UNIT II

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Decisions regarding what, when, where, how much, by what
meansconcerning an enquiry or a research study constitute a research design.
 A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysisof data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purposewith economy in procedure.
 Research design is the conceptual structure within which the research
isconducted. It is simply the framework or plan for a study that is used as
aguiding and analysing the data.It constitutes the blue print for the
collection,measurement and analysis of data.
 According to Green and Tull, " A research design is the specification
ofmethods and procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the
over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates
whatinformation is to be collected from which sources by what procedures.

FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

 A good design should be flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical and so
on.
 The research design should be designed in such a way that it minimizes
biasand maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
 The design should give the smallest experimental error.
 A good design should yield maximum information and provide an
opportunity for considering the different aspects of the problem.
 A single design cannot serve the purpose for all types of research problems.
 A research design appropriate for a particular problem usually considers
thefollowing factors
 The means of obtaining information.
 The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any
 The objective of the problem to be studied
 The nature of the problem to be studied
 The availability of time and money for the research work
 It is only on the basis of its primary function that a study can be categorized
 as either exploratory or descriptive or hypothesis-testing study
andaccordingly the choice of a research design may be made in case of a
particular study.
 Beside the availability of time, money , skills of the research staff and the
means of obtaining the information must be given due weightage while
Working out the relevant details of the research design such as
experimentaldesign, survey design, sample design and the like.

CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

1. DEPENDENT & INDEPENDENT VARIABLES:

 A Concept which can take on different quantitative values is
calledvariable(eg) concepts like height, weight, age are all examples of
variables .
 If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable it is
termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the
dependent variable is termed as an independent variable
 Eg height depends upon age, gender
 Behavioral changes occurring as a result of the environmental manipulation
are egs of dependent variables

2. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES:
 Independent variable that are not related to the purpose of the study but may
affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
 If the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between Children's gains in social studies and their self-concept.
 In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies
achievement is a dependent variable.
 Intelligence also affect the social studies achievement but since it is not
related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher as an
extraneous variable
 Whatever effect is noticed on the dependent variable as a result of
extraneous variable is technically described as "experimental error"
 A study should be so designed that the effect on the dependent variable is
attributed entirely to the independent variable and not to some extraneous
variable or variables.

3. CONTROL:
 A good research design should minimize the effect of extraneous variables.
 The technical term control is used to describe this
 In experimental research the term control is used is used to refer to restrain
experimental conditions

4. CONFOUNDED RELATIONSHIP:
 When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous
variables, the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable.

5. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS:
 When a prediction or hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific
methods it is termed as research hypothesis .
 A research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an
independentvariable to a dependent variable.
 The research hypothesis should contain one independent and one dependent
variable .

6. EXPERIMENTAL AND NON EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS

TESTINGRESEARCH:
 Research in which independent variable is manipulated is termed as
“experimental hypothesis testing research".
 Research in which independent variable is not manipulated is termed as
"non experimental hypothesis testing research".
 E.g. for Non experimental hypothesis testing research" - intelligence
affectsthe reading ability of the students, randomly selects 50 students and
tests
 their reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between
thetwo sets of scores. The independent variable, intelligence is not
manipulated
 E.g. for Experimental hypothesis testing research - Group A and Group B -
usual studies program me and special studies program me - the type
oftraining program me (independent variable).

7. EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS:

 In an experimental hypothesis testing research when a group is exposed to
usual conditions , it is termed as 'control group' but when the group
isexposed to some novel or special conditions it is termed as an
“experimentalgroup”.
 It is possible to design studies which include only experimental groups
orstudies which include both experimental and control groups.

8. TREATMENTS:
 The different conditions under which experimental and control groups areput
are usually referred to as treatments.
 E.g. - group a and group B the two treatments are the usual studies
programme and the special studies program me.
 If we want to determine through an experiment the comparative impact
ofthree varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case the
threevarieties of wheat are treated as three treatments

9. EXPERIMENT:
 The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating
tosome research problem, is known as an experiment.
 Experiments can be of two types - absolute experiment and
comparativeexperiment.
 E.g. - if we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a
crop,it is case of absolute experiment.
 E.g. - if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer compared to that
ofanother fertilizer , then the experiment is treated as comparative
experiment.
 10.EXPERIMENTAL UNITS:
 The pre determined plots or the blocks where different treatments are
usedare known as experimental units.
 Experimental units should be selected very carefully.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

The research designs are classified on the basis of objective of the research. They
may be exploratory or conclusive.

 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
 Literature research study of secondary data
 Experience survey
 Case study
 Focus groups
 Two stage design
 Projective techniques .

 CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH
 Descriptive Research (Longitudinal study, cross sectional study) &
 Experimental Or Causal Research

1) EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

 Exploratory studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
 The main purpose of such studies is to formulate a problem for more precise
investigation or develop a working hypothesis from an operational point of
view.
 The major emphasis of such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.
 Such studies should draw definite conclusion with extreme caution.
 Exploratory research is a type of research that is connected because a
problem has not been clearly defined .
  Given a fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a
perceived problem does not actually exist.
 Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing
available literature, or qualitative approach such as informal discussion with
consumers, employees, management or competitors and more formal
approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods,
case studies or pilot studies.

OBJECTIVES OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

● Precise formulation of the problem
● Provide more knowledge to the researcher about the problem environment.
● Establish priorities for further research
● To design appropriate information collection procedure for the given
situation
● To determine nature of relationship between various factors associated in the
problem.
● Gathering information on the problems associated with doing conclusive
research.

