Computer Graphics

UNIT – I
Chapter - I

A Survey of Computer Graphics

INTRODUCTION:

Computers have become a powerful tool for the rapid

and economical production of pictures. There is
virtually no area in which graphical displays cannot be
used to some advantage. The use of computer
graphics is so widespread. Advances in computer
technology have made interactive computer graphics a
practical tool. Today, we find computer graphics used
routinely in such diverse areas as science,
engineering, medicine, business, industry,
government, art, entertainment, advertising,
education, and training.
COMPUTER-AIDED-DESIGN:

* A major use of computer graphics is in design processes, particularly for

engineering and architectural systems, but almost all products are now computer
designed generally referred to as CAD, computer-aided design methods are now
routinely used in the design of buildings, automobiles, aircraft, watercraft,
spacecraft, computers, textiles, and many, many other products.
* For some design applications; object are first displayed in a wireframe outline
form that shows the overall sham and internal features of objects. Wireframe
displays also allow designers to quickly see the effects of interactive adjustments to
design shapes.
* Software packages for CAD applications typically provide the designer with a
multiwindow environment.
* A designer can create personalized symbols that are to be used to construct the
network or circuit. The system is then designed by successively placing components
into the layout, with the graphics package automatically providing the connections
between components. This allows the designer to quickly try out alternate circuit
schematics for minimizing the number of components or the space required for the
system.
* Animations are often used in CAD applications. Real-time animations using
wireframe displays on a video monitor are useful for testing performance of a
vehicle or system.
* When object designs are complete, or nearly complete, realistic lighting models
and surface rendering are applied to produce displays that will show the appearance
of the final product.
PRESENTATION GRAPHICS:
Another major application area is presentation graphics, used to produce illustrations
for reports or to generate 35-mm slides or transparencies for use with projectors.
Presentation graphics is
commonly used to summarize financial, statistical, mathematical, scientific, and
economic data for research reports, managerial reports, consumer information
bulletins, and other types of reports. Workstation devices and service bureaus exist
for converting screen displays into 35-mm slides or overhead
transparencies for use in presentations. Typical examples of presentation graphics
are bar charts, line graphs, surface graphs, pie charts, and other displays showing
relationships between multiple parameters.
COMPUTER-ART:
Computer graphics methods are widely used in both fine art and commercial art
applications. Artists use a variety of computer methods, including special-purpose
hardware, artist's paintbrush (such as Lumens), other paint packages (such as Pixel
paint and Super paint), specially developed software, symbolic mathematics
packages (such as Mathematics), CAD packages, desktop publishing software, and
animation
packages that provide facilities for designing object shapes and specifying object
motions. Fine artists use a variety of other computer technologies to produce images.
The artist uses a combination of three-dimensional modeling packages, texture
mapping, drawing programs, and CAD software.
Animations are also used frequently in advertising, and television commercials are
produced frame by frame, where each frame of the motion is rendered and saved as
an image file. In each
successive frame, the motion is simulated by moving o w positions
slightly from their positions in the previous frame. When all frames in the animation
sequence have been rendered, the frames are transferred to film or stored in a video
buffer for playback. Film animations require 24 frames for each second in the
animation sequence. If the animation is to be played back on a video monitor, 30
frames per second are required.
A common graphics method employed in many commercials is morphing, where
one object is transformed (metamorphosed) into another. This method has been used
in TV commercials to turn an oil can into an automobile engine, an automobile into
a
tiger, a puddle of water into a tire, and one person's face into another face.
ENTERTAINMENT:
Computer graphics methods are now commonly used in making motion pictures,
music videos, and television shows. Sometimes the graphics scenes are displayed by
themselves, and sometimes graphics objects are combined with the actors and live
scenes.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING:
Computer-generated models of physical, financial, and economic systems are often
used as educational aids. Models of physical systems, physiological systems,
population trends, or equipment, such as the color coded diagram, can help trainees
to understand the operation of the system. For some training applications, special
systems are designed. Examples of such specialized systems are the simulators for
practice sessions or training of ship captains, aircraft pilots, heavy-equipment
operators, and air traffic control personnel. Some simulators have no video screens;
for example, a flight simulator with only a control panel for instrument flying. But
most simulators provide graphics screens for visual operation.
VISUALIZATION:
Scientists, engineers, medical personnel, business
analysts, and others often need to analyze large
amounts of information or to study the behavior of
certain processes. Numerical simulations carried out on
supercomputers frequently produce data files
containing thousands and even millions of data values.
Similarly, satellite cameras and other sources are
amassing large data files faster than they can be
interpreted. Scanning these large sets of numbers to determine trends and
relationships is a tedious and ineffective process. But if the data are converted to a
visual form, the trends and patterns are often immediately apparent.
Once we have plotted the density values in this way, we can see easily the overall
pattern of the data. Producing graphical representations for scientific, engineering,
and medical data sets and processes is generally referred to as scientific
visualization.
And the term business visualization is used in connection with data sets related to
commerce, industry, and other nonscientific areas.
There are many different kinds of data sets, and effective visualization schemes
depend on the characteristics of the data. A collection of data can contain scalar
values, vectors, higher-order tensors, or any combination of these data types. And
data sets can be two-dimensional or three dimensional. Color coding is just one way
to visualize a data set. Additional techniques include contour plots, graphs and
charts, surface renderings, and visualizations of volume interiors. In addition, image
processing techniques are combined with computer graphics to produce many of the
data visualizations. Mathematicians, physical scientists, and others use visual
techniques to analyze mathematical functions and processes or simply to produce
interesting graphical representations.
IMAGE PROCESSING:
Although methods used in computer graphics and Image processing overlap,the two
areas are concerned with
fundamentally different operations. In computer graphics, a computer is used to
create a picture. Image processing,
on the other hand, applies techniques to modify or interpret existing pictures, such as
photographs and TV scans.

