CA3CRT06 -COMPUTER GRAPHICS - S3 BCA

Unit 1 : (12 hrs. )

Introduction: A survey of Computer Graphics, overview of graphics systems-Video
display devices- Refresh CRT, Raster-Scan and Random-Scan Displays ,Color CRT
Monitors, DVST, Flat-Panel Displays, Raster Scan systems, Random scan systems,
Input devices, Hard copy devices, Graphics software.

Unit 2: (14 hrs.)

Output primitives: Line drawing algorithms: DDA algorithm, Bresenham’s line algorithm,
Circle generating algorithm- Midpoint circle algorithm, Character generation.
Unit 3: (18 hrs. )
2D geometric Transformations: Basic transformations: Translation, Rotation, Scaling;
Other transformations-Reflection and shear, Matrix representation and homogenous
coordinates, Composite transformation, Interactive picture construction Techniques.

Two-dimensional viewing: viewing pipeline, window and viewport, window to viewport

transformation. Clipping operations- Point clipping, Line clipping:- Cohen Sutherland line
clipping, Polygon clipping:- Sutherland- Hodgeman polygon clipping, Text Clipping.
Unit 4: (14 hrs. )
Three-dimensional concepts: Three dimensional display methods, Three dimensional
object representations- Polygon surfaces, Sweep representations, Constructive solid
geometry methods, octrees and quadtrees.
Unit 5 (14 Hrs)

Computer Animation: Design of animation sequences, raster animations, computer animation

languages, key-frame systems, morphing, motion specifications
MODULE-I

INTRODUCTION:

Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures, lines, charts, etc. using computers
with the help of programming. Computer graphics image is made up of number of pixels.
Pixel is the smallest addressable graphical unit represented on the computer screen.

A SURVEY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS:

Computer is an information processing machine. User needs to communicate with

computer and the computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of
communication with the user.
• It displays the information in the form of graphical objects such as pictures,
charts, diagram and graphs.
• Graphical objects convey more information in less time and easily understandable
formats for example statically graph shown in stock exchange.
• In computer graphics picture or graphics objects are presented as a collection of discrete pixels.
• The special procedure determines which pixel will provide the best approximation to the
desired picture or graphics object this process is known as Rasterization.

• Rasterization is the process of taking a vector graphics image which is made up of

shapes and converting it into a raster image which is made up of pixels or dots for
output on a video display or printer or for storage in a bitmap file format.
• The process of representing continuous picture or graphics object as a collection of discrete pixels
iscalled Scan Conversion.
• Scan conversion is the process of converting a geometric representation of an object, such as a
line or curve, into a pixel-based representation that can be displayed on a computer screen or
printed on a page.
• Scan conversion is the process of transforming vector graphics into raster graphics, which are
made up of pixels or dots that form a digital image.
• Scan conversion is also known as rasterization.

Advantages of computer graphics:

• Computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of communication
with computer.
• It provides tools for producing picture of “real-world” as well as synthetic objects such
as mathematical surfaces in 4D and of data that have no inherent geometry such as
survey results.
• It has ability to show moving pictures thus possible to produce animations with computer
graphics.
• With the use of computer graphics, we can control the animation by adjusting the speed,
portion of picture in view the amount of detail shown and so on
 Applications of Computer Graphics
1. Graphical User Interface
Most software packages have the Graphical Interface. A major component of the
graphical interface is a window. User can display multiple windows. Each window
can contain a different process. To make a particular window active, we click in
that window using some interactive pointing device.
Graphical interfaces also display menus and icons. An icon is a graphical symbol
that is designed to process some option. The advantages of icons are that they
take up less space and are easy to understand. Menus contain lists of textual
description and icons.
2. Computer Art
Computer graphics are widely used in both fine and commercial art applications.
Artists use a variety of computer methods, including special-purpose hardware,
paintbrush programs, mathematical packages, animation packages, etc. that
provide facilities for designing object shapes and specifying object motions.
The picture is usually painted electronically on a hardware device called graphics
tablet using a stylus, which can stimulate different brush strokes, brush widths,
and colours. A pressure-sensitive stylus converts changing hand pressure into
variable line widths, brush sizes and colour gradations. Some software allows the
artist to create watercolour, pastel or oil brush effects that stimulate different
drying times. Some computer technologies use three-dimensional modelling
packages, texture mapping, etc.
Computer art can be used for designing logos, other designs, TV advertising, etc.
3. Presentation Graphics
Presentation graphics are used to summarise financial, statistical, mathematical,
scientific and economic data for research reports, managerial reports, and other
type of reports. Some examples of presentation graphics are bar charts, line
graphs, surface graphs, pie charts, etc. showing relationships between multiple
parameters.
4. Computer-Aided Design
A major use of computer graphics is in design processes, particularly for
engineering and architectural systems. Computer-aided design (CAD) methods are
now used in design of automobiles, buildings, aircraft, and many other products.
For some applications, objects are first displayed as wireframes (frames of objects
shown as wires) that shows the overall shape and internal features of objects.
Software packages for CAD applications generally provide a multi-window setting
where various windows can show enlarged sections or different views of objects.
Animations are also used in CAD applications.
When object designs are complete, or nearly complete, realistic lighting and
surface rendering (creating outer bodies of objects) are applied to produce
displays that will show the appearance of final product.
Architects use interactive graphics methods to draw floor layout plans, such as,
showing the positioning of rooms, doors, windows, stairs, and other building
features. Also electrical wiring, fire warning systems, etc can also be drawn.
5. Education and Training
Computer-generated models of physical system, population trends, financial
system, economic systems or equipment are often used as educational aids.
Computer based training (CBT) tools are used in educational institutions to teach
various applications.
For some training applications, special systems are designed, such as simulators
for practice sessions or training of aircraft pilots, heavy-equipment operators, ship
captains, and air traffic control personnel. The simulator provides the situation
similar to the original conditions. Most simulators provide graphic screens for
visual operation and a control panel.
6. Entertainment
Computer graphics methods are commonly used in making motion pictures, music
videos, and television shows. Sometimes the graphic scenes are displayed alone
and sometimes graphics objects are combined with the actors and live scenes.
Scenes can be generated using advanced modelling, surface rendering and other
image processing techniques. Graphics and image processing techniques can be
used to produce a transformation of one person or object to another, known as
Morphing.
7. Visualisation
Scientists, engineers, medical personnel, business analysts and others often need
to analyse large amount of information to study the behaviour of certain
processes. Scanning large amount of data to determine various results is a difficult
and time-consuming process. But if the data are converted to a visual form, the
results can be easily assessed.
Producing graphical representations for scientific, engineering and medical data
and processes is referred to as Scientific Visualisation. The term Business
Visualisation is used in connection with data sets related to commerce, industry,
and other non-scientific areas.
8. Image Processing
Image processing applies techniques to modify or interpret existing pictures.
Image processing can be applied for improving picture quality.
To apply image-processing methods, we first digitise a picture into an image file.
Then various methods can be applied to rearrange picture parts, to improve colour
separations or to improve the quality of shading. These techniques are used in
commercial art applications that involve the retouching and rearranging of parts of
photographs. Image processing is also applicable in satellite photos, medical
applications, etc to improve the quality of the pictures.