SUITABILITY OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

 When the researcher does not have enough information to formulate the
problem precisely
 When the problem is totally new of which the researcher does not have any
insight
 It helps to know trends in the market to take a decisive action
 It is used to test concepts before they are actually put in market place
 Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing
available literature, or qualitative approach such as informal discussion with
consumers, employees, management or competitors and more formal
approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods,
case studies or pilot studies
 Results of exploratory research are not usually considered for decision
making but they can provide significant insight to any given situation
 Results of exploratory research cannot be generalized and represent the ideas
or opinions of the whole population
TECHNIQUES OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
I. LITERATURE RESEARCH / STUDY OF SECONDARY DATA
 The quickest and most economical way is to find possible hypotheses from
the available literature.
 The past literature may be suitable sources of information to develop the
new hypotheses.
 The findings of marketing research are generally published in trade and
professional journals, which can be fruitful sources of information.
 Such research findings are available in company or public libraries.
 Various forms of literature such as conceptual literature, trade literature,
published statistics and socio- psychological literature are available in
theselibraries.
II. EXPERIENCE SURVEY
 Experience survey means the survey of people who have had
practicalexperience with the problem to be studied.
 These individuals may be top executives, sales managers,
wholesalers,retailed possessing valuable knowledge and information about
the problemenvironment.
 Various techniques have been used pertaining to this qualitative research.
 When applied to consumers such research is generally aimed at finding the
thoughts, feelings and attitudes that influence consumer behavior.
 Individual interview (one-on-ones) or projective techniques by which
respondents are asked to project themselves into a particular situation.
 Group interviews are called as focus group interviews.
III. FOCUS GROUPS
 The planning for a focus group project involves a number of decisions about
how the data will be collected, who will participate in the group, how
structured the groups will be and the degree of moderator involvement.
 There are further decisions about the size of the group and the no. of groups
in the total project .
  The most common choices that researchers have made with each of these
decisions involve
 Use homogeneous strangers as participants .
 Rely on a relatively structured interview with high moderator
involvement .
 Have 6 to 10 participants per group
 Have a total of 3 to 5 groups per project
IV. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
 A projective technique is an unstructured, indirect form of questioning that
encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs
attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern.
 In projective techniques respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of
others rather than describing their own behavior.
 In interpreting the behavior of others respondents indirectly project their
motivation, beliefs. attitudes or feelings into the situation.
 The more ambiguous the situation the more the respondents will be
projecting their emotions, needs. motives, attitudes and values
V. TWO STAGE DESIGN
 In this approach the exploration is conducted in two stages.
 The first stage consists of clearly defining the research problem while the
second stage comprises developing the research design
 A two stage design is beneficial when the problem is vaguely defined and
the researcher is not clear about the particular problem that has to be studied.
 In these circumstances, the first stage will clearly define the problem for
study and the second stage will develop the research design

2) DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

 Conclusive research provides information which helps the executive to make
a rational decision. The marketing executive has to make a rational decision
form among the various alternatives that are available.
 The various alternative conclusions and selecting the most suitable
conclusion may be done by descriptive research design or experimental
research design.
  In descriptive research design only a partial situation is clarified butter in the
case of experimental research design a precise alternative is selected.
 There are basically two types of conclusive research design - descriptive
research design and experimental or causal research design.
 Descriptive studies, as their name implies, are designed to describe
something the characteristics of users of a given product, the degree to
which product's use vary with age, gender, income or other characteristics;
or the number who saw a specific television channel.
 It is relatively easy to start a descriptive study with the vague thought that
the data collected will be interesting. As a result, many descriptive studies
are made with only hazy objectives and inadequate planning

OBJECTIVES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

 To describe the characteristics of relevant groups such as consumers, sales
people, organizations and market areas
 To determine the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a
certain behavior (e.g.) percentage of heavy users of prestigious departmental
stores.
 To determine the perception of product characteristics (e.g.) how do
households perceive the different features of departmental stores.
 To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated (e.g.) to
what extent shopping in retail stores related to eating out .
 To make specific predictions (e.g.) what will be the retail sales for lakme
(specific stores) for cosmetics( specific product) in kemps Corner(specific
area)

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

i. CASE METHOD
 Case studies are more appropriate in exploratory research than
descriptive research.
 They are worth some comment in the descriptive context.
ii. STATISTICAL METHOD
 It is the most widely used method in marketing research.
  The name comes from the statistical techniques that are used in
analyzing the data collected techniques that vary from simple means
and percentages to very sophisticated techniques that requires
computers to manipulate the data.
 The study does not ascertain the cause and effect relationship.
 The researcher must design the studies to give as much evidence as
possible on such relationships.
 Survey methods, questionnaires and observations are used in a very
comprehensive manner.
 Advantages - involves large no. of observations, analysis is more
objective, averages and % are collected, permits the researcher to
make more accurate generalizations.
 Disadvantages - inability to prove cause and effect relationships,
increase in the no. of factors make the analysis more and more
complicated
iii. LONGITUDINAL DESIGN/ PANEL ANALYSIS
 Longitudinal studies are based on panel data and panel methods
 A panel is a sample of respondents who are interviewed and re-enter
from time to time. Generally panel data relates to the rest
measurements of the same variables
 Advantages - such data enable the researcher to make a detailed
analysis panel data are more reliable than data collected through
surveys, costs of data collection through panels are generally lower
than in person interviews .
 Limitations Panel data may not be representative samples, panel
members may report wrong data.
 Two types of Longitudinal Design
 Traditional design - where measurements of the same variables
are made repeatedly at different points of time.
 Omnibus Panel - where the information is collected from each
of the sample members varies each time
iv. CROSS SECTIONAL DESIGN
 A cross sectional study is concerned with a sample of elements from a
given population. It any deal with household. dealers, retail outlets
etc.
  Data on a no. of characteristics from the sample elements are collected
and analyzed.
 Cross sectional design involves the collection of information from an
given sample of population elements only once. They may be either
single cross sectional design or multiple cross sectional design .
 In single cross-sectional design, only one sample of respondent
is drawn from the target population and information is obtained
from the sample only once. These designs are called sample
survey research design.
 In multiple cross sectional design, there are two or more sample
of respondents and information from each sample is received
only once. Often information from different samples is obtained
at different times over long intervals. Multiple cross sectional
design involves comparison at the aggregate level and not at the
individual level.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 Hypothesis testing studies generally known as experimental studies are those
where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationship between the
variables .
 Such studies require procedure that will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability but will permit drawing inferences about causality .
 Usually experiments meet this requirements and hence it is called as design
of experiments.
 This design has its origin in agricultural research and hence the terrace
treatment, yield, plot, block etc are used

PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

a. PRINCIPLES OF REPLICATION
 Experiment is repeated more than once. Treatment is applied in more than
one experimental units instead of one. Therefore the statistical accuracy of
the results are increased (e.g.) effects of two varieties of rice especially the
yield.
  Though conceptually it is not difficult computationally it is difficult .
 Its main aim is to increase the accuracy with which the main effects and
accuracy can be estimated

b. PRINCIPLE OF RANDOMISATION
 This principle provides protection when we conduct an experiment
against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization.
 This principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in
such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be
combined under the general heading" chance".
 Randomized sampling technique can be used which can lead to a better
estimate of the experimental error

c. PRINCIPLE OF LOCAL CONTROL

 Under this principle, the extraneous factor, the known source of
variability is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary
and this need to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.
 Experiments can be performed in such a way that we can perform Two -
way ANOVA in which the total variability of data divided into
threecomponents attributed to treatments (rice variety), the extraneous
factor( soil fertility) and experimental error
 Through the principle of local control it is possible to eliminate the
variability due to extraneous factor from the experimental error

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment.
 There are two broad categories of experimental designs informal
experimental designs and formal experimental designs.
 Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a less
sophisticated form of analysis based on the differences in magnitudes.
 Formal experimental designs offer relatively more control and use precise
statistical procedures for analysis. They are
 Completely randomized (CR) design
  Randomized Block (RB) Design
 Latin Square (LQ) Design
 Factorial Designs
 The various types of informal experimental designs are
 Before-and-after without control design .
 After only with control design
 Before and after with control design

BEFORE- AND - AFTER WITHOUT CONTROL DESIGN

 A single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is
measured before the introduction of the treatment
 Treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured again
after the treatment has been introduced

 The main difficulty of such a design is that with the passage of time
considerable extraneous variation may be there in its treatment effect

AFTER ONLY WITH CONTROL DESIGN

 In this design or areas (test area and control area)are selected and the
treatment is introduced in the rest area only
 Dependent variables are measured in both the areas in the same time
 Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the values of the dependent
variable in the control area from its value in the test area
  The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical with
respect to behavior towards the phenomenon considered

BEFORE-AND-AFTER WITH CONTROL DESIGN (diagram in page 12)

 In this design, two areas are selected and the dependent variable is measured
in both the areas for an identical time period before the treatment.
 The treatment is then introduced in the test area only and the dependent
variable is measured in both for identical time period after the introduction
of the treatment.

 The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the

dependent variable in the control area from the change in the dependent
variable in the test area
 This design is superior to the above two designs for the simple reason that it
avoid extraneous variation resulting both from the passage of time and from
non-comparability of the test and control areas

FACTORIAL DESIGN
 Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying more
than one factor can be determined.
 They are specially important in several economic and social phenomena
where usually a large no. of factors affect a particular problem
 Factorial designs can be of two types - simple factorial designs and complex
factorial designs
 Simple factorial design- Here we consider the effects of varying two factors
on the dependent variable and its is also termed as two-factor-factorial
design. It may be either 2x2 simple factorial design, 3x4.5x3 etc
 Complex factorial design factors: When an experiment is done with more
than two factors. It is also called as Multi factor factorial design. A design
which considers three or more independent variables simultaneously.

 COMPLETELY RANDOMISED DESIGN

 Involves only two principles (i.e.) principle of replication and
principle of randomization of experimental designs
 The essential characteristics of this design is that the subjects are
randomly assigned to experimental treatments
 It is the simplest possible design and the procedure of analysis is also
easier
 For instance, if we have 10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under
treatment A and five under treatment B, the randomization process
gives every possible group of 5 subjects selected from a set of 10 an
equal opportunity of being assigned to treatment A and treatment B
 One way analysis of variance is used in this design
 Such a design is generally used when experimental areas tend to be
homogeneous

 RANDOMISED BLOCK DESIGN

 It is an improvement over the C.R design.
 In the R.B design the principle of local control can be applied along
with the other two principles of experimental designs
 In the R.B. design subjects are divided into five groups, named as
blocks such that within each group the subject is relatively
homogeneous in respect to some selected variable
 The number of subjects in a given block would be equal to the number
of treatments and one subject in each block is randomly assigned to
each treatment. Blocks are the levels at which we keep the extraneous
factor fixed, so that its contribution to the total variability of the data
can be measured
 It is analyzed with the two way analysis of variance
 LATIN SQUARE DESIGN
 It is an experimental design very frequently used in
agriculturalresearch
 The conditions under which agricultural investigations are carried
outare different from those in other studies for nature plays an
importantrole in agriculture
 For eg, an experiment has to be made through which the effects of
fivedifferent varieties of fertilisers on the yield of wheat is to be
judged.
 In such a case the varying fertility of the soil in the different blocks
inwhich the experiment is performed is taken into
consideration.Similarly there may be varying impact of seeds on the
field. Toovercome this the L.S deign is used where there are two
majorextraneous factors such as the varying soil fertility and varying
seeds
 The latin square design is one wherein each fertilizer appears
fivetimes but is used only once w each row and each column of the
design
 The treatments in the LS design are so allocated that each
treatmentoccurs only once in any one row or any one column
VALIDITY
 Validity is the extent to which a measure accomplishes its claims
 The central aim of a research design is to establish a relationship between
the independent and dependent variable with the high degree of certainty.
The potential of a design to achieve this aim is referred to as validity of
design
 Internal validity indicates whether the independent variable is the sole cause
of the changes in the dependent variable
 External validity indicates the extent to which the results of the experiment
are applicable in the real world

