Unit 2

Protection of motors :
Protection of motors : Moulded– Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) and Miniature Circuit
Breaker (MCB) – Contactors – Types of contactors – Contactor ratings, Relays – D.C
Series current relay – Frequency responsive relay – Latching relay – Over load relays –
Bimetallic Thermal over load relay – time delay relay (Timers) – Motor drivers Electronic
timer – Phase failure relay – Push button switches – Types, Limit switch – Float switch.

Dr. D V M Chary
Fuse and MCB Comparison
Fuse and MCB
MOULDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER AND MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCCB
& MCB)

• A slow and steady change to moulded case circuit breakers and miniature
circuit breaker as an alternative protection system to fuse switch units and
air circuit breakers is taking place in the Indian industry.
• As a result, distribution and control system without fuse are being designed
today.
• Miniature circuit breakers are manufactured in 1, 2, 3 and 4 pole versions
upto fault levels of 10 KA. They find applications in protection of lighting
circuits, sub-distribution and control circuits.
• Moulded case circuit breakers are available in higher ratings.
• L & T manufactures MCCBs of rating 100 A, 200 A, 250 A, 450 A, 630 A, 800
A, 500 V, 50 Hz with fault level withstanding capacity of 50 KA.
• They cover a wide range of applications in circuit protection in branch
feeders, motor circuits, transformer secondaries, lighting distribution
systems, capacitor switching and DC circuits.
MCCB
 MCCB
• An MCCB automatically isolates an electrical circuit under sustained overloads or short circuits. A
thermal release consisting of bimetallic elements having inverse time current tripping characteristic
trips the circuit breaker on sustained overload.
• The breaker is opened by an electromagnetic release in case of short circuit faults. When the current
is less than 10 times the setting of the thermal release the breaker trips due to thermal release and
when current exceeds 10 times its value, the breaker is opened by magnetic release.
The main features of a MCCB are:
• The breaker is switched on by a toggle type switch. The operating mechanism is “quick-make, quick-
break” and is independent of manual operation. The breaker cannot be held closed under fault
conditions.
• The housing is made of heat resistant insulating material. All parts are enclosed in the housing except
terminals which are accessible for external connections. Terminals have large dimensions to accept
links or cable lugs.
• All phases are disconnected even when a fault occurs on only one of them. The operating switch
gives a clear trip indication. It assumes a position midway between ON (1) and OFF (0) on tripping.
• Arc chutes envelope each contact and draw the arc away from the contact tips thus quenching it
rapidly. Silver alloy contacts having high arc resistance and long electrical life are used.
• The magnetic thermal release has three bimetals to provide thermal overload protection and has an
electromagnet for short circuit protection.
• The magnetic thermal release is direct acting. The settings of thermal as well as magnetic release are
adjusted over a wide range.
MCCBs offer a number of advantages over conventional breakers and fuse switch
units.
They are:
(i) Operating switch is easy to handle. There is no down time and need
for replacement of fuse. After the breaker trips, it can be switched on
again simply by resetting it. When the breaker trips, the operating
switch occupies mid-position between ON (1) and OFF (0). To reset the
trip mechanism the operating switch is to be moved to OFF-position.
(ii) In fuse switch units blowing of fuse on one of the phases results in
single phasing. This problem is eliminated in MCCBs because a
common trip bar ensures opening of all the phases even when a fault
occurs on only one of them.
(iii) MCCBs are five to ten times smaller in size and weight as compared
to conventional air circuit breakers and fuse switch units of similar
ratings. This results in saving on panel space and supporting
structures. Table 1 shows range of L & T make DTH type MCCBs.
Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)
• MCCB stands for Molded Case Circuit Breaker. It is another type of
electrical protection device which is used when load current exceeds the
limit of a miniature circuit breaker.
• The MCCB provides protection against overload, short circuit faults and is
also used for switching the circuits.
• It can be used for higher current rating and fault level even in domestic
applications. The wide current ratings and high breaking capacity in MCCB
find their use in industrial applications.
• MCCB can be used for protection of capacitor bank, generator protection
and main electric feeder distribution.
• It offers adequate protection whenever an application requires
discrimination, adjustable overload setting or earth fault protection.
 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
• MCB stands for Miniature Circuit Breaker. It automatically switches OFF
electrical circuit during any abnormal condition in the electrical network
such as overload & short circuit conditions.