Overview Of Graphics Systems

VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES:

• Video display means the part of an electronic device capable of presenting images electronically
on a screen viewable by the device user. A video display may use cathode ray tube, liquid crystal
display (LCD), gas plasma, digital light processing, or other image projection technology.

• Display devices are also known as output devices. A display device is an output device for
presentation of information in visual or tactile form. When the input information that is supplied
has an electrical signal, the display is called an electronic display.

• The primary output device in a graphics system is a video monitor. The operation of most video
monitors is based on the standard cathode ray tube (CRT).
Refresh Cathode Ray Tube (REFRESH CRT)
Fig (1) illustrates the basic operation of a CRT

Fig1

• Here electron beam is emitted by the electron gun in a CRT. It passes through focusing and
deflection system that directs the beam towards specified position on the phosphor coated system.

• The light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly. In order to maintain the screen
picture or to keep the phosphor is to redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly directing the
electron beam over the same point. This process is called refresh CRT.

Fig 1
• The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal cathode and control
grid as in Fig 2.
• Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire called filament, inside
the cylindrical cathode structure this heats up the electrons & the heated up electrons move with
high positive voltage towards the phosphor screen.
• Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by setting voltage levels on the control grid.
• A high negative voltage will shut off the beam by repelling electrons & stopping them from
passing through.
• Amount of light emitted depend on number of electron striking the screen.
• Focusing system in a CRT is needed to force the electron beam to coverage into a small spot as it
strikes the phosphor. Otherwise electron would repel each other.

Fig2

• Focusing is accomplished with either electric or magnetic fields. Electrostatic focusing is

commonly used in television and computer graphics monitors.
• With electrostatic focusing, the electron beam passes through a positively charged metal
cylinder that forms an electron lens, as shown in Fig. 3, The action of the electrostatic lens
focuses the electron beam at the center of the screen

• When electrostatic deflection is used, two pairs of parallel palates are mounted inside the
CRT envelope. One pair of plates is mounted horizontally to control the vertical deflection,
and the other pair is mounted vertically to control horizontal deflection
 Fig3

• In the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, the free, negatively charged electrons are then
accelerated toward the phosphor coating by a high positive voltage. The accelerating
voltage can be generated with an accelerating anode or with a positively charged metal
coating inside the CRT envelope near the phosphor screen.

• When the electrons in the beam collide with the phosphor coating, they are stopped and their
kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor. A part of the beam energy is converted by
friction into heat energy, and the remainder causes electrons in the phosphor atoms to move
up to higher quantum energy levels.

• After a short time, the excited phosphor electrons begin dropping back to their stable
ground state, giving up their extra energy as small quantum of Light energy. What we see
on the screen is the combined effect of all these electron light emissions.

• There are two techniques used for producing images on the CRT screen:

• Vector scan/Random scan display.

• Raster scan display

The working of REFRESH CRT in brief as:
▪ A beam of electrons (cathode rays), emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and
deflection systems that direct the beam towards specified position on the phosphor-coated
screen.
▪ The phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by the electron
beam.
▪ One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly
directing the electron beam back over the same points. This type of display is called a refresh
CRT.

Electron Gun

The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal cathode and a
control grid.
The cathode is heated by an electric current passed through a coil of wire called the filament.
In the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, negatively charged electrons are then accelerated
toward the phosphor coating by a high positive voltage.
Control Grid :
▪ Control grid is used to surround the cathode. Grid is cylindrical in shape. It is made up of
metal.
▪ Grid has hole at one end, through which electrons get escaped.
▪ The control grid is kept at lower potential as compared to cathode, so that a electrostatic
field can be created.
▪ It will direct that electrons through point source, so process of focusing will be simplified.

Focusing System
▪ The focusing system is to create a clear picture by focusing the electrons into a narrow beam.
Otherwise, electrons would repel each other and beam would spread out as it reaches the
screen.
▪ Focusing is accomplished with either electric or magnetic fields.