Two principal applications of image processing are

(1) improving picture quality and

(2) machine perception of visual information, as used in robotics.

To apply image processing methods, we first digitize a photograph or other picture
into an image file. Then digital methods can be applied to rearrange picture parts, to
enhance color separations, or to improve the quality of shading.
Medical applications also make extensive use of image processing techniques for
picture enhancements, in tomography and in simulations of operations. Tomography
is a technique of X-ray photography that allows cross-sectional views of
physiological
systems to be displayed.
Both computed X-rav tomography (CT) and position emission tomography (PET)
use projection methods to reconstruct cross sections from digital data.
Image processing and computer graphics are typically combined in many
applications.
Medicine, for example, uses these techniques to model and study physical functions,
to design artificial limbs, and to plan and practice surgery. The last application is
generally referred to as computer-aided surgery. Two-dimensional cross sections of
the body are obtained using imaging techniques. Then the slices are viewed and
manipulated using graphics methods to simulate actual surgical procedures and to
try out different surgical cuts.
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES:
It is common now for software packages to provide a
graphical interface. A major component of a graphical
interface is a window manager that allows a user to
display multiple-window areas. Each window can
contain a different process that can contain graphical or
non-graphical displays. To make a particular window
active, we simply click in that window using an interactive pointing device.
Interfaces also display menus and icons for fast selection of processing options or
parameter values. An icon is a graphical symbol that is designed to look like the
processing option it represents.

The advantages of icons are that they take up less

screen space than corresponding textual descriptions and they can be understood
more quickly if well designed. Menus contain lists of textual descriptions and icons.
Chapter 2

Over View Of Graphics Systems

Video Display Devices

The display device is an output device used to represent the information in the form of images
(visual form). Display systems are mostly called a video monitor or Video display unit
(VDU).
Display devices are designed to model, display, view, or display information. The purpose of
display technology is to simplify information sharing.

Today, the demand for high-quality displays is increasing.

There are some display devices given below:

1. Cathode-Ray Tube(CRT)
2. Color CRT Monitor
3. Liquid crystal display(LCD)
4. Light Emitting Diode(LED)
5. Direct View Storage Tubes(DVST)
6. Plasma Display
7. 3D Display
1. Cathode-ray Tube (CRT): Here, CRT stands for Cathode ray tube. It is a technology
which is used in traditional computer monitor and television.
Cathode ray tube is a particular type of vacuum tube that displays images when an electron
beam collides on the radiant surface.
Component of CRT:
 Electron Gun: The electron gun is made up of several elements, mainly
a heating filament (heater) and a cathode.
The electron gun is a source of electrons focused on a narrow beam facing the
CRT.

