Unit-I notes:

What is computer Graphics?

The term computer graphics has been used in a broad sense to describe "almost everything
on computers that is not text or sound".

Graphics is defined as any sketch or a drawing or a special network that pictorially

represents some meaningful information.

Computer graphics is a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally
synthesizing and manipulating visual content.

Computer graphics deals with creation, manipulation and storage of different type of images
and objects.

Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures, lines, charts, etc. using computers
with the helpof programming.Computergraphicsimageismadeupofnumberofpixels.

Application of Computer Graphics:

1. Education and Training: Computer-generated model of the physical, financial and

economic system is often used as educational aids.

Model of physical systems, physiological system, population trends or equipment can help
trainees to understand the operation of the system.

For some training applications, particular systems are designed. For example Flight
Simulator.

Flight Simulator: It helps in giving training to the pilots of airplanes. These pilots spend much
of their training not in a real aircraft but on the ground at the controls of a Flight Simulator.

Advantages:
1. Fuel Saving
2. Safety
3. Ability to familiarize the training with a large number of the world's airports.

2. Use in Biology: Molecular biologist can display a picture of molecules and gain insight
into their structure with the help of computer graphics.

3. Cartography: Computer graphics is used in designing various kinds of maps such as

oceanographic charts, area maps, population density maps, weather maps, etc.

4. Computer-Generated Maps: Town planners and transportation engineers can use

computer-generated maps which display data useful to them in their planning work.
5. Medical practices: 2D colorful images of cross sections of human body or other organs
are produced. Then these 2 D images are transformed to CG tools which surgeons use for
their rehearsal.

5. Architect: Architect can explore an alternative solution to design problems at an

interactive graphics terminal. In this way, they can test many more solutions that would not
be possible without the computer.

6. Presentation Graphics: Example of presentation Graphics are bar charts, line graphs, pie
charts and other displays showing relationships between multiple parameters. Presentation
Graphics is commonly used to summarize

o Financial Reports
o Statistical Reports
o Mathematical Reports
o Scientific Reports
o Economic Data for research reports
o Managerial Reports
o Consumer Information Bulletins
o And other types of reports

7. Computer Art: Computer Graphics are also used in the field of commercial arts. It is used
to generate television and advertising commercial.

8. Entertainment: Computer graphics finds a major part of its utility in the movie industry
and game industry. Used for creating motion pictures, music video, television shows,
cartoon animation films.

In the game industry where focus and interactivity are the key players, computer graphics
helps in providing such features in the efficient way.

9. Visualization: It is used for visualization of scientists, engineers, medical personnel,

business analysts for the study of a large amount of information.

10. Educational Software: Computer Graphics is used in the development of educational

software for making computer-aided instruction. Computer generated models are extremely
useful for teaching huge number of concepts and fundamentals in an easy to understand and
learn manner. Using computer graphics many educational models can be created through
which more interest can be generated among the students regarding the subject.

11. Printing Technology DTP (DeskTop Publishing): Computer Graphics is used for
printing technology and textile design. It can also be used for production of journal, printing
news letter etc.
12. Image processing: Various kinds of photographs or images require editing in order to
be used in different places. Processing of existing images into refined ones for better
interpretation is one of the many applications of computer graphics.

13. Machine Drawing: Computer graphics is very frequently used for designing,
modifying and creation of various parts of machine and the whole machine itself, the main
reason behind using computer graphics for this purpose is the precision and clarity we get
from such drawing is ultimate and extremely desired for the safe manufacturing of machine
using these drawings.

14. Graphical User Interface:

The use of pictures, images, icons, pop-up menus, graphical objects helps in creating a user
friendly environment where working is easy and pleasant, using computer graphics we can
create such an atmosphere where everything can be automated and anyone can get the
desired action performed in an easy fashion.