Deflection System
▪ Deflection of the electron beam can be controlled by either electric fields or magnetic fields.
▪ In case of magnetic field, two pairs of coils are used, one for horizontal deflection and other
for vertical deflection.
▪ In case of electric field, two pairs of parallel plates are used, one for horizontal deflection
and second for vertical deflection as shown in figure above.

CRT Screen
▪ The inside of the large end of a CRT is coated with a fluorescent material that gives off light
when struck by electrons.
▪ When the electrons in the beam is collides with phosphor coating screen, they stopped and
their kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor.
▪ Then a part of beam energy is converted into heat energy and the remainder part causes the
electrons in the phosphor atom to move up to higher energy levels.
Persistence
 ▪ It is defined as the time they continue to emit light after the CRT beam is removed.
▪ Persistence is defined as the time it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay to one-
tenth of its original intensity.
▪ Lower-persistence phosphors require higher refresh rates to maintain a picture on the
screen without flicker.
▪ A phosphor with low persistence is useful for animation; a high-persistence phosphor is
useful for displaying highly complex, static pictures.

Resolution
▪ The number of points per centimeter that can be used to plott horizontally and vertically. Or
Total number of points in each direction.
▪ The resolution of a CRT is depend on
➢ type of phosphor
➢ intensity to be displayed

Aspect Ratio
▪ It is ratio of horizontal to vertical points.
▪ Example: An aspect ratio of 3/4 means that a vertical line plotted with three points has same
length as horizontal line plotted with four points.

Que: WHAT IS CRT?

Ans: A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced when an
electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface.
Most desktop computer displays make use of CRTs.
All CRT’s have three main elements: an electron gun, a deflection system, and a screen.

Que: Define persistence, resolution and aspect ratio?

(properties of CRT)
Ans: Persistence is defined as the time it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay to one tenth of
its original intensity.The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a CRT is
referred to as the resolution.Aspect ratio is the ratio of the vertical points to horizontal points necessary to
produce equal length lines in both directions on the screen

RASTOR SCAN AND RANDOM SCAN DISPLAYS

(1) RASTOR SCAN DISPLAYS:

• It is the most common type of CRT monitor. In this system, the electron beam is swept
across the screen one row at a time from top to bottom.
• Beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots as the
electron moves across each row .
• In a raster scan system entire screen is considered as a matrix of pixels. Each screen point is
referred to as a pixel or pel (shortened form of picture element).
• Frame buffer or refresh buffer is a memory where picture definition is stored ie. set of all
intensity values for all pixels is stored in refresh buffer.
 ✓ Horizontal Retrace: At the end of each scan line , the electron beam
returnsto the left side of the screen to begin displaying the next scanline.

✓ Vertical retrace: At the end of each frame the electron beam returns to the
top left corner of the screen to begin the next frame.

⚫ Interlacing: In this method, each frame is displayed in two passes

using an interlaced refresh procedure.
First all the points on the even numbered scan lines are displayed, and then all the odd numbered lines
are displayed. Entire screen is displayed in half time, providing that adjacent scan lines contain similar
information.
• In a simple black and white system, each screen point is either on or off, so only one
bit per pixel is needed to control the intensity of screen positions.
• Bit value of 1 indicates that the electron beam is to be turned on that position, and a
value of 0 indicates that the beam intensity is to be turned off. Additional bits are
needed when color and intensity variations are to be displayed .
• On a black-and-white system with one bit per pixeI, the frame buffer is commonly
called a bitmap. For systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is referred
to as a pix map.

• Refreshing on raster scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames per
second. Home television sets and printers are examples of other systems using raster-
scan methods.
• The capability of a raster-scan system to store intensity information for each screen point
makes it well suited for the realistic display of scenes containing subtle shading and color
patterns.
(2) RANDOM SCAN DISPLAYS:
⚫ It is also called as calligraphic displays, vector displays, stroke displays. The electron
beam is directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn.
⚫ Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time. The component lines of a
picture can be drawn and refreshed in any specified order. A pen plotter operates in a
similar way and is an example of a random-scan, hard-copy device.
⚫ Picture definition is stored as a set of line drawing commands in an area of memory
referred to as refresh display file/refresh buffer.
⚫ To display a specified picture ,the system cycles through a set of commands in the display
file, drawing each component line. After all line drawing commands have been processed,
the system cycles back to the first line command in the list
⚫ Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60
times each second. Random-scan systems are designed for line drawing applications and
cannot display realistic shaded scenes.
Basic concepts related to graphics display devices

Persistence:
Persistence is defined as the time CRT takes to decay the emitted light
from the screen to one tenth of its original intensity. Lower persistence
phosphor require high refresh rate. Graphics monitors are usually
constructed with persistence in the range from 10 to 60 microseconds.
Resolution:
The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a
CRT. The number of points per cm that can be plotted horizontally and
vertically. Typical resolution on high- quality systems is 1280 by 1024.
Higher resolution systems are often referred to as high-definition systems.

Aspect Ratio:

The ratio of vertical points to horizontal points necessary to produce equal

length lines in both directions on the screen. It is the ratio of horizontal to
vertical points.
(3)COLOR CRT MONITORS:

A CRT monitor displays color pictures by using a combination of phosphors that emit
different- colored light. By combining the emitted light from the different phosphors, a range
of colors can be generated. The two basic techniques are beam-penetration method and
shadow-mask method.

(1) Beam-penetration Method:

• In this method, two layers of phosphor, usually red and green, are coated onto the
inside of the CRT screen. The displayed color depends on how far the electron
beam penetrates into the phosphor layers.
• A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer.