 Focusing & Accelerating Anodes: These anodes are used to produce a

narrow and sharply focused beam of electrons.
 Horizontal & Vertical Deflection Plates: These plates are used to
guide the path of the electron the beam. The plates produce an
electromagnetic field that bends the electron beam through the area as it
travels.
 Phosphorus-coated Screen: The phosphorus coated screen is used to
produce bright spots when the high-velocity electron beam hits it.
Construction of a CRT –
 The primary components are the heated metal cathode and a control
grid.
  The heat is supplied to the cathode (by passing current through the
filament). This way the electrons get heated up and start getting ejected
out of the cathode filament.
 This stream of negatively charged electrons is accelerated towards the
phosphor screen by supplying a high positive voltage.
 This acceleration is generally produced by means of an accelerating
anode.
 Next component is the Focusing System, which is used to force the
electron beam to converge to small spot on the screen.
 If there will not be any focusing system, the electrons will be scattered
because of their own repulsions and hence we won’t get a sharp image
of the object.
 This focusing can be either by means of electrostatic fields or magnetic
fields.


Types Of Deflection:

1. Electrostatic Deflection –
The electron beam (cathode rays) passes through a highly positively
charged metal cylinder that forms an electrostatic lens. This electrostatic
lens focuses the cathode rays to the center of the screen in the same way
like an optical lens focuses the beam of light. Two pairs of parallel plates
are mounted inside the CRT tube.
2. Magnetic Deflection –
Here, two pairs of coils are used. One pair is mounted on the top and
bottom of the CRT tube, and the other pair on the two opposite sides. The
 magnetic field produced by both these pairs is such that a force is
generated on the electron beam in a direction which is perpendicular to
both the direction of magnetic field, and to the direction of flow of the
beam. One pair is mounted horizontally and the other vertically.

Now as this highly energetic beam strikes the surface of the screen, these
electrons are stopped and their kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor
screen (atoms). Some energy is wasted in heat also, but majority of the kinetic
energy gets transferred to the phosphor atoms. As these atoms receive this
huge amount of energy, they get excited to a higher energy level.

After a short time, these atoms start returning to their original energy level.
The original level is at a lower energy level than the excited one, hence the
atoms release some energy while coming down. This extra energy is
dissipated in the form of small quantums of light. Thus the de-excitation
results in a bright coloured spot on the screen. The frequency (color) of the
spot depends on the difference between the two energy levels (excited level
and ground state level).

Different kinds of phosphors are used in a CRT. The difference is based upon
the time for how long the phosphor continues to emit light after the CRT beam
has been removed. This property is referred to as Persistence. Basically
persistence means how much time is taken by the emitted light to reduce to
one-tenth of its original intensity. Now, phosphors with lower persistence
require higher refresh rates to maintain a picture on the screen without any
flicker.

Raster Scan
In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row
at a time from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the
beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots.

Picture definition is stored in memory area called the Refresh

Buffer or Frame Buffer. This memory area holds the set of intensity values
for all the screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the
refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen one row scanlinescanline at a time
as shown in the following illustration.
Each screen point is referred to as a pixel pictureelementpictureelement or pel.
At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the
screen to begin displaying the next scan line.
Types of Scanning or travelling of beam in Raster Scan

1. Interlaced Scanning
2. Non-Interlaced Scanning

In Interlaced scanning, each horizontal line of the screen is traced from top to
bottom. Due to which fading of display of object may occur. This problem can
be solved by Non-Interlaced scanning. In this first of all odd numbered lines
are traced or visited by an electron beam, then in the next circle, even number
of lines are located.

For non-interlaced display refresh rate of 30 frames per second used. But it
gives flickers. For interlaced display refresh rate of 60 frames per second is
used.

Advantages:
 1. Realistic image
2. Million Different colors to be generated
3. Shadow Scenes are possible.

Disadvantages:

1. Low Resolution
2. Expensive

Random Scan VectorScanVectorScan

In this technique, the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen
where the picture is to be drawn rather than scanning from left to right and top
to bottom as in raster scan. It is also called vector display, stroke-writing
display, or calligraphic display.

Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of

memory referred to as the refresh display file. To display a specified picture,
the system cycles through the set of commands in the display file, drawing each
component line in turn. After all the line-drawing commands are processed, the
system cycles back to the first line command in the list.

Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture
30 to 60 times each second.
 Advantages:
1. A CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen
where an image is to be drawn.
2. Produce smooth line drawings.
3. High Resolution

Disadvantages:
1. Random-Scan monitors cannot display realistic shades scenes.
 Differentiate between Random and Raster Scan
Display:
Random Scan Raster Scan

1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.