• However, fuse may sense these conditions but it has to be replaced though
MCB can be reset.
• The MCB is an electromechanical device which guards the electric wires
&electrical load from overcurrent so as to avoid any kind of fire or electrical
hazards.
• Handling MCB is quite safer and it quickly restores the supply.
• When it comes to house applications, MCB is the most preferred choice for
overload and short circuit protection. MCB can be reset very fast & don’t
have any maintenance cost.
• MCB works on bi-metal respective principle which provides protection
against overload current & solenoid short circuit current.
MCB
Comparison
S.No MCB MCCB

1 It stands for Miniature Circuit Breaker. It stands for Molded Case Circuit Breaker.

2 Rated current not more than 125 Ampere. Rated Current up to 1600A

Their interrupting current ranges from around

3 Its interrupting current rating is under 10KA
10KA -85KA

Judging from their power capacities, MCB is MCCB is mainly used for both low and high
4 mainly used for low Breaking capacity Breaking capacity requirements mainly
requirement mainly domestic. industrial.

Its trip characteristics are normally not

Its trip current may be fixed as well as adjustable
5 adjustable since they basically cater to low
for overload and magnetic setting.
circuits.
CONTACTORS
• A contactor can be best described as a magnetically closed switch.
• It is the basic unit upon which the motor starter is built. Contactors
are also used for switching ON and OFF of heavy loads like furnaces,
heaters, capacitors, etc.
• A contactor consists of an electromagnet, a movable core, sets of
stationary and moving contacts and an arc quenching structure.
• Contactors can be broadly classified in to two general types:
(a) Solenoid type
(b) Clapper type
• There are other contactors for specific applications such as lock-out
type and inductive accelerating type used in dc motor controls.
Solenoid Type Contactor
• In this type the movable contacts are attached to the movable core of
a magnet. When the electromagnet coil is energized, the movable
core is pulled to the stationary core, thus closing the contacts.
• Fig. 2.6 (a) shows a solenoid type contactor. For better
understanding, the contacts have been shown mounted in vertical
plane though actually the contacts are in horizontal plane.
Solenoid Type Contactor
Contactor
Contactor
Contactor Coil and Contactors
Solenoid Type Contactor
• Mounting of contacts in horizontal plane reduces the size of the contactor. The positio4of
plunger i.e., movable core shown in the figure is for the coil in de-energized state.
• When the coil is energized, plunger moves up, moving contacts mounted on plunger also
moves up and closes the normally open contacts. At the same time normally closed
contacts open.
• When the coil is de-energised contacts are broken and they come back to their normal
position by the pull of gravity. The pole face of the magnet are provided with shading
coil.
• This creates an out of phase flux to hold the magnet closed during the zero points of
alternating current thus preventing chatter of the contactor. For contactors of higher
ratings where chattering noise is to be avoided, dc coil is used.
• The solenoid type of contactors shown in Fig. 2.6 (a) are used for small ratings. For higher
ratings E type construction for the magnetic core is used. A contactor with E type
magnetic core is shown in Fig. 2.6 (b). Symbols used for contactor coil, contactor with
main and auxiliary contacts, and photographic view of a contactor have been shown in
Fig. 2.7.
Contactor coil and Contacts
 Clapper Type Contactor
• In clapper type dc contactors the movable contacts are mounted on a hinged movable
armature. The hinged armature when pulled by magnetic core moves the movable contact in
more or less in the horizontal direction to make contact with the stationary contact mounted
on the vertical back-plate of the contactor.
• Figure 2.8 shows the general arrangement of the core, coil, contacts etc., of a clapper type dc
contactor. The magnet is shown to consist of a round solid core on which the coil is mounted
and a bent piece on which the moving armature is hinged.
• All parts of the magnetic circuit are made from a soft steel having high permeability. The
moving armature carries the movable contacts. When the coil is energized the armature is
attracted towards the core causing the movable contacts to close against the stationary
contacts.
• A movable contact is not rigidly attached to the armature but is held in place by a spring and
bolt. When the armature fully closes, a spring exerts a force on the movable contact. The
amount of force to be applied on the moving contact can be varied with the help of a bolt on
which the spring is fixed. Arcing horns are provided on both the fixed and movable contacts.