Example of Computer Graphics Packages:

1. LOGO
2. COREL DRAW
3. AUTO CAD
4. 3D STUDIO
5. CORE
6. GKS (Graphics Kernel System)
7. CAM (Computer Graphics Metafile)
8. CGI (Computer Graphics Interface)

Overview of graphics systems:

Today, computer graphics is widespread. Such imagery is found in and on television,

newspapers, weather reports, and in a variety of medical investigations and surgical
procedures. A well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to
understand and interpret. In the media "such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports,
theses", and other presentation material.[

Many tools have been developed to visualize data. Computer-generated imagery can be
categorized into several different types: two dimensional (2D), three dimensional (3D), and
animated graphics. As technology has improved, 3D computer graphics have become more
common, but 2D computer graphics are still widely used. Computer graphics has emerged as
a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and
manipulating visual content
Interactive and Passive Graphics:

(a) Non-Interactive or Passive Computer Graphics:

In non-interactive computer graphics, the picture is produced on the monitor, and the user
does not have any controlled over the image, i.e., the user cannot make any change in the
rendered image.

One example of its Titles shown on T.V.

Non-interactive Graphics involves only one-way communication between the computer and
the user, User can see the produced image, and he cannot make any change in the image.

(b) Interactive Computer Graphics:

In interactive Computer Graphics user have some controls over the picture, i.e., the user can
make any change in the produced image. One example of it is the ping-pong game.

Interactive Computer Graphics require two-way communication between the computer and
the user. A User can see the image and make any change by sending his command with an
input device.

Advantages:
1. Higher Quality
2. More precise results or products
3. Greater Productivity
4. Lower analysis and design cost
5. Significantly enhances our ability to understand data and to perceive trends.

Working of Interactive Computer Graphics:

The modern graphics display is very simple in construction. It consists of three components:

1. Frame Buffer or Digital Memory

2. A Monitor likes a home T.V. set without the tuning and receiving electronics.
3. Display Controller or Video Controller: It passes the contents of the frame buffer to the
monitor.
Frame Buffer: A digital frame buffer is large, contiguous piece of computer memory used to
hold or map the image displayed on the screen.

o At a minimum, there is 1 memory bit for each pixel in the raster. This amount of
memory is called a bit plane.
o A 1024 x 1024 element requires 220 (210=1024;220=1024 x 1024)sq.raster or 1,048,576
memory bits in a single bit plane.
o The picture is built up in the frame buffer one bit at a time.
o A memory bit has only two states (binary 0 or 1), a single bit plane yields a black and
white (monochrome display).

Properties of Video Monitor:

1. Persistence: Persistence is the duration of phosphorescence. Different kinds of phosphors

are available for use in CRT. Besides color, a major difference between phosphor in their
persistence how they continue to emit light after the electron beam is removed.

2. Resolution: Use to describe the number of pixels that are used on display image.

3. Aspect Ratio: It is the ratio of width to its height. Its measure is unit in length or number
of pixels.

Aspect Ratio =

Video Display Devices:

The most commonly used display device is a video monitor. The operation of most video
monitors based on CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). The following display devices are used:
 1. Refresh Cathode Ray Tube
2. Random Scan and Raster Scan
3. Color CRT Monitors
4. Direct View Storage Tubes
5. Flat Panel Display

1.Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. CRT is a technology used in traditional computer
monitors and televisions. The image on CRT display is created by firing electrons from the
back of the tube towards the front of thephosphorus coated screen.

Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they light up, and they are projected on a screen. A
beam of electrons, emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and deflection
systems that direct the beam toward specified positions on the phosphor coated screen.

The phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by the electron beam.
Because the light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly, the picture is redrawn
repeatedly by quickly directing the electron beam back over the same points. This type of
display is called a Refresh CRT.

Following figure shows the architecture of CRT:

Components of CRT:

Main Components of CRT are:

1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily a

heating filament (heater) and a cathode.
The electron gun creates a source of electrons which are focused into a narrow
beam directed at the face of the CRT.
Electron Gun is used to generate electrons. It consists of the heated metal cathode.
Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire, called
the filament. This causes the electrons to emit from the hot cathode surface.

2. Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.

Setting voltage levels on the Control Grid controls intensity of the electron beam.
A high negative voltage applied to the control grid will shut off the electron beam
by repelling electrons. A smaller negative voltage on the control grid decreases
the number of electrons passing through the grid.

Since the amount of light emitted by the phosphor coating depends on the number
of electrons striking the screen, we control the brightness of a display by varying
the voltage on the control grid.

3. Focusing system: It is used to create a clear picture by focusing the electrons into
a narrow beam.

The Focusing System in a CRT is needed to force the electron beam to join into a
small spot as it strikes the phosphor screen. Otherwise, the electrons will repel
each other, and the beam would spread out as it approaches the screen. Focusing is
done using electric or magnetic fields.