2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive

3. Any modification if needed is easy 3.Modification is tough

4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill

5. Refresh rate depends or resolution 5. Refresh rate does not depend on the
picture.

6. Only screen with view on an area is 6. Whole screen is scanned.

displayed.

7. Beam Penetration technology come under it. 7. Shadow mark technology came under
this.

8. It does not use interlacing method. 8. It uses interlacing

9. It is restricted to line drawing applications 9. It is suitable for realistic display.

Color CRT Monitors:
The CRT Monitor display by using a combination of phosphors. The
phosphors are different colors. There are two popular approaches for
producing color displays with a CRT are:

1. Beam Penetration Method

2. Shadow-Mask Method

1. Beam Penetration Method:

The Beam-Penetration method has been used with random-scan monitors. In
this method, the CRT screen is coated with two layers of phosphor, red and
green and the displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates
the phosphor layers. This method produces four colors only, red, green,
orange and yellow. A beam of slow electrons excites the outer red layer only;
hence screen shows red color only. A beam of high-speed electrons excites the
inner green layer. Thus screen shows a green color.

Advantages:
1. Inexpensive
Disadvantages:

1. Only four colors are possible

2. Quality of pictures is not as good as with another method.

2. Shadow-Mask Method:
o Shadow Mask Method is commonly used in Raster-Scan System
because they produce a much wider range of colors than the beam-
penetration method.
o It is used in the majority of color TV sets and monitors.

Construction: A shadow mask CRT has 3 phosphor color dots at each pixel
position.

o One phosphor dot emits: red light

o Another emits: green light
o Third emits: blue light

This type of CRT has 3 electron guns, one for each color dot and a shadow
mask grid just behind the phosphor coated screen.

Shadow mask grid is pierced with small round holes in a triangular pattern.

Figure shows the delta-delta shadow mask method commonly used in color
CRT system.
Working: Triad arrangement of red, green, and blue guns.

The deflection system of the CRT operates on all 3 electron beams

simultaneously; the 3 electron beams are deflected and focused as a group
onto the shadow mask, which contains a sequence of holes aligned with the
phosphor- dot patterns.

When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a
dotted triangle, which occurs as a small color spot on the screen.

The phosphor dots in the triangles are organized so that each electron beam
can activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes through the
shadow mask.

Inline arrangement: Another configuration for the 3 electron guns is an

Inline arrangement in which the 3

electron guns and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the screen,
are aligned along one scan line rather of in a triangular pattern.

This inline arrangement of electron guns in easier to keep in alignment and is

commonly used in high-resolution color CRT's.

Advantage:
1. Realistic image
2. Million different colors to be generated
3. Shadow scenes are possible
Disadvantage:

1. Relatively expensive compared with the monochrome CRT.

2. Relatively poor resolution
3. Convergence Problem

Direct View Storage Tubes:

DVST terminals also use the random scan approach to generate the image on
the CRT screen. The term "storage tube" refers to the ability of the screen to
retain the image which has been projected against it, thus avoiding the need to
rewrite the image constantly.

Function of guns: Two guns are used in DVST

1. Primary guns: It is used to store the picture pattern.

2. Flood gun or Secondary gun: It is used to maintain picture display.

Advantage:
 1. No refreshing is needed.
2. High Resolution
3. Cost is very less

Disadvantage:

1. It is not possible to erase the selected part of a picture.

2. It is not suitable for dynamic graphics applications.
3. If a part of picture is to modify, then time is consumed.

Flat Panel Display:

The Flat-Panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced
volume, weight and power requirement compare to CRT.

Example: Small T.V. monitor, calculator, pocket video games, laptop

computers, an advertisement board in elevator.

1. Emissive Display: The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical
energy into light. Examples are Plasma Panel, thin film electroluminescent
display and LED (Light Emitting Diodes).

2. Non-Emissive Display: The Non-Emissive displays use optical effects to

convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns.
Examples are LCD (Liquid Crystal Device).
 Plasma Panel Display:
Plasma-Panels are also called as Gas-Discharge Display. It consists of an array
of small lights. Lights are fluorescent in nature. The essential components of
the plasma-panel display are:

Advantage:

1. High Resolution
2. Large screen size is also possible.
3. Less Volume
4. Less weight
5. Flicker Free Display

Disadvantage:

1. Poor Resolution
2. Wiring requirement anode and the cathode is complex.
3. Its addressing is also complex.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode):
In an LED, a matrix of diodes is organized to form the pixel positions in the
display and picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer. Data is read from
the refresh buffer and converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes
to produce the light pattern in the display.
 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):
Liquid Crystal Displays are the devices that produce a picture by passing
polarized light from the surroundings or from an internal light source through
a liquid-crystal material that transmits the light.