• Arc shifts towards the arcing horns during interruption thus saving the main contacts from
damage. A blow out coil is also provided to extinguish the arc. The action of blow out coil is
shown in Fig. 2.9.
• A blow out coil is circular strip having an insulated solid core inside. Current flows from fixed
contact through the circular strip to the outlet terminal.
Construction of a clapper type contactor
Details of contactor
• From the technical details it is also seen that the same contactor can be used with a dc, control
supply also. Resistors are connected in series with the ac standard rating coils for use on dc
supply. The electromagnetic coil picks up positively between 85 and 110 per cent of the rated coil
voltage. The drop off voltage for ac operated models is roughly between 65 and 45 per cent and
for dc operated models it is between 45 and 20 per cent of the rated coil voltage.
• The contact material used is silver alloy so as to avoid welding tendency of pure silver. Some of
the common alloys used are:
— Silver Nickel
— Silver Cadmium Oxide
— Silver Tin Oxide
• Silver Nickel is good for contactors of lower ratings up to about 100 A. For higher size of
contactors, silver cadmium oxide is used as it has superior anti-weld property. The latest
innovation is the use of Silver Tin Oxide (AgSnO2) for contactors of higher ratings. Notable
advantages of Silver Tin Oxide are:
• Erosion of contacts is very less
• No toxic effect because of absence of cadmium.
• Table 4 gives standard ratings of contactors manufactured by Larsen & Toubro and Siemens India
Ltd.
• All components used in motor control may be classified as either
primary control devices or as pilot control devices.
• A primary control device is one which connects the load to the
device, such as switch, fuse switch unit, circuit breaker, contactor,
overload relay etc.
• Pilot devices are those which control the primary control devices.
• Pilot devices comprise items like selector switch, push button switch,
float switch, pressure switch, limit switch, thermostat.
RELAYS
• The literary meaning of the word relay is to transmit information.
• The function of relays in control circuit is also the same i.e., to sense or accept
information from some sensing device and feed it into control circuit at proper level.
• The sensing devices used in conjunction with relays are known as pilot devices. Pilot
devices, as described earlier, can sense or detect variables like current, voltage, overload,
frequency, temperature, pressure and many others.
• Besides accepting information from pilot devices relays are also used to multiply the
contacts available on pilot devices.
• Timing relays may be used to count or to insert time delays in a control circuit. In big
machines large number of pilot devices like limit switches, proximity switches, pressure
switches etc., are used to control various operations.
• Relays are used to locate the complex wiring in the panel by eliminating inter wiring
between pilot devices. Though extra expenditure on account of using relays is involved, a
lot of time is saved in trouble shooting i.e., locating faults in the control circuit.
• Figs. 2.12 (a) and (b) show how an air compressor motor control circuit having four pilot
devices can be wired with and without relays.
Control diagram for a compressor motor
D.C. Series Current Relay
• This relay changes its contact position in response to current change in its coil. The relay coil is
connected in series with the circuit in which current change is to be sensed. The armature of the
relay is light thereby making it very fast in action.
• The armature is attracted when the current through the coil reaches a value high enough to
produce the necessary magnetic flux for attraction. When the armature gets attracted, the closed
auxiliary contacts will open. When current through the coil falls below a pre-determined value the
spring pulls the armature back and contacts close. The value at which the coil fails to hold back
the attracted armature is determined by the setting of the spring.
• Some terms used in connection with a current relay are:
• Pull in current. It is the minimum value of current to close or pull in the relay armature.
• Drop out current. It is the value of current below which the relay no longer remains closed after
having being pulled in.
• Differential current. It is the difference in value of pull in and drop out currents. For example if a
relay is energized or pulled in at 5 amps and drops out at 3 amps, then pull out current is 5 amps,
drop out current is 3 amps and the differential current is 2 amps.
• For heavier current applications, a current transformer is used and its output is applied to the
current relay coil.
• One of the common applications of current relays is for timing acceleration of dc motors, which
will be discussed at a later stage.
Series Type Current Relay
 Frequency Responsive Relay
• This type of relay changes its contact position when the frequency of
applied voltage to the relay coil falls below a pre-determined value. The
relays are designed differently for different applications. In one type of
construction, voltage is applied to the relay coil with a capacitor in
series through a potentiometer resistor as shown in Fig. 2.15. The
inductance of the relay coil and capacitor form a series resonant circuit
through which a high current flows for a certain frequency range. The
band width of the frequency range can be varied by changing the
tapping of the potentiometer resistor. When the frequency falls below
the resonant frequency range, current through the relay coil falls to a
low value and the relay drops and its contacts open.