• A beam of very fast electrons penetrates through the red layer and excites the inner

green layer.
• At intermediate beam speeds, combinations of red and green light are emitted
to show two additional colors, orange and yellow. The speed of the electrons,
and hence the screen color at any point, is controlled by the beam-
acceleration voltage.
Advantages:
An in expensive way to produce color in random-scan monitor
Disadvantages:
• Only four colors are possible
• quality of pictures is not as good as with other methods

(2) Shadow mask method

 • This method is commonly used in color TV because they produce a much wider
range of colors than the beam penetration method.
• A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One phosphor
dot emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the third emits a blue light.
• This type of CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot, and a shadow-
mask grid just behind the phosphor-coated screen.
• The three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask,
which contains a series of holes aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns.
• When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot
triangle, which appears as a small color spot on the screen. The phosphor dots in the
triangles are arranged so that each electron beam can activate only its corresponding
color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.
• Color variations are obtained by varying the intensity levels of the three electron
beams.

• By turning off red and green guns, we get only blue phosphor. The color we see depends
on the amount of excitation of the red, green, and blue phosphors. A white area is the
result of activating all three dots with equal intensity.
Yellow-> green and red dots
Magenta -> blue and red dots
Cyan ->blue and green

• In some low-cost systems, the electron beam can only be set to on or off, limiting
displays to eight colors. More sophisticated systems can set intermediate intensity levels
for the electron beams, allowing several million different colors to be generated

(4) DIRECT VIEW STORAGE TUBES(DVST) :

An alternative method for maintaining a screen image is to store the
picture information inside the CRT instead of refreshing the screen.

Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) resembles CRT as it uses electron gun to draw picture and
phosphor coated screen to display it. The phosphor used in this is of high persistence. DVST
does not use refresh buffer or frame buffer to store picture definition. Picture definition is stored
in inside CRT in form positive charged distribution. Because of this reason DVST is knows as
Storage Type CRT. In DVST no refreshing is required as result picture drawn on DVST will be
seen for several minutes before fading.
Various components of DVST :
1. Electron guns –
Two electron guns are used in DVST : Primary Gun and Flood Gun. Primary gun is
used to store picture pattern. Flood gun is used to maintain picture display on
phosphor coated screen.
2. Phosphor Coated Screen –
In DVST the inner surface of CRT is coated with phosphor crystals is of high
persistence that emit light when beam of electrons strike them.
 3. Storage Mesh –
It is thin and high quality wire that is coated with dielectric and is located just behind
phosphor coated screen. Primary gun deposits pattern of positive charge on this grid
and it is transferred to phosphor coated screen by continuous flood of electrons
produced by flood gun. Thus Storage Mesh stores picture to be displayed in form of
positive charge distribution.
4. Collector –
This grid is located just behind storage mesh and purpose of this negatively charged
grid is to smooth out flow of flood electrons.
Working principle of DVST:
In DVST similar with CRT electron gun and phosphor coated method is used. But in this no
electron beam is used to directly writing pictures on screen, but instead of this we can used
Storage mesh wire grid is used it is just located behind phosphor coated screen. There is also
another grid located just behind storage mesh is called Collector and this purpose is to smooth
out flow of flood electrons. The flood gun produce large number of electrons, this negatively
charged grid reduces speed of these electrons. Then electrons pass through collector at low
velocity and attracted by positive charged portions of storage mesh and strike at portions of
phosphor coated screen to display picture. Some electrons get repelled by other portions of mesh
that are negatively charged.
Since the collector has slowly down electrons, in this way they not able to produce sharpened
images. So to reduce this problem, screen itself is maintained at a high positive potential by
means of voltage applied to thin aluminium coating between tube face and phosphor.

• Advantage of DVST:
• Refreshing of CRT is not required.
• Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolution with out
flicker.
• Flat screen.
• Disadvantage of DVST:
• They do not display color and are available with single level of line intensity.
• For erasing it is necessary to removal of charge on the storage grid so erasing
and redrawing process take several second.
 • Erasing selective part of the screen cannot be possible.
• Cannot used for dynamic graphics application as on erasing it produce
unpleasant flash over entire screen.
• It has poor contrast as a result of the comparatively low accelerating potential
applied to the flood electrons.
• The performance of DVST is somewhat inferior to the refresh CRT.

5. FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS:(FPD)

1. The term flat panel display refers to a class of video device that have reduced
volume, weight &power requirement compared to a CRT.
2. As flat panel display is thinner than CRTs, we can hang them on walls or wear onour
wrists.
3. Since we can even write on some flat panel displays they will soon
be available as pocket note pads.
4. We can separate flat panel display in two categories:
1. Emissive displays: - the emissive display or emitters are devices that
convert electrical energy into light. For Ex. Plasma panel, thin film
electroluminescent displays and light emitting diodes.
2. Non emissive displays: - non emissive display or non emitters use optical
effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics
patterns. For Ex. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display).