LCD uses the liquid-crystal material between two glass plates; each plate is
the right angle to each other between plates liquid is filled. One glass plate
consists of rows of conductors arranged in vertical direction. Another glass
plate is consisting of a row of conductors arranged in horizontal direction. The
pixel position is determined by the intersection of the vertical & horizontal
conductor. This position is an active part of the screen.

Normally, the molecules are arranged in the “ ON STATE’ . polarized light

passing through the material is twisted so that it will pass through the
opposite polarizer . The light is then reflected back to the viewer. To turn off
the pixel, we apply a voltage to the two intersecting conductors to align the
molecules so that the light is not twisted. This type if display is refered to as
Passive matrix LCD.

The transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations and to
prevent charge fromgradually leaking out of the liquid crystal cells. These
devices are called Active matrix displays.

Liquid crystal display is temperature dependent. It is between zero to seventy

degree Celsius. It is flat and requires very little power to operate.
Advantage:
1. Low power consumption.
2. Small Size
3. Low Cost

Disadvantage:
1. LCDs are temperature-dependent (0-70°C)
2. LCDs do not emit light; as a result, the image has very little contrast.
3. LCDs have no color capability.
4. The resolution is not as good as that of a CRT.
INPUT DEVICES
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a
computer −

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
  Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to
input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional
typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing
additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with
104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally
give the same layout as that of typewriters.

2 Numeric Keypad
 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists
of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most
adding machines and calculators.

Function Keys

3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a
row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is
used for some specific purpose.

Control keys

4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page
Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control
device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses
the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when
the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is
present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of
the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on
a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper
ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved
in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in

Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell
and an optical system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button
is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends
the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by
moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a
mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
spaceball
A graphical input device that is based on a fixed spherical ball. It inputs six
different values defined by the orientation of the ball and the pressure together
with the direction that is applied to it. It allows complex objects to be
positioned and rotated in three-dimensional space using the single input device.
Internally a spaceball is normally made from a set of strain-gauges.

Dataglove
A dataglove is an input device that is essentially a
glove worn on the hand that contains various electronic sensors that monitor
the hand's movements and transform them into a form of input for applications
such as virtual reality and robotics. Some datagloves enable tactile sensing,
allowing the user to seemingly feel a virtual object and to apply fine-motion
control.

Datagloves are also known as cybergloves or wired gloves.

A dataglove is used to capture physical phenomena, such as
the bending of fingers, as data. It also often contains a motion tracker such as
an inertial or magnetic tracking device that captures the position and rotation
of the hand/glove. These movements are then interpreted by a driver or
software made specifically for the glove so that the gestures can be converted
into an input for a separate program such as for virtual reality, games or for
controlling animatronics or other kinds of robots.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is
used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to
the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a
digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before
they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital
form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series
of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the
computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine
works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Image Scanner
An image scanner is a digital device used to scan images, pictures, printed text
and objects and then convert them to digital images. Image scanners are used
in a variety of domestic and industrial applications like design, reverse
engineering, orthotics, gaming and testing. The most widely used type of
scanner in offices or homes is a flatbed scanner, also known as a Xerox
machine. This modern image scanner is a descendant of early fax input
devices and telegraphy equipment.

Techopedia explains Image Scanner

The image scanner was introduced in 1957 by a team led by Russell Kirsch at
the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of
Standards and Technology).

When a document is placed inside a scanner, the image is first scanned and
then the scanned data is processed and sent to a computer system. Scanners
can read red-green-blue color from color array and the depth of these colors is
measured based on the array characteristics. Image resolution is measured in
pixels per inch.