• In another type of construction two similar coils are arranged for a
common armature. One coil is energized from a reference frequency
source and the other is energized from the one to be sensed.
• The relay is closed one way when the frequencies are the same or
within a predetermined percentage and is closed the other way when
the frequency differs by a given amount or more.
• The frequency relays are used to apply field excitation to synchronous
motors at the right instant and for acceleration control of wound rotor
motors.
Latching Relays
• The difference between a conventional voltage relay and latching relay is that the former drops to its de-
energised position when the operating coil is de-energised, whereas a latching relay remains in energized
position even when operating coil is de-energised.
• Latching relay has two coils, an operating coil which is also referred to as latch coil and an unlatch coil. When the
latch coil is energised the relay operates and is held in the energized position either by a mechanical latch or a
permanent magnet. The relay remains in the energized position even when the latch coil is de-energised.
• The relay can be brought back to the deenergized position only when the unlatch coil is energised. The relay
construction can be of two types depending on how the relay is held in the energised position when the latch coil
is de-energised.
• The construction and working of the two types of latching relays i.e., the mechanical latched type and the
permanent magnet type are described as follows. In a mechanical latched relay, when armature is pulled by the
operating coil (latch coil) a mechanical latch engages the armature and holds it in place even when the coil
voltage is removed. The relay can be brought back to the de-energised position when the mechanical latch is
opened by energising the unlatch coil. In permanent magnet type latch relay the magnetic circuit material gets
permanently magnetised when current flows through the operating coil (latch coil).
• A simple application of latching relay can be to start a motor automatically when power is restored after a failure.
The control circuit is given in Fig. 2.17.
• When ON-push button is pressed latching relay LCR is energised and contact L1 closes.Closing of contact L1
energises motor contactor C. When power fails relay does not drop and contact L1 remains closed. Therefore
when power is restored, contactor C gets energized automatically and there is no need to push the ON-push
button. Whenever it is desired to stop the motor the OFF-push button is pressed which energises the unlatch coil
and thus contact L1 opens.
Latching Relay
• Both the latch coil and the unlatch coil are mounted on the same magnetic core. See Fig. 2.16. When supply
is given to terminals 1 and neutral, latch coil is energised and current flows in the direction shown. Relay is
actuated and held closed due to magnetisation of the core even when supply is cut off. The supply to latch
coil can also be cut off by using a normally closed contact of the relay in series with the coil. When relay
closes, the contact opens and disconnects the coil (because the coil is not designed for continuous flow of
current).
• Diodes are used to allow flow of dc current through the coil. When the relay is to be opened, supply is given
between terminal 2 and neutral. Current in the unlatch coil flows through diode D2 in a direction so as to
demagnetise the core.
• The current direction is opposite to that of the latch coil. When the core gets demagnetised the relay opens
and supply to unlatch coil is also disconnected through a normally open contact of the relay. Latching relays
are often used as memory relays on machines or processes where the work on machine must start from
where it stopped when power had failed. When ordinary relays are used the machine cycle starts from the
beginning when power is restored after a failure. Latching type relays can also be used where ac hum of the
relay is objectionable. Here the relay coil is cut off once it is energised.
• A simple application of latching relay can be to start a motor automatically when power is
restored after a failure. The control circuit is given in Fig. 2.17.
• When ON-push button is pressed latching relay LCR is energised and contact L1 closes. Closing
of contact L1 energises motor contactor C. When power fails relay does not drop and contact
L1 remains closed. Therefore when power is restored, contactor C gets energized automatically
and there is no need to push the ON-push button. Whenever it is desired to stop the motor
the OFF-push button is pressed which energises the unlatch coil and thus contact L1 opens.
OVERLOAD RELAYS
• The function of overload relay is to protect a motor against overloading. When a motor is mechnically
overloaded it will draw more current than its rated value.
• The overload conditions can also be caused if the supply voltage is low or one of the supply phases is lost.
• When supply voltage falls the motor draws excessive current for the same load. In case one of the phases is
lost the motor continues to run but draws excessive current through the remaining two phases. In both the
cases if the excessive current is allowed to flow for a long time the motor windings will get heated up,
resulting in failure of insulation and eventually burnout of the windings.