4. Deflection Yoke: It is used to control the direction of the electron beam. It creates
an electric or magnetic field which will bend the electron beam as it passes
through the area.

Deflection plates are used to move the electron beam to any position of the screen.
Horizontal deflection is done by a pair of horizontal deflection coils/plates and
vertical deflection is done by vertical deflection plates/coils.

In a conventional CRT, the yoke is linked to a sweep or scan generator. The

deflection yoke which is connected to the sweep generator creates a fluctuating
electric or magnetic potential.

5. Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is coated with
phosphors.

Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron beam hits them. Phosphorescence is

the term used to characterize the light given off by a phosphor after it has been
exposed to an electron beam.
 6. Glass Tub: All the components of a CRT are enclosed in an evacuated glass tube
called envelope. This allows the emitted electrons to move about freely from one
end of the tube to the other end.

7. Base: The base is provided to the CRT through which the connections are made to
the various parts.

Random scan display:

Random Scan System uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a line
image on the CRT screen.

The picture is constructed out of a sequence of straight-line segments. Each line segment is
drawn on the screen by directing the beam to move from one point on the screen to the next,
where its x & y coordinates define each point.

Random-scan monitors are also known as vector displays or stroke-writing displays or

calligraphic displays. Refresh rate is based on the number of lines to be displayed.

An area of memory called refresh display files stores picture definition as a set of
line drawing commands.

High-quality vector systems can handle around 100, 00 short lines at this refresh
rate. Faster refreshing can burn the phosphor. To avoid this every refresh cycle is
delayed to prevent refresh rate greater than 60 frames per second.

After drawing the picture the system cycles back to the first line and design all the lines of the
image 30 to 60 time each second. The process is shown in fig:

In Random-Scan Display electron beam is directed only to the areas of screen where
a picture has to be drawn. It is also called vector displays, as it draws picture one
line at time.
 It can draw and refresh component lines of a picture in any specified sequence. Pen
plotter is an example of random-scan displays.

Architecture of random scan display:

 It contains a separate display processor -the purpose of the display processor is to free the
CPU form graphics loads.
 It is also called graphic controller or display co-processor.

The system memory holds the data and the program that execute on CPU: The application
program, Graphics package and Operation system.

Similarly display processor holds data and the programs that perform scan conversion and the
raster operation. The frame buffer contains the displayable image created by the scan
conversion and raster operation.

Advantages:
1. A CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where an image is to be
drawn.
2. Produce smooth line drawings.
3. High Resolution

Disadvantages:
1. Random-Scan monitors cannot display realistic shades scenes.
Raster scan display:

raster Scan Displays are most common type of graphics monitor which employs CRT. It is
based on television technology.
-In raster scan system electron beam sweeps across the screen, from top to bottom covering
one row at a time.

Following figure shows the architecture of the raster scan display:

-A pattern of illuminated spots is created by turning beam intensity on(1) and off(0) as it
moves across each row.
-A memory area called refresh buffer or frame buffer stores picture definition. This
memory area holds intensity values for all screen points.
-Stored intensity values are restored from frame buffer and painted on screen taking one
row at a time.Each screen point is referred to as pixels.
-In raster scan systems refreshing is done at done at a rate of 60-80 frames per second.
Refresh rates are also sometimes described in units of cycles per second / Hertz (Hz).
-A raster can be defined as a rectangular array of points or dots. Frame Buffer is also known
as Raster or bit map. In Frame Buffer the positions are called picture elements or pixels.
Beam refreshing is of two types.
First is horizontal retracing and second is vertical retracing. When the beam starts from
the top left corner and reaches the bottom right scale, it will again return to the top left side
called at vertical retrace.

Then it will again move horizontally from top to bottom call as horizontal retracing shown in
above fig.

Advantages:
 Real life images with different shades can be displayed.
 Colour range available is bigger than random scan display.
Disadvantages:
 Resolution is lower than random scan display.
 More memory is required.
 Data about the intensities of all pixels has to be stored.