There are various types of scanners:

1. Drum Scanners: These scan an image with photomultiplier tubes

(PMT). The reflective originals are accumulated with an acrylic
cylinder or drum, which rotates when the object is passed for scanning
in front of the precision optics. These optics then transmit the image
information to the PMT. For color, a drum scanner uses three PMTs for
reading red, blue and green.
2. Flatbed Scanners: These consist of a glass pane and a moving optical
array of charge-coupled device (CCD) scanning. Flatbeds contain three
arrays of sensors along with red, green and blue filters. Images to be
scanned are placed flat on the pane and a dense cover is used to keep
out ambient lights. Then the sensor arrays and light source move across
to read the full image area. For transparent images, special accessories
for illuminating them from the upper side are used.
3. Film Scanners: Slide or negative film strips are placed in a carrier inside
the film scanner. This carrier is moved with the help of a motor along a
lens and a CCD sensor.
4. Hand Scanners: Handheld devices pulled across the image surface for
scanning large images.
5. 3D Scanners: These scanners depend on the placement of reference
markers that are used to align the element’s position in the space.
 6. Desktop Digital Camera Scanners: An all-in-one printer along with a
desktop digital camera scanner. This scanner offers high-speed image
scanning.
7. Smartphone Scanner: Apps can be downloaded on many smart phone
devices, allowing them to scan documents through the digital camera
exposures and provide output in JPEG or PDF formats.

Touch Panels
Our comprehensive range of touch Panels are based on latest technology for
‘lightweight’ user interfaces such as in Windows CE® Limelight Wall/PC. .
With touch Panel technology set points and other parameters can be easily
changed. Our touch panels find its uses in air handlers & chiller plants, control
lighting, arm security and alarm functions and in many more areas.

Voice System
voice input device A device in which speech is used to input data or
system commands directly into a system. Such equipment involves the use
of speech recognition processes, and can replace or supplement other input
devices.

Some voice input devices can recognize spoken words from a predefined
vocabulary, some have to be trained for a particular speaker. When the
operator utters a vocabulary item, the matching data input is displayed as
characters on a screen and can then be verified by the operator. The speech
recognition process depends on the comparison of each utterance with words
appearing in a stored vocabulary table. The table is created or modified by
using the voice input equipment together with a keyboard. A data item or
system command is typed and the related spoken word is uttered, several
times. The spoken word is then analyzed and converted into a particular bit
pattern that is stored in the vocabulary table.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a
digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a

multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of
cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque
number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR).
The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a
machine readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form
of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods,
numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded
in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected
to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked.
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having
multiple choice questions.

Hardcopy Devices

All the output devices can be categorised into two categories

Hard Copy Devices
Soft Copy Devices
Hard copy devices are those that give the output in the tangible form. Printers
and Plotters are two common hard copy devices.
Soft copy devices give output in the intangible form or the virtual form, e.g.
something displayed on a screen. All the computer monitors are covered under
this category.

Printers
All the printers irrespective of the technology used can be categorised as

Impact Printers

Non Impact Printers

Impact printers are those printers in which there is a direct contact between
the printing head and the paper on which the print is produced.
They work by striking a head or a needle against an inked ribbon which
leaves a mark on the paper.
These printers produce a lot of noise when printing, because of the head
striking the paper.

Examples are Dot Matrix, Daisy Wheel and Line printers.

In the case of non-impact printers the printing head never comes in direct
contact with the paper.
 These printers work by spraying ink on the paper.
Electrostatic or electromagnetic charge is used in these printers.
Examples are Ink-Jet and Laser printers.

Dot-Matrix Printers :
Dot Matrix is an impact printer.
These printer forms characters from individual dots.
These printers have a print head which runs back and forth on a paper.
The print head has a two-dimensional array of pins called dot matrix.
There may be 9 to 24 pins in the dot matrix.
From this array of pins some pins are drawn out (or driven forward) to
form the shape of a character.
The drawn out pins strike an ink soaked cloth ribbon against a paper.
This forms that particular character on the paper.
Thus dot matrix printers can be used to print different fonts of
characters.
Since mechanical force is used, carbon copies of documents can be
taken.
40 to 250 characters can be printed per second.
Daisy Wheel Printers :
This is an impact printer.
Only preformed fonts of characters can be printed.
This printer contains a daisy wheel. Daisy wheel is made of plastic or
metal. This holds an entire character set as raised characters moulded
on each "petal".
 A motor rotates the daisy wheel to position the required character
between the hammer and the ribbon.
A small hammer then strikes the petal, which in turn strikes the inked
ribbon to leave the character mark on the paper.
The daisy wheel and hammer are mounted on a sliding carriage similar
to that used by dot matrix printers.
Different fonts cannot be printed using this technology.

Line Printers :

Ø The line printer is a high speed impact printer in which one line is printed at a
time.

Ø 600-1200 lines can be printed per minute.

Ø Drum printer is an example of line printers.