• To protect a motor against flow of excessive current an overload relay is connected in the power circuit. The
relay is set at a certain value of current.
• When the motor current exceeds this value the contact of the control relay opens after a time delay
depending upon the relay characteristic. The overload relays have inverse time current characteristic i.e.,
time for relay operation decreases as the current increases.
• It means a small overload will take more time for the relay to operate whereas the heavy overload will
operate the relay almost instantaneously.
• However, the overload relay does not provide short circuit protection as the relay operating time is still large.
In the control circuit the contact of the relay is connected in series with the contactor coil.
• Opening of the control contact causes deenergisation of the contactor thus disconnecting supply to the
motor terminal. For large motors the overload relay may be connected indirectly through current
transformers.
• These relays are built with auto reset or hand reset facility. In hand reset a knob has to be pressed to reset
the relay contact. Different type of overload relays are discussed as follows.
Bimetallic Thermal Overload Relay
• This is the most widely used relay because of its simple construction and minimal cost.
• The relay consists of three bimetallic strips with current coils wound on them as shown in Fig. 2.18. The whole of
the assembly is mounted on a bakelite enclosure.
• Bimetallic strips comprising two dissimilar metals having different thermal coefficients of expansion are used for
the three phases.
• Current flowing through the coils heat the bimetallic strips.
• Upper ends of the strips are firmly held while lower ends are free to move. When temperature of the strips
increases due to current flowing through the coils, the strips bend towards right due to different expansion of
metals.
• When the strips bend towards the right, the tripping mechanism gets actuated and opens the relay contact (refer
Fig. 2.18).
• More is the current flowing through the coils, faster will be the action of relay (as more current increases the
temperature quickly resulting in faster bending and in turn faster operation of the relay). The relay thus has
inverse time characteristic.
• A typical current curve of the relay is also shown in Fig. 2.18. From the curve we see that at 100% of rated current
motor will not trip, while at 200% of rated current, motor trips in two seconds.
• For 300% of rated current, the tripping time of the relay is less than 1 sec. However due to inverse time current
characteristic, tripping of the relay due to momentary high currents during motor starting is avoided.
• As the thermal relays are heat dependent the relay cannot distinguish whether the heat is from the current
flowing through the coil or from the surroundings.
• Therefore changes in ambient temperature changes the relay characteristic. To compensate for the ambient
temperature changes, relays are designed with temperature compensating strip.
• The compensated overload relays are unaffected by variation in ambient temperature from – 22°C to 55°C.
Thermostat used in iron
TIME DELAY RELAYS (TIMERS)
• In time delay relays the relay contacts change over their position after a pre set delay from the time of
energization or de-energization of the relay coil.
• Time delay relays are also commonly known as Timers. Timer can be of ON-delay or an OFF-delay type. A timer is
referred to as an ON-delay type if the contacts change over after a pre-set delay after energization. On the other
hand a timer is referred to as OFF-delay type if the contacts change over after a pre-set delay from the instant of
de-energization.
• Besides the delayed contacts a timer can also have another set of contacts which operate as in an ordinary
voltage relay. These are known as instantaneous contacts as they changeover their positions instantaneously when
the timer is energized or deenergized.
• The representation of ON-delay and OFF-delay contacts of a timer in a control circuit is as shown in Fig. 2.22. We
will represent the coil of the timer as the same for both ON- and OFF-delay but delayed contacts will be
represented differently.
• Normally, most circuits require ON-delay timers. Applications requiring OFF-delay timers can also be covered by
ON-delay timers with suitable modifications in the circuitry.
• However, OFF-delay timers can, in few cases, simplify circuitry and thereby reduce the cost. Though the OFF-delay
timer find limited applications, the reader should however thoroughly understand the contact operation of OFF-
delay timer, to avoid confusion between the two types of timers.
• The difference of operation becomes clear from the following explanation. ON-delay timer is normally in de-
energized condition. The normal position of delayed contacts is shown in Fig. 2.22.
• When the timer is energized, after a pre-set delay the contacts change over their positions. Contact 1 will become
closed and contact 2 will open. However, when the timer is de-energized contacts change over almost
instantaneously.