Difference between random scan and raster scan display:-

SN Random/vector scan display Rastor scan display
1 In vector scan display the beam is move In rastor scan display the beam is
between the end points of graphics moved all over the screen,one scan line
primitives at a time, from top to bottom and then
again back to top
2 Vector display only draws lines and Rastor display has ability to display
characters areas filled with solid colors or patterns
3 Random scan display devices are more Rastor scan display devices are less
expensive expensive
4 It has high resolution because it stores It has poor resolution because picture
picture definition as a set of line commands definition is stored as a intensity value
of pixel
5 Refresh rate depends on number of lines to Refresh rate is 60 to 80 frames per
be displayed-normally 30 to 60 cycles second
6 It stores picture definition in refresh display It stores picture definition in refresh
file buffer also called as frame buffer
7 Smooth line is produced because directly the Zig-zag line is produced because
line path is followed by electron beam plotted values are discrete
8 It does not contain shadow and hidden It contains shadow, advance shading
surface technique so it cannot give realistic and hidden surface technique to
display of scenes produce realistic display of scenes
9 It is designed for line drawing application It uses pixel along scan lines for
and uses various mathematical functions to drawing an image
draw an image
10 It is a line drawing device It is a point plotting device
11 It draws image in any order It sweeps the screen in particular order
12 It is used for creating logo’s, text, It is mostly used for editing and
letterheads. producing pictures
13 Software’s used: SVGator software Software’s used:photoshop

14 In vector display, lines flicker when the In rastor display, the refresh process is
no.of primitives in the buffer becomes too independent of complexity of the
large image
15 Scan conversion is not required Graphics primitives are specified in
terms of endpoints and must be scan
converted into their corresponding
pixels in the frame buffer
16 Scan conversion hardware is not required Scan conversion hardware is required
to do real time scan computation
17 It does not use interlacing It uses interlacing
18 Extensions of output images: Extensions of output images:

1) .AI (Adobe Illustrator) 1) .JPEG

2) .PDF(Portable Document 2) .TIF
Format) 3) .GIF
3) .EPS(Encapsulated postscript) 4) .PNG
4) .SVG( Scalable vector
graphics)
Color CRT Monitors:

Color CRT Monitors are similar to CRT. The CRT Monitor display by using a combination
of phosphors. The phosphors are of different colors. The basic idea behind the color CRT
monitor is to combine three basic colors- Red, Green, and Blue.

By using these three colors, we can produce millions of different colors. The two basic color
display producing techniques are:

1. Beam Penetration Method

2. Shadow-Mask Method

1. Beam Penetration Method:

The Beam-Penetration method has been used with random-scan monitors

In this method, the CRT screen is coated with two layers of phosphor, red and green and the
displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphor layers.

This method produces four colors only, red, green, orange and yellow. A beam of slow
electrons excites the outer red layer only; hence screen shows red color only. A beam of high-
speed electrons excites/penetrates the inner green layer. Thus, screen shows a green color.

The following fig shows the architecture:

. But the basic problem is a reliable technology to accelerate the electronic beam to precise
levels to get the exact colors – it is easier said than done. However, a limited range of colors
can be conveniently produced using the concept.

Advantages:
1. Better Resolution
2. Half cost
3. Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
1. Only four possible colors
2. Time Consuming

2. Shadow-Mask Method:
o Shadow Mask Method is commonly used in Raster-Scan System because they produce a
much wider range of colors than the beam-penetration method.
o It is used in the majority of color TV sets and monitors.

Construction: A shadow mask CRT has 3 phosphor color dots at each pixel position.

o One phosphor dot emits: red light

o Another emits: green light
o Third emits: blue light

This type of CRT has 3 electron guns, one for each color dot and a shadow mask grid just
behind the phosphor coated screen.

Shadow mask grid is pierced with small round holes in a triangular pattern.

Figure shows the delta-delta shadow mask method commonly used in color CRT system.

Working: Triad arrangement of red, green, and blue guns.

The deflection system of the CRT operates on all 3 electron beams simultaneously; the 3
electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains a
sequence of holes aligned with the phosphor- dot patterns.

When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dotted
triangle, which occurs as a small color spot on the screen.

The phosphor dots in the triangles are organized so that each electron beam can activate only
its corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.

Inline arrangement: Another configuration for the 3 electron guns is an Inline arrangement
in which the 3

electron guns and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the screen, are aligned
along one scan line rather of in a triangular pattern. This inline arrangement of electron guns
in easier to keep in alignment and is commonly used in high-resolution color CRT's.