INTERNAL VALIDITY
 Internal validity is the measure of accuracy of an experiment. It measures
whether the manipulation of the independent variables or treatments actually
caused the effects on the dependent variable
 Internal validity examines whether the observed effects on the test units
could have been caused by variables other than the treatment
 If the observed effects are influenced or caused by extraneous variables it is
difficult to draw valid inferences about the causal relationship between the
independent and dependent variables
 Internal validity is the basic minimum that must be present in an experiment
before any conclusion about treatment effects can be made
 Without internal validity the experimental results are confounded
 Control of extraneous variables is a necessary condition for establishing
internal validity
 Internal validity is the approximate truth about inferences regarding cause-
effect or causal relationships

FACTORS AFFECTING INTERNAL VALIDITY

HISTORY
 A history effect occurs when some change other than the independent
treatment occurs during the course of an experiment that affects the
dependent variable
  A common history effect occurs when competitors change their marketing
strategies during a tést marketing experiment
 History effects are particularly prevalent in repeated measure experiment
that takes place over an extended time
 A special case of history effect is the cohort effect which refers to a change
in a dependent variable that occurs because members of one experimental
group experienced different historical situations than members of other
experimental groups

MATURATION
 Maturation effects are effects that are a function of time and the naturally
occurring effects that coincide with growth and experience
 Experiments take place over longer time spans may see lower internal
validity as subjects simply grow older or more experienced
 Suppose an experiment were designed to test the impact of a new
compensation program on sales productivity. Their sales productivity might
improve because of their knowledge and experience rather than the
compensation program

TESTING
 Testing effects are also called as pre-testing effects because the initial
instruments or test alerts affects their response to the experimental
treatments
 Testing effects generally occur in a before-and-after study
 Before-and-after experiments are a special case of repeated measures design
 For e.g., students taking standardized achievement and intelligence tests for
the second time usually do better than those taking tests for the first
time.The effect of testing may increase awareness of socially approved
answers, increase attention to experimental conditions etc

INSTRUMENTATION
 The threat to validity may arise due to the observer or the instrumentation
 Using different observers may affect the validity of the study because they
may be a source of extraneous variation
  If the same observer is used for a longer period of time, it may affect the
validity due to observer's experience,(acquire new skills or decide to reword
the questionnaire in their own terms) boredom, fatigue and anticipation of
results. If the same interviewers are used to ask questions before and after
the measurement problems may arise

SELECTION
 Different selection of subjects for experimental and control groups affect the
validity
 Validity considerations requires the group to be equivalent in every aspect
 The problem may be overcome by randomly assigning the subjects to
experimental and control groups. In addition matching can be done.
 Matching is a control procedure to ensure that experimental and control
groups are equated in one or more variables before the experiment

MORTALITY
 If an experiment is conducted for a few weeks or more some sample bias
may occur due to mortality effect(sample attrition)
 Sample attrition occurs when some subjects withdraw from the experiment
before it is completed
 Mortality effects may occur if subjects drop from one experimental
treatment group disproportionately from other groups
 E.g. - sales training experiment investigating the effects of close supervision
of sales people versus low supervision

STATISTICAL REGRESSION
 Operates when groups have been selected on the basis of extreme scores on
the dependent variable
 If a manager wants to test if he can increase the salesmanship qualities of the
sales personnel through the training programme he should not choose those
with extremely low or extremely high abilities for the experiment
 This is because those with a low current sales abilities have a greater
probability of showing improvement and scoring closer to the mean test after
being exposed to the treatment
  Likewise those with high sales abilities would also have a greater tendency
regress towards the mean- they will score lower on the posttest than on the
pre test

EXTERNAL VALIDITY
 External validity is the accuracy with which the experimental results can be
generalized beyond the experimental subjects
 External validity is increased when the subjects comprising the sample truly
represent some population and when the results extend or other groups of
people
 The higher the external validity the more the researchers and managers
cancount on the fact that any results observed in an experiment will also
been seen in the real world market place, workplace, sales floor etc) market
segments

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
 They have the greatest external validity problem because of the artificiality
of the setting and arrangements
 The exposure of an experimental treatment such as the mockup of a new
product in a laboratory can be so different from the conditions in the real
world that projections become very difficult and risky
 In addition to the problem of artificiality to laboratory experiments most of
the internal validity threats also apply to external validity. In fact, selectivity
bias can be very serious
 In field experiments the test market site, the stores close to test and the
people interviewed as part of the experiment are not representative of the
entire market or population
 If the subjects know that they are participating in an experiment they may
not behave in normal way

REACTIVE OR INTERACTIVE EFFECT

 The reactive or interaction effect of testing or decrease the respondent's
sensitivity to the experimental variable
  This in turn will make the results obtained for a pre tested population
representative of the effects of the experimental variable which a pretest
might increase experimental variable

REACTIVE EFFECTS OF EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENTS

 Reactive effects of experimental arrangement which could preclude
generalization about the effect of the experimental variable on persons being
exposed to it on non- experimental settings

MULTIPLE TREATMENT INTERFACE

 When multiple treatments are applied to the same respondents because the
effects of prior treatments are not erasable this happens
 This enumeration of sources of invalidity is bound to be incomplete