• An OFF-delay timer is normally in energised condition. Thus, normally,
contact 3 will be closed and contact 4 will be open.
• When the timer is de-energised the counting starts and after the pre-set
delay, contacts 3 will open and contact 4 will close i.e., their positions will
be as shown in Fig. 2.22.
• In the control circuits the changed over positions of the contacts are
shown. As the time delay is only on one side (i.e., OFF-delay only), when
timer is energised, contacts change over almost instantaneously.
Motor Driven Timers
• This timer consists of a small motor, usually a synchronous motor, which is engaged with gear arrangement with the help of electrically
operated clutch. Gear arrangement reduces the speed of motor to a desired low value. Motor thus rotates a contact actuating lever through
gear arrangement. The actuating lever after travelling a pre-set distance operates the timer contacts.
• The time delay for actuation of contacts can be changed by a knob which varies the distance between the actuating lever and the contacts.
If the distance between the actuating lever and the contacts is increased, the timer will take more time to actuate the contacts (as the motor
speed is constant) and vice-versa. In ON-delay timers the motor starts counting time when the clutch coil is energised and in OFF-delay
timers counting starts when the clutch coil is deenergised.
• Timer gets reset when the clutch is de-energised in an ON-delay timer and energized in case of an OFF-delay timer. In an ON-delay timer the
motor can be energised along with the clutch but in an OFF-delay timer the motor has to be kept running continuoulsy.
• Synchronous motor timers are also available in simple version without a clutch. In this case the timer starts counting time when motor is
energised and actuates contacts after the actuating lever moves through a pre-set distance. The timer gets reset when supply to motor is
disconnected.
• Another version of motor driven timer makes or breaks a number of contacts during its timing period with the help of cams mounted on the
motor shaft.
• A cam is a circular plastic material which is fitted on the motor shaft as shown in Fig. 2.24. Cams are shaped to produce protruding portions
which actuate the contact blocks.
Electronic Timer
• Electronic timers are widely used in industry for various applications due to their better
accuracy and longer life than the pneumatic timers. They are less expensive than
synchronous timers.
• Only critical processes which demand very high accuracy require synchronous timers.
• Electronic timers achieve their timing action with an electronic circuit. Electronic timers
are generally of the ON-delay type.
• When supply to the timer is given it starts counting and the contacts change over their
positions after a pre-set delay.
• The length of time delay period is easily adjusted by a variable resistor placed in the
electronic circuit. The timer gets reset when supply to the timer is cut off.
• A very simple electronic timer circuit using a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is shown in
Fig. 2.25.
• The SCR, also generally known as Thyristor, has three terminals Anode, Cathode and
Gate.
• It conducts when a signal is applied between its Gate and Cathode and continues to
conduct even if signal to the gate is removed after conduction starts. It conducts only
when there is positive supply at the Anode and negative supply at the Cathode.
• The gate supply should be positive with respect to the Cathode to cause its conduction.
• In the circuit of Fig. 2.25, control transformer (220/12 V center tapped) and diodes D1
and D2 provide 12 V dc supply to the electronic circuit.
• When the timer switch is closed 12 V dc is available to the timer circuit. Resistance R1
and capacitor C form the RC charging circuit.
• The coil of the timer relay is connected in series with the SCR as shown. The gate of SCR
is connected to the capacitor terminal.
• When the timer switch is closed, the capacitor C starts charging. When the voltage of the
capacitor is sufficient to send minimum gate current to trigger on the SCR, the SCR starts
conducting.
• Resistance R2 is there to limit the gate current. When the SCR starts conducting, relay
coil picks up and closes its contacts.
• The required delay in closing the relay contacts may be obtained by changing the
charging rate of capacitor (by varying the variable resistance R1).
• A suitable time range of the timer can be designed by using required values of R1 and C.
The timer gets reset automatically when supply to the timer is cut off. The contacts of
the timer then return to the normal position immediately.
 PHASE FAILURE RELAY (SINGLE PHASING PREVENTER)
• In a 3-phase motor, when under running conditions, one of the three fuses blows and power to the motor is
supplied by the remaining two phases, the motor is said to be running on single phasing condition.
• To maintain the same power input to the motor during single phasing the current in the remaining two
phases will increase by 1.73 times.
• If the motor is lightly loaded, currents in healthy phases will not increase beyond the full rated current
setting on the overload relay. Thus overload relay will not be able to detect single-phasing when the motor
is lightly loaded.