Advantage:
1. Realistic image
2. Million different colors to be generated
3. Shadow scenes are possible

Disadvantage:
1. Relatively expensive compared with the monochrome CRT.
2. Relatively poor resolution
3. Convergence Problem

Fig shows the delta delta and inline arrangement of pixels on screem:
 Inline arrangement Triad arrangement

If you select any three dots in any way around its going to be combination of red, blue and green color
dots.

Difference between beam penetration method and shadow mask method:

Sr.
No. Basis Beam Penetration Shadow Mask

In this method, there is the

production of only four
Colors colors i.e., red, green, In this method, there is the
1. produced yellow, orange. production of millions of colors.

As in this method only four As in this method millions of

colors are produced it is colors are produced because it
Color because of the speed of the depends upon the intensity value
2. dependency electron gun. of the three available guns.

Number of In this methods, three electron

electron guns In this method, only one guns are used; i.e red, green and
3. used. electron gun is used. blue.

As we know in this different As we know in this different

colors and shades are not colors and shades are possible.
possible. So, it’s picture So, it’s picture quality is quite
4. Picture quality quality is poor. good.

This method is not suitable

for providing the realistic This method is suitable for
5. Realistic view view. providing the realistic view.

This method provides high Whereas, this method does not

6. Resolution resolution. able to provide high resolution.

It is cheaper than shadow

7. Cost mask method. It is an expensive method.

It is used in random scan It is used in raster scan system to

8. Application system to display color. display color.
Direct View Storage Tubes:
DVST terminals also use the random scan approach to generate the image on the CRT screen.
The term "storage tube" refers to the ability of the screen to retain the image which has been
projected against it, thus avoiding the need to rewrite the image constantly.

Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) resembles CRT as it uses electron gun to draw
picture and phosphor coated screen to display it.

The phosphor used in this is of high persistence. DVST does not use refresh buffer
or frame buffer to store picture definition.

Picture definition is stored in inside CRT in form positive charged distribution.

Because of this reason DVST is knows as Storage Type CRT.

In DVST no refreshing is required as result picture drawn on DVST will be seen for
several minutes before fading.

Various components of DVST :

1. Electron guns –
Two electron guns are used in DVST : Primary Gun(writing gun) and Flood
Gun(secondary gun). Primary gun is used to store picture pattern. Flood gun is
used to maintain picture display on phosphor coated screen.
2. Phosphor Coated Screen –
In DVST the inner surface of CRT is coated with phosphor crystals is of high
persistence that emit light when beam of electrons strike them.
3. Storage Mesh –
It is thin and high quality wire that is coated with dielectric and is located just
behind phosphor coated screen. Primary gun deposits pattern of positive charge
on this grid and it is transferred to phosphor coated screen by continuous flood of
electrons produced by flood gun. Thus Storage Mesh stores picture to be
displayed in form of positive charge distribution.

4. Collector –
This grid is located just behind storage mesh and purpose of this negatively
charged grid is to smooth out flow of flood electrons.

Working principle of DVST:

In DVST similar with CRT electron gun and phosphor coated method is used. But in
this no electron beam is used to directly writing pictures on screen, but instead of
this we can used Storage mesh wire grid is used. it is just located behind phosphor
coated screen.
There is also another grid located just behind storage mesh is called Collector and
this purpose is to smooth out flow of flood electrons. The flood gun produce large
number of electrons, this negatively charged grid reduces speed of these electrons.
Then electrons pass through collector at low velocity and attracted by positive
charged portions of storage mesh and strike at portions of phosphor coated screen to
display picture. Some electrons get repelled by other portions of mesh that are
negatively charged.
Since the collector has slowly down electrons, in this way they not able to produce
sharpened images. So to reduce this problem, screen itself is maintained at a high
positive potential by means of voltage applied to thin aluminium coating between
tube face and phosphor.
Advantages of DVST:
 For picture display it does not require refreshing.
 Display complex pictures at high resolution without any flicker.
 No use of frame buffer or refresh buffer.
Disadvantages of DVST:
 Not used for dynamic graphic such as animation.
 These systems do not display colors.
 To erase selected part of an image, entire screen needs to be erased and modified
pictures needs to be redrawn.
Flat Panel Display:
The Flat-Panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement compare to CRT.