Ø These printers are very expensive.

Ø These kind of printers were popular in the early days of computers, but the
technology is still in use.

Drum Printers

· In a drum printer, a fixed font character set is engraved onto a number of

print wheels.

· There are as many print wheels as the number of columns (letters in a line)
the printer could print.

· The print wheels are joined to form a large drum (cylinder),

· This drum spins at high speed and paper and an inked ribbon is moved past
the print position.

· As the desired character for each column passes the print position, a hammer
strikes the paper from the rear and presses the paper against the ribbon and the
drum, causing the desired character to be printed on the paper.

Ink-Jet Printers :

Ø Inkjet printer is a non impact printer, Core of an inkjet printer is the print head.

Ø The print head contains an ink cartridge which has a series of nozzles that are
used to spray tiny drops of ink on to the paper.

Ø Ink cartridges come in various combinations, such as separate black and colour
cartridges, colour and black in a single cartridge or even a cartridge for each ink
colour.

Ø A motor moves the print head back and forth across the paper.

Ø Different types of inkjet printers form their droplets of ink in different ways.
There are two main inkjet technologies currently used by printer manufacturers

o Thermal bubble - This method is commonly referred to as bubble jet. In a

thermal inkjet printer, tiny resistors create heat, and this heat vaporizes ink to
create a bubble. As the bubble expands, some of the ink is pushed out of a nozzle
onto the paper. When the bubble "pops" (collapses), a vacuum is created. This
pulls more ink into the print head from the cartridge. A typical bubble jet print
head has 300 or 600 tiny nozzles, and all of them can fire a droplet
simultaneously.

o Piezoelectric - This technology uses piezo crystals. A crystal is located at the

back of the ink reservoir of each nozzle. The crystal receives a tiny electric
charge that causes it to vibrate. When the crystal vibrates inward, it forces a tiny
 amount of ink out of the nozzle. When it vibrates out, it pulls some more ink
into the reservoir to replace the ink sprayed out.

Ø The ink droplets are subjected to an electrostatic field created by a charging

electrode as they form. Charged droplets are separated by one or more
uncharged “guard droplets” to minimize electrostatic repulsion between
neighbouring droplets. The charged droplets pass through an electrostatic field
and are directed (deflected) by electrostatic deflection plates to print on the
Paper.

Laser Printers :

Ø A laser printer is a non impact printer, which produces a page of text at a time.
Ø Laser printer uses the principle of Static Electricity to print.
Ø This printer has revolving cylinder called Drum.
Ø Drum is given a positive charge.
Ø A Laser beam is used to draw the image to be printed, on the drum with
negative charge. This discharges some portion of the charge on the drum. This
creates electrostatic image of the print on the drum with no charge, and the
background is left positively charged.
Ø The drum is then exposed to toner from which positively charged toner
particles mixed with carbon black are released. Since positive charge repels
positive charge, the toner particles settles on the discharged areas of the drum,
this is exactly the image to be printed.
Ø The paper is then pressed against the drum, this transfers the toner particles on
to the paper.
Ø Paper is then passed through a fuser, which is a set of heated rollers, this melts
the carbon black on the paper to form the desired print.
 Plotters :

Another hard copy output device is plotter. Plotter is a printing device which
can draw continuous lines. This is useful to print vector graphics rather than
raster graphics unlike normal printers. Plotters are widely used in applications
like CAD.

Ø Plotters print by moving one or more pen across the surface of a piece of paper.
This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than raster graphics as
with other printers.

Ø Pen plotters can draw complex line art, including text, but do so slowly because
of the mechanical movement of the pens. They are often incapable of efficiently
creating a solid region of colour, but can draw an area by drawing a number of
close, regular lines.

Ø Plotters offered the fastest way to efficiently produce very large drawings or
colour high-resolution vector-based artwork when computer memory was very
expensive and processor power was very limited.

Ø There are a number of different types of plotters:

· A drum plotter draws on paper wrapped around a drum which turns to

produce one direction of the plot, while the pens move to provide the other
direction.

· A flatbed plotter draws on paper placed on a flat surface; and an

electrostatic plotter draws on negatively charged paper with positively charged
toner.

Ø Pen plotters have essentially become obsolete, and have been replaced by large-
format inkjet printers and toner based printers.
Ø They are most frequently used for CAE (computer-aided engineering)
applications, such as CAD (computer-aided design) and CAM (computer-aided
manufacturing).