Advantages of Flat Panel Devices:

• Flat Panel Devices like LCD produces high quality digital images.
• Flat Panel monitor are stylish and have very space saving design.
• Flat Panel Devices consumes less power and give maximum image size in minimum space.
• Flat Panel Devices use its full color display capability.
• Full motion video can be viewed on Flat Panel Devices without artifacts or contrast loss.
Disadvantages of Flat Panel Devices:
• They are very expensive compared to CRTs.
• They have very high refresh rates.
• Slow response times.
• They may be heavier and bulkier than other display types.
 Plasma panels

A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat-panel display that uses small cells
containing plasma: ionized gas that responds to electric fields. Plasma televisions were the first
large (over 32 inches diagonal) flat-panel displays to be released to the public.
It is also called as gas-discharge displays. It is constructed by filling the region between two
glass plates with a mixture of gases that usually includes neon. A series of vertical conducting
ribbons is placed on one glass panel and a set of horizontal ribbons is built into the other glass
panel

• Plasma Display Panel is composed of two parallel sheets of glass that enclose a
mixture of discharge gases composed of helium, neon, and xenon.
• On the inner side of the glass, plates are Ribs, which help keep the glass plates
parallel.
• Groups of electrodes sit at right angles between the panes forming rectangular
compartments, or cells, between the glass sheets.
• Phosphorus is embedded within each cell that individually emits red, green, or
blue light and collectively creates a single color pixel.
• Selectively applying voltages to the electrodes causes them to generate a
discharge in the panel’s dielectric layer and on its protective surface. This
generates ultraviolet light that excites the phosphors, stimulating them to emit
light.
 • The picture definition is stored in a Refresh Buffer, voltage is applied to
refresh the pixel positions 60 times per second.
Advantages of Plasma Display Panel :
• Plasma Display Panel are thin lightweight and take up less space than other displays which
makes them easy to install anywhere.
• Plasma Display Panel offers uniform brightness.
• They show images without distortion and avoid problems such as misregistered colors and
lack of focus.
Disadvantages of Plasma Display Panel :
• Plasma Display Panel uses more electricity, as an overlay than an LCD TV.
• Earlier generation Plasma Display Panel were more susceptible to screen burn-in and image
retention, recent models have a pixel orbiter that moves the entire picture faster than is
noticeable to the human eye, which reduces the effect of burn-in but does not prevent it.

Thin-film Electroluminescent Displays(ELD)

An electroluminescent display is a category of flat panel display created by
sandwiching a thin film of electroluminescent material between two plates. An
electroluminescent display makes use of the phenomenon of electroluminescence. Although
electroluminescent displays are not as commonly used as other display types, they are used in
industrial, instrumentation and transportation applications.

o It has got similar construction compared to a plasma panel. The region

between the glass plates is filled with a phosphor, such as zinc sulfide doped
with manganese, instead of a gas. When a sufficiently high voltage is applied
to a pair of crossing electrodes, the phosphor becomes a conductor in the area
of the intersection of the two electrodes. Electrical energy is then absorbed by
the manganese atoms, which then release the energy as a spot of light similar
to the glowing plasma effect in a plasma panel.

▪ Disadvantage:

• Require more power than plasma panels

• Good color and gray scale displays are hard to achieve
Light-emitting Diode(LED)

• LED stands for Light Emitting Diode.

• These diodes are tiny little bulbs that you might have seen on electronic devices.

• Large LED displays use a large number of these diodes to light up the screen.

• These diodes are low power consumption devices that provide high brightness

• . As a result, an LED screen has several benefits over other display alternatives.

• In LED,a matrix of diodes is arranged to form the pixel positions in the display.
• The picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer.
• Information is read from the refresh buffer and converted to voltage levels that are
applied to the diodes to produce the light patterns in the display
• An LED display consists of red, green and blue LEDs mounted in a fixed pattern.
These three colours combine to form a pixel.

• By adjusting the intensity of the diodes, billions of colours can be formed.

 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):

• LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a type of flat panel display which uses liquid crystals in its
primary form of operation.
• LEDs have a large and varying set of use cases for consumers and businesses, as they can be
commonly found in smartphones, televisions, computer monitors and instrument panels.
• A liquid crystal display or LCD draws its definition from its name itself. It is a combination of two
states of matter, the solid and the liquid.
• LCD uses a liquid crystal to produce a visible image.
• Liquid crystal displays are super-thin technology display screens that are generally used in laptop
computer screens, TVs, cell phones, and portable video games.
 • LCD’s technologies allow displays to be much thinner when compared to a cathode ray
tube (CRT) technology.
• Liquid crystal display is composed of several layers which include two polarized panel filters and
electrodes.
• LCD technology is used for displaying the image in a notebook or some other electronic devices
like mini computers.
• Light is projected from a lens on a layer of liquid crystal.
• This combination of colored light with the grayscale image of the crystal (formed as electric
current flows through the crystal) forms the colored image.
• This image is then displayed on the screen.
• An LCD is either made up of an active matrix display grid or a passive display grid.
• Most of the Smartphone’s with LCD technology uses active matrix display, but some of the older
displays still make use of the passive display grid designs.
• Most of the electronic devices mainly depend on liquid crystal display technology for their
display.
• The liquid has a unique advantage of having low power consumption than the LED or cathode ray
tube.
LCDs Work

• The principle behind the LCDs is that when an electrical current is applied to the liquid crystal
molecule, the molecule tends to untwist.
• This causes the angle of light which is passing through the molecule of the polarized glass and
also causes a change in the angle of the top polarizing filter.
• As a result, a little light is allowed to pass the polarized glass through a particular area of the
LCD.
 GRAPHICS INPUT DEVICES:

The Input Devices are the hardware that is used to transfer transfers input to the computer. The data can
be in the form of text, graphics, sound, and text. Output device display data from the memory of the
computer. Output can be text, numeric data, line, polygon, and other objects.

These Devices include:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Trackball
4. Spaceball
5. Joystick
6. Light Pen
7. Digitizer
8. Touch Panels
9. Voice Recognition
10. Image Scanner

1) Keyboard

• The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by pressing the set
of keys. All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a QWERTY keyboard.
• The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also available.

Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)
Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt
Special Symbol Keys: ; , “? @ ~ ? :
Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓
Function Keys: F1 F2 F3....F9.
Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used for fast entry of numeric
data.
Function of Keyboard:
 Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD. (Computer Aided Drafting)
Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates entry, Menu selection or
graphics functions, etc.
Special purpose keyboards are available having buttons, dials, and switches. Dials are used
to enter scalar values. Dials also enter real numbers. Buttons and switches are used to enter
predefined function values.

Advantage:

1. Suitable for entering numeric data.

2. Function keys are a fast and effective method of using commands, with fewer errors.

Disadvantage:

1. Keyboard is not suitable for graphics input.

2) Mouse

• A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the pointer on the screen.
• It is a small palm size box.
• There are two or three depression switches on the top.
• The movement of the mouse along the x-axis helps in the horizontal
movement of the cursor and the movement along the y-axis helps in the
vertical movement of the cursor on the screen.
• The mouse cannot be used to enter text.
• Therefore, they are used in conjunction with a keyboard.

Advantage:
1. Easy to use
2. Not very expensive
 3) Trackball

• It is a pointing device. It is similar to a mouse. This is mainly used in notebook or laptop

computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted, and by changing fingers on
the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Advantage:
1. Trackball is stationary, so it does not require much space to use it.
2. Compact Size

4) Spaceball:

• It is similar to trackball, but it can move in six directions where trackball can move in two
directions only.
• The movement is recorded by the strain gauge.
• Strain gauge is applied with pressure.
• It can be pushed and pulled in various directions.
• The ball has a diameter around 7.5 cm.
• The ball is mounted in the base using rollers.
• One-third of the ball is an inside box, the rest is outside.

Applications:
1. It is used for three-dimensional positioning of the object.
2. It is used to select various functions in the field of virtual reality.
3. It is applicable in CAD applications.
4. Animation is also done using spaceball.
5. It is used in the area of simulation and modeling.

5) Joystick:

• A Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to change cursor position on a monitor screen.
• Joystick is a stick having a spherical ball as its both lower and upper ends as shown in fig. The
lower spherical ball moves in a socket.
• The joystick can be changed in all four directions.
• The function of a joystick is similar to that of the mouse.
• It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
6) Data glove
• Data glove is used to grasp virtual objects.

• The glow is constructed with series of sensors that detect hand and figure

motions.
• Electromagnetic coupling is used between transmitter and receiver
antennas which used to provide position and orientation of the hand.

• Transmitter & receiver Antenna can be structured as a set of three mutually

• Perpendicular coils forming 3D Cartesian coordinates system.

• Input from the glove can be used to position or manipulate
object in a virtual scene.

7) Digitizer:
• The digitizer is an operator input device, which contains a large, smooth board (the
appearance is similar to the mechanical drawing board) & an electronic tracking
device, which can be changed over the surface to follow existing lines.
• The electronic tracking device contains a switch for the user to record the desire x & y
coordinate positions.
• The coordinates can be entered into the computer memory or stored or an off-line
storage medium such as magnetic tape.
Advantages:

1. Drawing can easily be changed.

2. It provides the capability of interactive graphics.

Disadvantages:

1. Costly
2. Suitable only for applications which required high-resolution graphics.

8) Image Scanner:
Image Scanner scan drawing, graph, color, & black and
white photos or text and can stored for computer processing
by passing an optical scanning mechanism over the
information to be stored.
Once we have internal representation of a picture we can apply
transformation.
We can also apply various image processing methods to modify the picture.
For scanned text we can apply modification operation.
9) Light Pen
Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When its tip is moved over the monitor screen, and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element
detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU.

Uses:
1. Light Pens can be used as input coordinate positions by providing necessary arrangements.
2. If background color or intensity, a light pen can be used as a locator.
3. It is used as a standard pick device with many graphics system.
4. It can be used as stroke input devices.
5. It can be used as valuators
 10) Touch Panels:

Touch Panels is a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel covering the screen.
A touch screen registers input when a finger or other object comes in contact with the screen.

When the wave signals are interrupted by some contact with the screen, that located is recorded. Touch
screens have long been used in military applications.

11) Voice Systems (Voice Recognition):

Voice Recognition is one of the newest, most complex input techniques used to interact with the
computer. The user inputs data by speaking into a microphone. The simplest form of voice recognition is
a one-word command spoken by one person. Each command is isolated with pauses between the words.

Voice Recognition is used in some graphics workstations as input devices to accept voice commands. The
voice-system input can be used to initiate graphics operations or to enter data. These systems operate by
matching an input against a predefined dictionary of words and phrases.

Advantage:

1. More efficient device.

2. Easy to use
3. Unauthorized speakers can be identified

Disadvantages:

1. Very limited vocabulary

2. Voice of different operators can't be distinguished.
 HARD COPY DEVICES:
• A hard copy is a printed copy of information from a computer.
• Sometimes it refers to a printer, so it is called a hard copy because it exists as a physical object.
• A hard copy is a tangible output that is usually printed.
• The principal examples are printouts, whether text on graphics, form printers, and also films
including microfilms and microfiche is also considered as hardcopy output.
Hard Copy Output Devices:
It is an electromagnetic device, which accepts data from a computer and translates them into forms
understood by users.
Output devices:- printers and plotters.