Example: Small T.V. monitor, calculator, pocket video games, laptop computers, an
advertisement board in elevator.
1. Emissive Display: The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Examples are Plasma Panel, thin film electroluminescent display and LED (Light
Emitting Diodes).

2. Non-Emissive Display: The Non-Emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight
or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Examples are LCD (Liquid Crystal
Device).

Plasma Panel Display:

Plasma-Panels are also called as Gas-Discharge Display. It consists of an array of small
lights. Lights are fluorescent in nature. The essential components of the plasma-panel display
are:

1. Cathode: It consists of fine wires. It delivers negative voltage to gas cells. The voltage is
released along with the negative axis.
2. Anode: It also consists of line wires. It delivers positive voltage. The voltage is supplied
along positive axis.
3. Fluorescent cells: It consists of small pockets of gas liquids when the voltage is applied to
this liquid (neon gas) it emits light.
4. Glass Plates: These plates act as capacitors. The voltage will be applied, the cell will glow
continuously.

The gas will slow when there is a significant voltage difference between horizontal and
vertical wires. The voltage level is kept between 90 volts to 120 volts. Plasma level does not
require refreshing. Erasing is done by reducing the voltage to 90 volts.

Each cell of plasma has two states(on and off), so cell is said to be stable. Displayable point
in plasma panel is made by the crossing of the horizontal and vertical grid. The resolution of
the plasma panel can be up to 512 * 512 pixels.
Advantage:
1. High Resolution
2. Large screen size is also possible.
3. Less Volume
4. Less weight
5. Flicker Free Display

Disadvantage:
1. Poor Resolution
2. Wiring requirement anode and the cathode is complex.
3. Its addressing is also complex.

LED (Light Emitting Diode):

In an LED, a matrix of diodes is organized to form the pixel positions in the display and
picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer. Data is read from the refresh buffer and
converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light pattern in the
display.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

Liquid Crystal Displays are the devices that produce a picture by passing polarized light from
the surroundings or from an internal light source through a liquid-crystal material that
transmits the light.

LCD uses the liquid-crystal material between two glass plates; each plate is the right angle to
each other between plates liquid is filled. One glass plate consists of rows of conductors
arranged in vertical direction. Another glass plate is consisting of a row of conductors
arranged in horizontal direction. The pixel position is determined by the intersection of the
vertical & horizontal conductor. This position is an active part of the screen.

Liquid crystal display is temperature dependent. It is between zero to seventy degree Celsius.
It is flat and requires very little power to operate.

Advantage:
1. Low power consumption.
2. Small Size
3. Low Cost

Disadvantage:
1. LCDs are temperature-dependent (0-70°C)
2. LCDs do not emit light; as a result, the image has very little contrast.
3. LCDs have no color capability.
4. The resolution is not as good as that of a CRT.

5. Extensions of output images:

Input Devices in computer graphics:

The Input Devices are the hardware that is used to transfer transfers input to the computer.
The data can be in the form of text, graphics, sound, and text. Output device display data
from the memory of the computer. Output can be text, numeric data, line, polygon, and other
objects.

These Devices include:

1)Keyboard, 2)Mouse, 3)Trackball, 4)Spaceball, 5)Joystick, 6)Light Pen, 7)Digitizer, 8)Touch Panels

9)Voice Recognition, 10)Image Scanner

Keyboard:
The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by pressing the set
of keys. All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a QWERTY keyboard.

The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also available.

1. Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
2. Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)
3. Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt
4. Special Symbol Keys: ; , " ? @ ~ ? :
5. Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓
6. Function Keys: F1 F2 F3....F9.
7. Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used for fast entry of
numeric data.

Function of Keyboard:
1. Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD. (Computer Aided Drafting)
2. Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates entry, Menu selection
or graphics functions, etc.
3. Special purpose keyboards are available having buttons, dials, and switches. Dials are used to
enter scalar values. Dials also enter real numbers. Buttons and switches are used to enter
predefined function values.

Advantage:
1. Suitable for entering numeric data.
2. Function keys are a fast and effective method of using commands, with fewer errors.

Disadvantage:
1. Keyboard is not suitable for graphics input.