• For example, consider a 10 hp motor with rated current of 14 A and over-load relay setting at 10 A. At a
particular load, let the motor be drawing a current of 5 A. If one of the fuses blows out or a conductor
breaks, current in the two phases will become 5 × 1.73 = 8.65 A, which is much below the relay setting of 10
A. Therefore, the motor will continue running under single phasing. Single phasing of the motor results in
superpositon of negative sequence of current flow over the positive sequence through the motor windings.
• These negative sequence currents are of double frequency as compared to positive sequence currents and
produce a torque which is opposite to that produced by positive sequence currents.
• As the iron losses are proportional to frequency, the negative sequence currents cause higher iron losses
and therefore greater heating of the rotor. Rotor heating is further increased due to skin effect (due to
higher frequency).
• This undetected heating can damage the rotor and due to convection, stator windings also. This excessive
heat can finally cause burn out of the motor.
• To avoid failure of the motor due to single phasing, phase failure relay or commercially known as single
phase preventer is used in the motor circuit as shown in Fig. 2.26.
• As shown in the figure the relay is connected in the incoming supply phases. The control
contact (11-12) is connected in series with the contactor coil circuit. If the starting time
of the motor is more, to avoid undesirable tripping, the control contact should be by-
passed during starting.
• Brief description of a relay which works on the basis of detection of negative sequence
current is explained as follows.
• The relay has two built-in current transformers which sense currents of the motor.
• The secondary of the CTs feeds a negative sequence filter. The output from this filter is
proportional to the negative sequence component of currents.
• This output is fed to a sensor which detects the level of negative sequence components
of current and thus trips the motor starter by opening its control contact.
• These relays are designed for different ratings of motors upto 20 hp.
• For motors above 20 hp, a relay rated for a 3 hp motor can be used by using current
transformers on the lines as shown in Fig. 2.26. The CTs should have a secondary current
of 5 A, the primary current should correspond to full rated current of the motor.
• The two secondaries are connected to two phases of the relay. The control contact is
used as usual in series with the contactor coil.
 PUSH BUTTON SWITCHES
• It is a pilot device which provides control of an equipment by pressing an actuator which looks like a
button. Push button switch can be divided into two parts. One part is the mechanical actuator or
button assembly and the second part is the electrical portion or contact assembly called the contact
block.
• The mechanical actuator or button assembly can be of momentary-contact spring returned type or of
maintained contact type. The momentary-contacts spring returned push button remains actuated as
long as the button is physically held pressed by the human operator.
• Under pressed condition the contacts change their positions in the contact block. Once the button is
released the contacts return to their normal position.
• Maintained contact push buttons are held actuated by some latching mechanism even when the
operator releases the pressure on the push button.
• Such units consist of two push buttons, only one remains in actuated position at a time, when the
other button is pressed the first one gets released.
• A spring returned momentary contact push button is shown in Fig. 2.27.
• The contact block has two contacts, one normally open (NO) and the other normally closed (NC).
When the push button is pressed, NC contacts opens and NO contact closes.
• When the push button is released a spring inside the actuator assembly brings back the push button
and a spring inside the contact block brings the contacts back to their normal position.
• The symbol for the push button switch is also shown in Fig. 2.27.
Cross section view and symbol for the push button
Types of Push button switches
• Push button switches can be of different types depending upon the type of
actuator assembly.
• They are:
Recessed button type
Mushroom head type
Illuminated type
Key lock type.
• Colour of the button is also an important factor in push button switches.
Standards have been developed which specify certain colour for a particular
function. For example, red push buttons are used for stop and emergency stop
operations, while green push buttons are used for start operations. When two or
three push button switches are mounted on a steel or plastic enclosure it is
known as a push button station. For example, in a three push button station, one
push button may be for running the motor in forward direction, the second for
running the motor in reverse direction, and the third for stopping the motor.
LIMIT SWITCHES
• Limit switch is an important control element.
• Limit switch contacts change over their position when its actuating lever or
knob is actuated by the mechanical part of a machine.
• The mechanical part attached to the machine which actuates the limit switch
lever or knob is known as actuator or dog.
• Limit switches are used to stop a mechanical movement of a machine and
may also be used to stop a particular movement, and initiate another
movement.