SCALING & MEASUREMENT

 Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that
are collected as part of the research effort
 Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to
rules - Kerlinger
 Measurement is the systematic assignment of numbers to a set of
observations to reflect the status of each member of the set in terms of the
various properties – Blalock
 The characteristics of measurement are
 Measurement is purely a descriptive process
 Measurement implies that the attributes of persons or objects are
present in varying degrees and the degree of variation can be
measured and represented
 Measurement in essence is a numerical process
 Scaling may be considered as an extension of measurement
 Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are
located
 Scaling describes the procedure of assigning numbers to various degrees of
opinion, attitude and other concepts.
NOMINAL SCALE
 Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in
order to label them
 Instances of Nominal Scale are - assignment of numbers to basketball
players, credit card numbers, bank account numbers, employee id numbers
etc. It is simple and widely used when relationship between two variables is
to be studied.
 In a Nominal Scale numbers are no more than labels for the particular class
of events and as such have no quantitative value.
 Nominal scale provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects
and events.
 Mode as a measure of central tendency is generally used.
 Hypothesis tests can be carried out on data collected in the nominal
form.The most likely would be the Chi-square test. however, it should be
noted that the Chi-square is a test to determine whether two or more
variables are associated and the strength of that relationship. It can tell
nothing about the form of that relationship, where it exists, i.e. it is not
capable of establishing cause and effect.
 Nominal scale simply describes differences between things by assigning
them to categories.
 The scale wastes any information that we may have about varying degrees
of attitudes, skills, understandings etc.
 What is your gender?
 Male
 Female
 How do you stock items at present?
 By product category
 Ata centralized store
 Department wise
 Single warehouse
 Nominal scales are very useful and are widely used in surveys and other ex
post-facto research when data are being classified by major sub-groups of
the population
ORDINAL SCALE
 The ordinal scale places events in order but there is no attempt to make the
intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule
 Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research
relating to qualitative phenomena
 It is more powerful than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the
property of rank order. The ranking of certain product attributes/benefits as
deemed important by the respondents is obtained through the scale.
 Example 1: Rank the following attributes (1-5), on their importance in a
microwave oven.
 Company Name
 Functions
 Price
 Comfort
 Design
 The most important attribute is ranked I by the respondents and the least
important is ranked 5. Instead of numbers, letters or symbols too can be
usedto rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale makes no attempt to measure the
degree of favorability of different rankings.
 Example 2- If there are 5 different brands of Talcum Powder and if a
respondent ranks them based on say, "Freshness" into Rank 1 having
maximum Freshness Rank 2 the second maximum Freshness, and so on, an
Ordinal Scale results.
 Median and mode are meaningful for ordinal scale.
 E.g. 3 - A student's rank in his graduation class involves the use of an
ordinal scale-comparison of 10th and 40th rank-makes no sense at all
 Ordinal scale only permit the ranking from the highest to the lowest. More
precise comparisons cannot be made
 Use of an ordinal scale plies a statement of 'greater than' or 'less than without
stating how much greater or less

RATIO SCALES
 Ratio scales have an absolute or a true zero of measurement. For e.g., the
zero point on a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence of length or
height
  With ratio scales involved one can make statements like "Jyoti's" typing
performance was twice as good as that of Reetu". The ratio involved does
have significance and facilitates a kind of comparison which is not possible
in case of an interval scale .
 Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical
dimensions such as height, weight, distance etc are examples
 All statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales. Geometric and
harmonic means can be used as measures of central tendency and
coefficients of variation may also be calculated

INTERVAL SCALES
 In case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted based on some rule that
has been established as a basis for making the units equal
 The distance between the various categories unlike in Nominal, or numbers
unlike in Ordinal, are equal in case of Interval Scales.
 The Interval Scales are also termed as Rating Scales.
 An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with further numbers placed at
equal intervals.
 A very good example of Interval Scale is a Thermometer. Fahrenheit scale is
an example of an interval scale. One can say that an increase in temperature
from 30 degree to 40 degree involves the same increase in temperature as an
increase from 60 degree to 70 degree. But one cannot say that 60 degree is
twice as warm as 30 degree because both numbers are dependent on the fact
that the zero on the scale is set arbitrarily at the temperature of the freezing
point of water.
 Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is
above position 4 and also the distance from 5 to 4 is same as distance from 4
to 3.
 Such a scale however does not permit conclusion that position is twice as
strong as position 2 because no zero position has been established.
 The data obtained from the Interval Scale can be used to calculate the Mean
scores of cache attributes over all respondents. The Standard Deviation (a
measure of dispersion) can also be calculated
TEST OF SOUND MEASUREMENT
 Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and
practicality
 Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish
to measure
 Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement
procedure
 Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of
economy,convenience and interpretability

TESTS OF VALIDITY
 Validity indicates the degree to which an instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure
 Validity can also be thought of as utility
 One can certainly consider three types of validity. They are
 Content validity
 Criterion-related validity
 Construct validity
 Content Validity - It is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides
adequate coverage of the topic under study.
 If the instrument contains a representative sample of the universe then the
content validity is good.
 Its determination is primarily judgmental and intuitive. It can also be
determined by a panel of persons who shall judge how well the measuring
instrument meets the standards but there is no numerical value to express it
 Criterion-related validity - It refers to the ability to predict some outcome or
estimate the existence of some current condition
 Concerned criterion possess qualities like relevance freedom from
bias,reliability and availability
 Criterion-related validity can be classified into predictive validity and
concurrent validity.
 Predictive validity refers to the usefulness of a test in predicting my future
performance whereas concurrent validity refers to the usefulness of a fest in
closely relating other measures of known validity.
TESTS OF RELIABILITY
 It is an important test of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is
reliable if it provides consistent results
 Reliable measuring instrument does contribute to validity but a reliable
instrument need not be a valid instrument. For e.g., a scale that consistently
overweighs objects by 5 kgs is a reliable scale but it does not give valid
measure of weight
 It is easier to assess reliability in comparison with validity
 Two aspects of reliability (i.e) stability and equivalence draw special
attention
 The stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent results with
repeated measurements of the same person and with the same instrument
 The equivalence aspect considers how much error may get introduced by
different investigators or different samples of the item being studied. A good
way to test the equivalence of measurements by two investigators is to
compare their observations of the same events