Mouse:
A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the pointer on the screen. It is a small palm
size box. There are two or three depression switches on the top. The movement of the mouse
along the x-axis helps in the horizontal movement of the cursor and the movement along the
y-axis helps in the vertical movement of the cursor on the screen. The mouse cannot be used
to enter text. Therefore, they are used in conjunction with a keyboard.
Advantage:
1. Easy to use
2. Not very expensive

Trackball
It is a pointing device. It is similar to a mouse. This is mainly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted, and by changing fingers on
the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Advantage:
1. Trackball is stationary, so it does not require much space to use it.
2. Compact Size
Spaceball:
It is similar to trackball, but it can move in six directions where trackball can move in two
directions only. The movement is recorded by the strain gauge. Strain gauge is applied with
pressure. It can be pushed and pulled in various directions. The ball has a diameter around 7.5
cm. The ball is mounted in the base using rollers. One-third of the ball is an inside box, the
rest is outside.

Applications:
1. It is used for three-dimensional positioning of the object.
2. It is used to select various functions in the field of virtual reality.
3. It is applicable in CAD applications.
4. Animation is also done using spaceball.
5. It is used in the area of simulation and modeling.

Joystick:
A Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to change cursor position on a monitor
screen. Joystick is a stick having a spherical ball as its both lower and upper ends as shown in
fig. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be changed in all four
directions. The function of a joystick is similar to that of the mouse. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube. When its tip is moved over the monitor screen, and pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding
signals to the CPU.

Uses:
1. Light Pens can be used as input coordinate positions by providing necessary arrangements.
2. If background color or intensity, a light pen can be used as a locator.
3. It is used as a standard pick device with many graphics system.
4. It can be used as stroke input devices.
5. It can be used as valuators

Digitizers:
The digitizer is an operator input device, which contains a large, smooth board (the
appearance is similar to the mechanical drawing board) & an electronic tracking device,
which can be changed over the surface to follow existing lines. The electronic tracking device
contains a switch for the user to record the desire x & y coordinate positions. The coordinates
can be entered into the computer memory or stored or an off-line storage medium such as
magnetic tape.

Advantages:
1. Drawing can easily be changed.
2. It provides the capability of interactive graphics.

Disadvantages:
1. Costly
2. Suitable only for applications which required high-resolution graphics.

Touch Panels:
Touch Panels is a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel covering
the screen. A touch screen registers input when a finger or other object comes in contact with
the screen.

When the wave signals are interrupted by some contact with the screen, that located is
recorded. Touch screens have long been used in military applications.

Voice Systems (Voice Recognition):

Voice Recognition is one of the newest, most complex input techniques used to interact with
the computer. The user inputs data by speaking into a microphone. The simplest form of
voice recognition is a one-word command spoken by one person. Each command is isolated
with pauses between the words.

Voice Recognition is used in some graphics workstations as input devices to accept voice
commands. The voice-system input can be used to initiate graphics operations or to enter
data. These systems operate by matching an input against a predefined dictionary of words
and phrases.

Advantage:
1. More efficient device.
2. Easy to use
3. Unauthorized speakers can be identified

Disadvantages:
1. Very limited vocabulary
2. Voice of different operators can't be distinguished.

Image Scanner
It is an input device. The data or text is written on paper. The paper is feeded to scanner. The
paper written information is converted into electronic format; this format is stored in the
computer. The input documents can contain text, handwritten material, picture extra.

By storing the document in a computer document became safe for longer period of time. The
document will be permanently stored for the future. We can change the document when we
need. The document can be printed when needed.

Scanning can be of the black and white or colored picture. On stored picture 2D or 3D
rotations, scaling and other operations can be applied.

Types of image Scanner:

1. Flat Bed Scanner: It resembles a photocopy machine. It has a glass top on its top. Glass
top in further covered using a lid. The document to be scanned is kept on glass plate. The
light is passed underneath side of glass plate. The light is moved left to right. The scanning is
done the line by line. The process is repeated until the complete line is scanned. Within 20-25
seconds a document of 4" * 6" can be scanned.

2. Hand Held Scanner: It has a number of LED's (Light Emitting Diodes) the LED's are
arranged in the small case. It is called a Hand held Scanner because it can be kept in hand
which performs scanning. For scanning the scanner is moved over document from the top
towards the bottom. Its light is on, while we move it on document. It is dragged very slowly
over document. If dragging of the scanner over the document is not proper, the conversion
will not correct.