• The simple application of a limit switch is in producing automatic to and fro
movement of a planar machine bed shown in Fig. 2.32.
• It must be understood here that a limit switch is not used as a mechanical
stop.
• A limit switch controls the electrical signal which is responsible for
mechanical stop/movement.
A Simple Limit Switch
• The simplest construction of a limit switch is shown in Fig. 2.33.
• When the knob or pin is pushed the plunger attached to the knob move down
against spring pressure. The moving contacts mounted on the plunger also moves
down.
• Thus the terminals 1 and 2, which are normally closed, become open and
terminals 3 and 4, which are normally open, get closed. When the pressure on
the knob is released the contacts return to their normal position.
• Another commonly used limit switch is the lever type. This may be single side
actuation type or double side actuation type, as shown in Figs. 2.33 (b) and (c).
• In a single side actuation type limit switch the contacts operate when the limit
switch arm moves in one direction, either the right or to the left.
• Movement on the other side does not actuate the contacts.
• The arm returns to the normal position when the actuating force is removed.
• The limit switch can also be of maintained contact type in which arm has to be
brought
 FLOAT SWITCH
• Float switches are used to maintain liquid levels within a certain range in a tank by energizing a pump when
the liquid level falls to a certain lower pre-set height and by de-energising the pump when liquid level rises
above a certain higher pre-set height.
• This level sensing switches using a float can be of two types, one using a rod and the other a chain with a
counter weight.
• A float switch using a rod is shown in Fig. 2.41.
• A float is attached to the lower end of the rod. The rod passes through a hole of a lever. Two stoppers fitted
on two ends of the rod cannot pass through the hole (see Fig. 2.41).
• When the liquid level rises the float also rises and moves the rod up. At a certain level depending upon the
position of lower stopper the lever gets tilted up and it inturn actuates the contact.
• When the water level starts falling the float and the rod also moves down.
• The lever, however, remains in the same position and keeps the contact actuated. At a certain lower level
depending upon the position of the upper stopper the lever gets tilted down by the stopper and the contact
gets deactuated.
• When the liquid level starts rising the contact remains unactuated till the higher level set by stopper
position is reached. This actuation and deactuation of the contact are used to stop and start a pump motor
for maintaining the desired liquid level in the tank.
• The other form of float switch uses a chain passing over a pulley with float at one end and a counter weight
at the other end (see Fig. 2.42).
• The stoppers fitted on both sides of the chain tilts the lever. The contact is opened or closed by the position
of mercury placed in a tube.
• The tube is mounted on the lever and thus tilting of lever causes the contact to open or close. When the
liquid level raises the float, the stopper on the left hand side of the chain tilts the lever in clock-wise
direction and thus the switch contacts open (see Fig. 2.42).
• When the liquid level drops and the counter weight rises and at certain limit the stopper fixed on the right
hand side of the chain pushes the lever and tilts it in the anticlockwise direction, the switch contact closes.
• A float switch may not be suitable for certain applications, for example, in situation where there is some
mounting difficulty or where ice may form on the surface of the liquid due to low ambient temperature.
• When the water level falls the ice layer remains fixed and therefore the decreasing liquid level below the ice
remains undetected by the float.
• In such cases the liquid level is sensed by measuring the pressure of the liquid level. For this a special
differential switch is used which compares two pressures from different sources. The switch has differential
adjustment instead of range adjustment.
• The difference adjustment is used to set the maximum pressure difference between the two sources to
actuate the switch contact.
• The differential adjustment is used to get the minimum pressure difference to deactuate the switch contact.
In a tank where liquid level is maintained with the help of a differential pressure switch the top of the tank is
filled with compressed air to maintain constant pressure in the outgoing lines. When water level falls, more
compressed air enters the tank and thus the total pressure in the tank remains constant.
• In this case an ordinary pressure switch fitted at the bottom of the tank will therefore always read the
constant pressure in the tank.
The differential pressure switch solves the problem. It measures the difference between the total pressure in the tank i.e., (air and water) and
only the air pressure. This differential pressure is proportional to the height of water in the tank. One connection of the pressure
switch is placed at the bottom of the tank to measure the total pressure of air and water column. The other connection is at the top of the tank
which measures only the air pressure. The switch is easily set to control the water level in the tank by setting the maximum and minimum
difference in pressure to actuate and deactuate the switch contact.