TESTS OF PRACTICALITY
 The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in
terms of economy, convenience and interpretability
 Economy consideration suggests that some trade-off is needed between the
ideal research project and that which the budget can afford. Data collection
methods to be used are also dependent at times upon economic factors
 Conveniencetests suggest that the measuring instrument should be easy to
administer. For this purpose one should give due attention to the proper
layout of the measuring instrument
 Interpretability consideration is especially important when persons other
than the designers of the test are to interpret the results.
 Unit 2
SCALES
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of
opinion, attitude and other concepts. This can be done in two ways viz., (i) making
a judgement about some characteristic of an individual and then placing him
directly on a scale that has been defined in terms of that characteristic and (ii)
constructing questionnaires in such a way that the score of individual’s responses
assigns him a place on a scale. .
Scaling has been defined as a “procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other
symbols) to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of
numbers to the properties in question

Scale classification basis

(a) Subject orientation: Under it a scale may be designed to measure characteristics
of the respondent who completes it or to judge the stimulus object which is
presented to the respondent.
(b) Response form: Under this we may classify the scales as categorical and
comparative. Categorical scales are also known as rating scales. These scales are
used when a respondent scores some object without direct reference to other
objects. Under comparative scales, which are also known as ranking scales, the
respondent is asked to compare two or more objects
(c) Degree of subjectivity: With this basis the scale data may be based on whether
we measure subjective personal preferences or simply make non-preference
judgements.
(d) Scale properties: Considering scale properties, one may classify the scales as
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. Nominal scales merely classify without
indicating order, distance or unique origin. Ordinal scales indicate magnitude
relationships of ‘more than’ or ‘less than’, but indicate no distance or unique
origin. Interval scales have both order and distance values, but no unique origin.
Ratio scales possess all these features.
(e) Number of dimensions: In respect of this basis, scales can be classified as
‘unidimensional’ and ‘multidimensional’ scales. Under the former we measure
only one attribute of the respondent or object, whereas multidimensional scaling
recognizes that an object might be described better by using the concept of an
attribute space of ‘n’ dimensions, rather than a single-dimension continuum.

Scale construction techniques: Following are the five main techniques by which
scales can be developed.
(i) Arbitrary approach: It is an approach where scale is developed on ad hoc
basis. This is the most widely used approach. It is presumed that such
scales measure the concepts for which they have been designed, although
there is little evidence to support such an assumption.
(ii) Consensus approach: Here a panel of judges evaluate the items chosen
for inclusion in the instrument in terms of whether they are relevant to
the topic area and unambiguous in implication.
(iii) Item analysis approach: Under it a number of individual items are
developed into a test which is given to a group of respondents. After
administering the test, the total scores are calculated for every one.
Individual items are then analysed to determine which items discriminate
between persons or objects with high total scores and those with low
scores.
(iv) Cumulative scales are chosen on the basis of their conforming to some
ranking of items with ascending and descending discriminating power.
For instance, in such a scale the endorsement of an item representing an
extreme position should also result in the endorsement of all items
indicating a less extreme position.
(v) Factor scales may be constructed on the basis of intercorrelations of
items which indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationship
between items. This relationship is typically measured through factor
analysis method

Scaling Techniques
Rating scales: The rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited number
of aspects of a thing or of traits of a person. When we use rating scales (or
categorical scales), we judge an object in absolute terms against some specified
criteria i.e., we judge properties of objects without reference to other similar
objects.
these ratings may be in such forms as “like-dislike”, “above average, average,
below average”, or other classifications with more categories such as “like very
much—like some what—neutral—dislike somewhat—dislike very much”;
“excellent—good—average—below average—poor”, “always—often—
occasionally—rarely—never”, and so on.
1) Dichotomous Scale
The dichotomous scale is used to elicit a Yes or No answer, as in the
example below. Note that a nominal scale is used to elicit the response.
Eg: Do you own a car? Yes No
Category Scale
The category scale uses multiple items to elicit a single response as
per the fol- lowing example. This also uses the nominal scale.
Eg: Where in northern California do you reside?
North Bay South Bay East Bay Peninsula Other
2) Likert scale

summated scales (or Likert-type scales) are developed by utilizing the item
analysis approach wherein a particular item is evaluated on the basis of how well it
discriminates between those persons whose total score is high and those whose
score is low
summated scales consist of a number of statements which express either a
favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the given object to which the
respondent is asked to react. The respondent indicates his agreement or
disagreement with each statement in the instrument. Each response is given a
numerical score, indicating its favourableness or unfavourableness, and the scores
are totalled to measure the respondent’s attitude.
Advantages:
(a) It is relatively easy to construct the Likert-type scale in comparison to
Thurstone-type scale because Likert-type scale can be performed without a panel
of judges.
(b) Likert-type scale is considered more reliable because under it respondents
answer each statement included in the instrument..
(c) Each statement, included in the Likert-type scale, is given an empirical test for
discriminating ability and as such, unlike Thurstone-type scale, the Likert-type
scale permits the use of statements that are not manifestly related (to have a direct
relationship) to the attitude being studied.
(d) Likert-type scale can easily be used in respondent-centred and stimulus-centred
studies i.e., through it we can study how responses differ between people and how
responses differ between stimuli. (e) Likert-type scale takes much less time to
construct, it is frequently used by the students of opinion research.
Limitations: There are several limitations of the Likert-type scale as well.
 One important limitation is that, with this scale, we can simply examine
whether respondents are more or less favourable to a topic, but we cannot
tell how much more or less they are.
 There is no basis for belief that the five positions indicated on the scale are
equally spaced. The interval between ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’, may not
be equal to the interval between “agree” and “undecided”. This means that
Likert scale does not rise to a stature more than that of an ordinal scale,
whereas the designers of Thurstone scale claim the Thurstone scale to be an
interval scale.

