, so only one
bit per pixel is needed.
 Additional bits are required when color and intensity variations can be
displayed up to 24-bits per pixel are included in high quality display
systems.
 On a black and white system with one bit per pixel the frame buffer is
commonly called a Bitmap. And for systems with multiple bits per
 pixel, the frame buffer is often referred as a Pixmap.

2.Vector scan/Random scan display

 A random-scan system draws the component lines of an object in any order

specified.
 Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and hence it
referred as vector display or stroke writing or calligraphic display.
 The component of a line of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by random
scan system in specified order.
 Refresh rate depends on the number of lines to be displayed. Picture
definition is now stored as a line drawing commands in an area of memory
referred as refresh display file or display list.
 This display are design to draw all the components line of picture 30 to 60
times each second.
 Random scan display are designed for line drawing applications and can not
display realistic shaded scenes.
 Vector display generally have higher resolution than raster systems. It
produce smooth line drawings where as raster scan system produced jagged
lines that are plotted as discrete point sets.
Difference between random scan and raster scan

Base of Raster Scan System Random Scan System

Difference
The electron beam is swept The electron beam is directed
Electron
Beam across the screen, one row only to the parts of screen
at a time, from top to where a picture is to be drawn.
bottom.

Its resolution is poor Its resolution is good because

Resolution
because raster system in this system produces smooth
contrast produces zigzag lines drawings because CRT
lines that are plotted as beam directly follows the line
discrete point sets. path.

Picture definition is stored as Picture definition is stored as a

Picture
Definition a set of intensity values for set of line drawing instructions
all screen points, called in a display file.
pixels in a refresh buffer
area.
The capability of this system These systems are designed for
Realistic
Display to store intensity values for line- drawing and can’t display
pixel makes it well suited for realistic shaded scenes.
the realistic display of scenes
contain shadow and color
pattern.
Screen points/pixels are Mathematical functions are
Draw an
Image used to draw an image. used to draw an image.
Direct-view storage tubes (DVST)

Fig. 1.7: - Direct-view storage tube.

 In raster scan display we do refreshing of the screen to maintain a

screen image.
 DVST gives alternative method for maintaining the screen image.
 DVST uses the storage grid which stores the picture
information as a charge distribution just behind the
phosphor coated screen.
 DVST consists two electron guns a primary gun and a flood gun.
 A primary gun stores the picture pattern and the flood gun
maintains the picture display.
 A primary gun emits high speed electrons which strike on the
storage grid to draw the picture pattern.
 As electron beam strikes on the storage grid with high speed,
it knocks out electrons from the storage grid keeping the net
positive charge.
 The knocked out electrons are attracted towards the collector.
 The net positive charge on the storage grid is nothing but the
picture pattern.
 The continuous low speed electrons from flood gun pass
through the control grid and are attracted to the positive
charged area of the storage grid.
 The low speed electrons then penetrate the storage grid and
strike the phosphor coating without affecting the positive
charge pattern on the storage grid.
 During this process the collector just behind the storage grid
smooth out the flow of flood electrons.

Advantage of DVST
 Refreshing of CRT is not required.
 Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolution
without flicker.
 Flat screen.

Disadvantage of DVST
 They do not display color and are available with single level of line
intensity.
 For erasing it is necessary to removal of charge on the
storage grid so erasing and redrawing process take several
second.
 Erasing selective part of the screen cannot be possible.
 Cannot used for dynamic graphics application as on erasing it
produce unpleasant flash over entire screen.
 It has poor contrast as a result of the comparatively low
accelerating potential applied to the flood electrons.
 The performance of DVST is somewhat inferior to the refresh CRT.
Flat Panel Display
 The term flat panel display refers to a class of video device
that have reduced volume, weight & power requirement
compared to a CRT.
 As flat panel display is thinner than CRTs, we can hang them on
walls or wear on our wrists.
 Since we can even write on some flat panel displays they will soon
be available as pocket notepads.
 We can separate flat panel display in two categories:
1. Emissive displays: - the emissive display or emitters are
devices that convert electrical energy into light. For Ex.
Plasma panel, thin film electroluminescent displays and
light emitting diodes.
2. Non emissive displays: - non emissive display or non
emitters use optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphics patterns. For Ex.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display).

Plasma Panels displays

  This is also called gas discharge displays.
 It is constructed by filling the region between two glass
plates with a mixture of gases that usually includes neon.
 A series of vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass
panel and a set of horizontal ribbon is built into the other
glass panel.
 Firing voltage is applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical
conductors cause the gas at the intersection of the two
conductors to break down into glowing plasma of electrons
and ions.
 Picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer and the firing
voltages are applied to refresh the pixel positions, 60 times
per second.
 Alternating current methods are used to provide faster
application of firing voltages and thus brighter displays.
 Separation between pixels is provided by the electric field of
conductor.
 One disadvantage of plasma panels is they were strictly
monochromatic device that means shows only one color
other than black like black and white.





Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

 It is generally used in small system such as calculator and portable

laptop.
 This non emissive device produce picture by passing polarized
light from the surrounding or from an internal light source
through liquid crystal material that can be aligned to either
block or transmit the light.
 The liquid crystal refreshes to fact that these compounds have
 crystalline arrangement of molecules then also flows like
liquid.
 It consists of two glass plates each with light polarizer at right
angles to each other sandwich the liquid crystal material
between the plates.
 Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are built into one
glass plate, and column of vertical conductors are put into the
other plates.
 The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.
 In the ON state polarized light passing through material is
twisted so that it will pass through the opposite polarizer.
 In the OFF state it will reflect back towards source.
 We applied a voltage to the two intersecting conductor to
align the molecules so that the light is not twisted.
 This type of flat panel device is referred to as a passive matrix LCD.
 LCD are divided into two types depending on the arrangement of
transistor into the glass plate.
1. Active matrix LCD
2. Passive matrix LCD.
1. Active matrix LCD—In these method TFT transistor are present
in every row… and they are on depending on the pixel by pixel
so it will take more time for last pixel in row to glow. To avoid
above problem passive matrix LCD were used.
2. Passive matrix LCD—In these method TFT (thin film transistor)
are present on every pixel so at the same time all the pixel
intensity value should be on.
 Transistor cause crystal to change their state quickly and also
to control degree to which the state has been changed.
 Transistor can also serve as a memory for the state until it is
 changed.
 So transistor make cell ON for all time giving brighter display
then it would be if it had to be refresh periodically

Advantages of LCD display

 Low cost.
 Low weight.
 Small size
 Low power consumption. 
Disadvantages of LCD display
 Practical limitation of LCD is that it has a very narrow view angle
and therefore LCDs are needed to be kept right in front of user’s
eyes . other limitations are that they have lower contrast ratio,
longer response time.