Printers:

The printer is the most important output device, which is used to print data on
paper. A printer is an important accessory for any computer system, especially for a
graphics system. This is because most of the graphics created using computer
graphics have their ultimate utilization in printed form. Printers are of two types
impact and non-impact printers.
There are several major printer technologies available. These technologies can be
broken down into two main categories with several types in each. Impact printers
involve mechanical components for conducting printing. While in non-impact
printers, no mechanical moving components are used.
• Impact-printers: It is a type of printer that works by direct contact with an
ink ribbon with paper. These printers are typically loud but remain in use
today because of their unique ability to function with multiple forms. An
impact printer has mechanisms resembling those of a typewriter. These
printers have a mechanism whereby formed character faces are pressured
against an inked ribbon onto the paper in order to create an image.
Example: Dot matrix and line matrix
• Non-impact printers: It is a type of printer that does not hit or impact a
ribbon to the printer. They used laxer, xerographic, electrostatic, chemical
and inkjet technologies. Non-impact printers are generally much quieter.
They are less likely to need maintenance or repairs than earlier impact
printers. These printers do not touch the paper but rather use laser
techniques, ink sprays, xerographic processes, and electrostatic methods
to produce the image on paper. Examples: laser printers, inkjet printers,
electrostatic printers.
• Dot Matrix: In the market, one of the most popular printers is the dot
matrix printer. These printers are popular because of their case of printing
and economical price. Each character is in the form pattern of dots and the
head consists of a matrix of pins of size. Oldest printing technology, one
character at a time by using a fixed no of pins. These printers are
bidirectional and slow in speed.
• Daisy Wheel Printer: It is called a daisy wheel because the print
mechanism looks like a daisy, at the end of each petal is a fully formed
character that produces a solid line print. These printers are generally
used for word processing.
• Advantages:
o More reliable
o Better quality
o Font can be changed easily
• Disadvantages:
o Noise
o More expensive
• Line printers: It is an impact printer and it is also known as a bar printer. It
prints one line of text at a time, they can print 30 to 300 lines per minute.
Line printers print the full width of the page, one line at a time, instead of
a print head using back end forth across the page.
• Advantages:
o low cost and more durable
o high speed
• Disadvantages:
o printing quality is low.
o It does not support printing graphics very noisy.
• Ink-jet printers: These printers are non impact character printers based on
a new technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink
onto to the paper. Inkjet printers produce high-quality output with
presentable features. They make less noise because no hammering is
done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Some
models of inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also. The
ink in the cartridge of the printers is in liquid form. They have nozzles from
which ink is sprayed onto paper and it gets printed.
• Advantages:
o low cost
o less overall physical size
o high quality of printing
o capable of printing in vivid color
o easy to use
• Disadvantages:
o The print head is less durable
o high maintenance of cost
o cartridges cost is high
o printing speed is not as speed as laser.
• Laser Printers: These are nonimpact page printers. They use laser lights
to produce the dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.
The laser printer, prints very fast, and it produces high-quality outputs.
But this type of printer is too costly. This type of printer makes use of a
focused beam of light to transfer text and images onto the paper.
• Advantages:
o It is not noisy,
o The work process is fast.
o Operating cost is low.
o It can print both text and images.
o These printers are highly optimized and user-friendly.
• Disadvantages:
o It is costly.
o It can not print multiple copies at the same time.
o These are not economical.
Impact printers Non-impact printers

Produces character and graphics on a piece of A type of printer that produces character and
paper by striking it is called impact printing. graphics on a piece of paper without striking

Printing is done by depositing ink in array

It prints by hammering a set of metal pins.
form.

Here Electromagnetic devices are used. No electromagnetic device is used.

Faster speeds around 250 words per second. Slower speed by around 1 page per 30 seconds

Example: dot-matrix printer, line printer Example – Inkjet printer, laser printer

Plotters:
A plotter is a special output device used to produce hard copies of large graphics
and designs on paper, such as contributed maps, and engineering drawings. The
plotter is either a peripheral component that you add to your computer system
with its own internal processor. It is suitable for applications:
•Architectural plan of the building.
• CAD applications like the design of mechanical components of aircraft.
• Many engineering applications.
Advantages:
• It can produce high-quality output on large sheets.
• It is used to provide the high precession drawing.
• It can produce graphics of various drawings.
• The speed of producing output is high.
Types of Plotters:
• Drum plotter: It consists of a drum. The paper on which the design is
made is kept on the drum. The drum can rotate in both directions. Plotters
comprised of one or more pens and a pen holder. The holders are
mounted perpendicular to the drum surface. The pens are kept in the
holder, which can move left to the right as well as the right to the left. The
graph plotting program controls the movement of pens and drums.
• Flatbed plotter: It is used to draw complex designs and graphics. The
flatbed plotter can be kept over the table. The plotter consists of pen and
holder. The pen can draw characters of various sizes. There can be one or
more pens and a pen-holding mechanism. Each pen has ink of different
color. Different colors help to produce the multicolor design of the
document.
 RASTER & RANDOM SCAN SYSTEMS

RASTER-SCAN SYSTEMS:

— Interactive raster-graphics systems typically employ several processing units.

— In addition to the CPU, a special purpose processor called the video controller or display controller is
used to control the operation of the display device.
— Here the frame buffer is in the system memory, the video controller access the frame buffer to refresh
the screen.

1. Video Controller
 A fixed area of the system memory is reserved for the frame buffer, and the video controller is given direct
access to the frame buffer memory.
 The co-ordinates of the graphics monitor starts at the lower left screen corner. Positive x values increasing
to the right and y values increasing from bottom to top.
 2. Display Processor
— The purpose of the display processor or graphics controller is to free the CPU from the
graphics chores. In addition to the system memory a separate display processor memory area can also
provided.
— A major task of the display processor is digitizing a picture definition given in an application
program into a set of pixel-intensity values for storage in the frame buffer. This digitization process is
called scan conversion.
— Lines and other geometric objects are converted into set of discrete intensity points. Characters
can be defined with rectangular grids, or they can be defined with curved outlines.
— To reduce the memory space required to store the image information, each scan line are stored
as a set of integer pairs.
— One number of each pair indicates an intensity value, and the second number specifies number
of adjacent pixels the scan line that is also having same intensity. This technique is called run-length
encoding.
The above diagram shows the refresh operation of video controller. Two registers are used to store
the co-ordinates of the screen pixels. Initially x=0 and y=ymax
RANDOM SCAN SYSTEM

• An application program is input and stored in the system memory along with a graphic
package.