3) Semantic Differential scale

Several bipolar attributes are identified at the extremes of the scale, and
respondents are asked to indicate their attitudes, on what may be called a
semantic space, toward a particular individual, object, or event on each of the
attributes. The bipolar adjectives used, for instance, would employ such
terms as Good–Bad; Strong–Weak; Hot–Cold. The semantic differential scale
is used to assess respondents‘ attitudes toward a particular brand,
advertisement, object, or individual. The responses can be plotted to obtain a
good idea of their perceptions. This is treated as an interval scale
Eg
Responsiveness --------------------- unresponsiveness
Beautiful ----------------------- ugly
Courageous -------------------------- timid
4) Numerical scale
5) Itemized rating scale
6) Fixed or constant sum scale
7) Staple scale
8) Graphical rating scale
9) Consenses scale
RANKING SCALES
ranking scales are used to tap preferences between two or among more objects
or items
1) Paired Comparison
The paired comparison scale is used when, among a small number of objects,
respondents are asked to choose between two objects at a time. This helps to
assess preferences. If, for instance, in the previous example, during the paired
comparisons, respondents consistently show a preference for product one over
products two, three, and four, the manager reliably understands which product
line demands his utmost attention. However, as the number of objects to be com-
pared increases, so does the number of paired comparisons. The paired choices
for n objects will be [(n) (n–1)/2]. The greater the number of objects or stimuli,
the greater the number of paired comparisons presented to the respondents, and
the greater the respondent fatigue. Hence paired comparison is a good method if
the number of stimuli presented is small.
2) Forced choice
 Scale construction technics
1) Arbitrary Scales
 Arbitrary scales are developed on ad hoc basis and are designed
largely through the researcher’s own subjective selection of items.
 The researcher first collects few statements or items which he believes
are unambiguous and appropriate to a given topic. Some of these are
selected for inclusion in the measuring instrument and then people are
asked to check in a list the statements with which they agree.
 The chief merit of such scales is that they can be developed very
easily, quickly and with relatively less expense. They can also be
designed to be highly specific and adequate.

2) Differential Scales (or Thurstone-type Scales)

The name of L.L. Thurstone is associated with differential scales which have
been developed using consensus scale approach. Under such an approach the
selection of items is made by a panel of judges who evaluate the items in terms of
whether they are relevant to the topic area and unambiguous in implication. The
detailed procedure is as under:
(a) The researcher gathers a large number of statements, usually twenty or
more, that express various points of view toward a group, institution,
idea, or practice (i.e., statements belonging to the topic area).
(b) These statements are then submitted to a panel of judges, each of whom
arranges them in eleven groups or piles ranging from one extreme to another
in position. Each of the judges is requested to place generally in the first pile
the statements which he thinks are most unfavourable to the issue, in the
second pile to place those statements which he thinks are next most
unfavourable and he goes on doing so in this manner till in the eleventh pile
he puts the statements which he considers to be the most favourable.
(c) This sorting by each judge yields a composite position for each of the
items. In case of marked disagreement between the judges in assigning a
position to an item, that item is discarded
(d) For items that are retained, each is given its median scale value
between one and eleven as established by the panel. In other words, the
 scale value of any one statement is computed as the ‘median’ position to
which it is assigned by the group of judges.
(e) A final selection of statements is then made. For this purpose a
sample of statements, whose median scores are spread evenly from one
extreme to the other is taken. The statements so selected, constitute the
final scale to be administered to respondents.

3) Summated Scales (or Likert-type Scales)

 Summated scales (or Likert-type scales) are developed by utilizing
the item analysis approach wherein a particular item is evaluated
on the basis of how well it discriminates between those persons
whose total score is high and those whose score is low.
 Those items or statements that best meet this sort of discrimination
test are included in the final instrument. Thus, summated scales
consist of a number of statements which express either a
favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the given object to
which the respondent is asked to react.
 The respondent indicates his agreement or disagreement with each
statement in the instrument. Each response is given a numerical
score, indicating its favourableness or unfavourableness, and the
scores are totalled to measure the respondent’s attitude.
Procedure: The procedure for developing a Likert-type scale is as
follows:
(i) As a first step, the researcher collects a large number of
statements which are relevant to the attitude being studied and
each of the statements expresses definite favourableness or
unfavourableness to a particular point of view or the attitude
and that the number of favourable and unfavourable statements
is approximately equal.
(ii) After the statements have been gathered, a trial test should be
administered to a number of subjects. In other words, a small
group of people, from those who are going to be studied finally,
are asked to indicate their response to each statement by
 checking one of the categories of agreement or disagreement
using a five point scale as stated above.
(iii) The response to various statements are scored in such a way
that a response indicative of the most favourable attitude is
given the highest score of 5 and that with the most
unfavourable attitude is given the lowest score, say, of 1. (
(iv) Then the total score of each respondent is obtained by adding
his scores that he received for separate statements.
(v) The next step is to array these total scores and find out those
statements which have a high discriminatory power.
. (vi) Only those statements that correlate with the total test should be
retained in the final instrument and all others must be discarded from it.
Advantages:
(a) It is relatively easy to construct the Likert-type scale in comparison to
Thurstone-type scale because Likert-type scale can be performed without a panel
of judges.
(b) Likert-type scale is considered more reliable because under it respondents
answer each statement included in the instrument..
(c) Each statement, included in the Likert-type scale, is given an empirical test for
discriminating ability and as such, unlike Thurstone-type scale, the Likert-type
scale permits the use of statements that are not manifestly related (to have a direct
relationship) to the attitude being studied.
(d) Likert-type scale can easily be used in respondent-centred and stimulus-centred
studies i.e., through it we can study how responses differ between people and how
responses differ between stimuli. (e) Likert-type scale takes much less time to
construct, it is frequently used by the students of opinion research.
Limitations: There are several limitations of the Likert-type scale as well.
 One important limitation is that, with this scale, we can simply examine
whether respondents are more or less favourable to a topic, but we cannot
tell how much more or less they are.
 There is no basis for belief that the five positions indicated on the scale are
equally spaced. The interval between ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’, may not
be equal to the interval between “agree” and “undecided”. This means that
Likert scale does not rise to a stature more than that of an ordinal scale,
whereas the designers of Thurstone scale claim the Thurstone scale to be an
interval scale.
4) Cumulative scales:
 Cumulative scales or Louis Guttman’s scalogram analysis,
like other scales, consist of series of statements to which a
respondent expresses his agreement or disagreement. The
special feature of this type of scale is that statements in it
form a cumulative series.
 This, in other words, means that the statements are related
to one another in such a way that an individual, who replies
favourably to say item No. 3, also replies favourably to items
No. 2 and 1, and one who replies favourably to item No. 4
also replies favourably to items No. 3, 2 and 1, and so on.
 This being so an individual whose attitude is at a certain
point in a cumulative scale will answer favourably all the
items on one side of this point, and answer unfavourably all
the items on the other side of this point.
 The individual’s score is worked out by counting the number
of points concerning the number of statements he answers
favourably. If one knows this total score, one can estimate
as to how a respondent has answered individual statements
constituting cumulative scales. The major scale of this type
of cumulative scales is the Guttman’s scalogram.. The
technique developed by Louis Guttman is known as
scalogram analysis, or at times simply ‘scale analysis’.
Scalogram analysis refers to the procedure for determining
whether a set of items forms a unidimensional scale. A
scale is said to be unidimensional if the responses fall into a
pattern in which endorsement of the item reflecting the
extreme position results also in endorsing all items which
are less extreme. Under this technique, the respondents are
asked to indicate in respect of each item whether they agree
or disagree with it, and if these items form a unidimensional
scale, the response pattern will be as under
 A score of 4 means that the respondent is in agreement with all the
statements which is indicative of the most favourable attitude. But a score
of 3 would mean that the respondent is not agreeable to item 4, but he
agrees with all others. In the same way one can interpret other values of
the respondents’ scores. This pattern reveals that the universe of content is
scalable