• Graphics commands in the application program are translated by the graphics package into a
display file stored in the system memory.

• This display file is then accessed by the display processor to refresh the screen. The
display processor cycles through each command in the display file program once during
everyrefresh cycle.

• Sometimes the display processor in a random-scan system is referred to as a display

processing unit or a graphics controller.

• Graphics patterns are drawn on a random-scan system by directing the electron beam along
the component lines of thepicture.

• Lines are defined by the values for their coordinateendpoints, and these input coordinate values are
converted to x and y deflection voltages. A scene is then drawn one line at a timeby positioning the
beam to fill in the line between specified end point
Graphics Software
Graphics software is a type of computer program that is used to create and edit images. There is a wide
range of graphics software available on the market, ranging from simple programs that allow users to
create and edit basic images, to complex tools that can be used to create detailed 3D models and
animations. Some of the most popular graphics software programs include Adobe Photoshop, Corel
Painter, and Autodesk Maya.
Characteristics:
• A graphics software program is a computer application used to create digital images.
• Graphics software programs can be used to create both vector and raster images.
• Common features of graphics software programs include the ability to create, edit, and save
images in a variety of formats.
• Some graphics software programs also offer features such as the ability to create animations or 3D
models.
• Popular examples of graphics software programs include Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, and Inkscape.
Examples:
Some popular graphics software programs are Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, and CorelDRAW.
These programs can be used to create and edit digital images, illustrations, and logos. They offer a variety
of features and tools that allow users to manipulate photos and graphics to create custom designs.
• Adobe Photoshop is a popular graphics software used by photographers and graphic designers.
• Adobe Illustrator is another popular graphics software used by graphic designers, especially for
creating vector illustrations.
• CorelDRAW is a graphics software used by both professionals and hobbyists.
• GIMP is a free and open source graphics software with capabilities similar to Photoshop.
• Inkscape is a free and open source vector graphics software used by graphic designers and
illustrators.
Components:
The graphics software components are the tools that you use to create and manipulate your graphic
images. These components include the following:
• Image editors: These are the tools that you use to create or edit your graphic images. Common
image editors include Photoshop, Illustrator, and Inkscape.
• Vector graphics editors: These are the tools that you use to create or edit vector graphics.
Common vector graphics editors include CorelDRAW and Inkscape.
• 3D modeling software: This is the software that you use to create three-dimensional models.
Common 3D modeling software includes Maya, 3ds Max, and Cinema 4D.
• Animation software: This is the software that you use to create animations. Common animation
software includes Adobe After Effects, Apple Motion, and Autodesk Maya.
• Video editing software: This is the software that you use to edit videos. Common video editing
software includes Adobe Premiere Pro, Apple Final Cut Pro, and Avid Media Composer.
Types:
• Vector graphics software: This type of software is used to create images made up of lines and
shapes, which can be scaled without losing quality. Vector graphics are often used for logos,
illustrations, and diagrams.
• Raster graphics software: This type of software is used to create images made up of pixels,
which cannot be scaled without losing quality. Raster graphics are often used for photos and web
graphics.
• 3D graphics software: This type of software is used to create three-dimensional images and
animations. 3D graphics are often used for product visualization and gaming.
• Animation software: This type of software is used to create moving images, either by animating
existing graphics or by creating new ones from scratch. Animation software is often used for
movies, commercials, and video games.
Applications:
The applications are used by professionals in a variety of fields, including graphic design, photography,
video editing, and web design. There are a wide variety of graphics software applications available, each
with its own unique set of features and capabilities. It is important to choose the right application for the
specific task at hand.
• It can be used to create and edit logos, and other graphical elements.
• It can be used to create website layouts and design elements.
• It can be used to create illustrations, visual presentations, and digital art.
• It can be used to edit and enhance photos, images, and animation.
• It can be used to create and edit website designs, presentation slides, and marketing materials.
Advantages:
There are many advantages of using graphics software, including the ability to create high-quality images,
edit images and create custom graphics.
• Graphics software provides users with a wide range of tools to create, edit and manipulate images.
• It is often easy to use and can be used by people with little or no experience in image editing.
• It can be used to create images for a wide range of purposes, including web design, advertising,
and printing.
• It often provides a wide range of features, making it possible to create complex images with ease.
• It is often able to create images in a range of different formats, making it easy to share images with
others.
• It provides users with a wide range of tools to create, edit, and manipulate images.
• It can be used to create both vector and bitmap images.
• It offers a variety of features and options that allow users to create images that are both creative
and professional.
• It is often used in conjunction with other software programs, such as word processors and
spreadsheets, to create comprehensive documents and presentations.
Disadvantages:
• Many graphics software programs are expensive, and the cost can be a barrier for some people
who want to use them.
• It requires a lot of memory to store huge files.
• Some graphics software programs can be complex and difficult to use, which can be complicated
for some users.
• It requires a powerful computer to work with the project smoothly.
• It can be time-consuming to create graphics.
• It can be expensive to purchase the software, and then you also have to pay for the subscription
regularly.
• It can be difficult to learn how to use the software, especially if you are not familiar with graphic
design.
• Some graphics software programs only offer limited functionality, which can be frustrating for
users who want to do more with their images.