5) Factor Scales*
 Factor scales are developed through factor analysis or on
the basis of intercorrelations of items which indicate that a
common factor accounts for the relationships between items.
 Factor scales are particularly “useful in uncovering latent
attitude dimensions and approach scaling through the
concept of multiple-dimension attribute space.”
 More specifically the two problems viz., how to
dealappropriately with the universe of content which is multi-
dimensional and how to uncover underlying (latent)
dimensions which have not been identified, are dealt with
through factor scales. An important factor scale based on
factor analysis is Semantic Differential (S.D.) and the other
one is Multidimensional Scaling.
 This scaling consists of a set of bipolar rating scales, usually
of 7 points, by which one or more respondents rate one or
more concepts on each scale item. For instance, the S.D.
 scale items for analysing candidates for leadership position
may be shown as under

 Candidates for leadership position (along with the concept—the

‘ideal’ candidate) may be compared and we may score them
from +3 to –3 on the basis of the above stated scales. (The
letters, E, P, A showing the relevant factor viz., evaluation,
potency and activity respectively, written along the left side are
not written in actual scale.
6) Multidimensional scaling:
 Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is relatively more
complicated scaling device, but with this sort of scaling one
can scale objects, individuals or both with a minimum of
information.
 multidimensional scaling (or MDS) can be characterized as a
set of procedures for portraying perceptual or affective
dimensions of substantive interest. It “provides useful
methodology for portraying subjective judgements of diverse
kinds.”
 MDS is used when all the variables (whether metric or non-
metric) in a study are to be analyzed simultaneously and all
such variables happen to be independent. The underlying
assumption in MDS is that people (respondents) “perceive a
set of objects as being more or less similar to one another
 on a number of dimensions (usually uncorrelated with one
another) instead of only one.”
 Through MDS techniques one can represent geometrically
the locations and interrelationships among a set of points. In
fact, these techniques attempt to locate the points, given the
information about a set of interpoint distances, in space of
one or more dimensions such as to best summarise the
information contained in the interpoint distances.
 The distances in the solution space then optimally reflect the
distances contained in the input data. For instance, if
objects, say X and Y, are thought of by the respondent as
being most similar as compared to all other possible pairs of
objects, MDS techniques will position objects X and Y in
such a way that the distance between them in
multidimensional space is shorter than that between any two
other objects.
 Two approaches, viz., the metric approach and the non-
metric approach, are usually talked about in the context of
MDS, while attempting to construct a space containing m
points such that m(m – 1)/2 interpoint distances reflect the
input data.
 The metric approach to MDS treats the input data as interval
scale data and solves applying statistical methods for the
additive constant* which minimises the dimensionality of the
solution space. This approach utilises all the information in
the data in obtaining a solution.
 The data (i.e., the metric similarities of the objects) are often
obtained on a bipolar similarity scale on which pairs of
objects are rated one at a time. If the data reflect exact
distances between real objects in an r-dimensional space,
their solution will reproduce the set of interpoint distances.
 generally, the judged similarities among a set of objects are
statistically transformed into distances by placing those
objects in a multidimensional space of some dimensionality.
 The non-metric approach first gathers the non-metric
similarities by asking respondents to rank order all possible
pairs that can be obtained from a set of objects. Such non-
metric data is then transformed into some arbitrary metric
space and then the solution is obtained by reducing the
dimensionality. In other words, this non-metric approach
seeks “a representation of points in a space of minimum
dimensionality such that the rank order of the interpoint
distances in the solution space maximally corresponds to
that of the data. This is achieved by requiring only that the
distances in the solution be monotone with the input data.”
 The non-metric approach has come into prominence during
the sixties with the coming into existence of high speed
computers to generate metric solutions for ordinal input data.
The significance of MDS lies in the fact that it enables the
researcher to study “the perceptual structure of a set of
stimuli and the cognitive processes underlying the
development of this structure. Psychologists, for example,
employ multidimensional scaling techniques in an effort to
scale psychophysical stimuli and to determine appropriate
labels for the dimensions along which these stimuli vary.”