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Valance Electrons- The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called Valence electrons.
Energy Levels- Electrons revolve around the nucleolus in different shells. These electrons are bound to
the nucleus with some specific energy. Each electron shell exhibits a particular energy value called the
discrete energy level.
The discrete energy levels depend on the following parameters
 Momentum of electrons in the orbits.
 Distance of the orbit from the nucleus.
The energy levels of various shells are calculated using a simplified general formula:

En = - eV

eV (Electron volt)- It is the energy gained by an electron when it passes through a potential difference of
one volt. 1eV= 1.6 x 10-19 Joule.

S.No. Shell N Energy Level

1 K-Shell 1 -13.6 eV

2 L-Shell 2 -3.41 eV

3 M-Shell 3 -1.51 eV

4 N-Shell 4 -0.87 eV

5 O-Shell 5 -0.56 eV
The Negative sign in equation indicates that the electrons are bounded to the nucleus with an
attractive force. The energy gap between two consecutive shell is called the forbidden gap: an electron in
an isolated atom cannot have an energy in the gap.

Energy Band- The energy bands in solid can be as a set of energy levels closely placed such that the
energy band are considered to continuous ranges of permissible electron energy.

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Valence Band- The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons, Consequently, The
energy band associated with the outermost shell is known as the valence band.
The valence electrons are loosely bonded with the nucleus: therefore, a small amount of
external energy is sufficient to free them from their atom.
Conduction Band- When the valence electrons are freed from the atom, these free electrons are
responsible for the conduction of current in solids and are therefore called conduction electrons / free
electrons. The bond occupied by these electrons is called the conduction band.
Therefore, the loosely bound valence electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band
when sufficient external energy is supplied to the atoms.
The gap between valence band and conduction band is called the forbidden energy gap(Eg).

Eg > 5 eV Eg < 3 eV Eg = 0 eV
Examples Eg for Glass= 10 eV Eg for silicon = 0.72 eV All Metals
Eg for Diamond = 6 eV Eg for Germanium = 1.1 eV
Eg for GaAs = 1.41 eV

Semiconductors

 A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor

such as copper and that of an insulator such as glass.
 The conductivity of a semiconductor material increases with increasing temperature.
 All the elements of IV group of periodic table are semiconductors (C,Si,Ge) etc.
 The energy band gap between valence band and conduction band is less than 3 eV
 There are two types of semiconductor material

Intrinsic or Pure semiconductors.

Extrinsic or Doped Semiconductor.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors-An intrinsic semiconductor material is chemically very pure and possesses
poor conductivity. It has equal numbers of negative carriers (electrons) and positive carriers (holes).

Fig: Structure of intrinsic semiconductor Fig:Generation of electron-hole pair in an at

absolute zero temperature Intrinsic semiconductor

Extrinsic Semiconductor- The conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductor can be increased by adding some
suitable impurity atoms to the semiconductor. When a small amount of impurity atom is added to the
intrinsic semiconductor, it is called extrinsic or impurity semi-conductor and the process of adding
impurities to the semiconductor is known as doping.

P-Type- When a trivalent impurity atom is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, it is called P-type
semiconductor. trivalent impurities are Boron, Aluminum, Gallium and Indium. They are known as
acceptor impurities because the holes created can accept the electrons.

P-Type Semiconductor: - a) Boron added to Silicon, b) Creation of a hole.

N-Type- When a pentavalent impurity atom is added to

an intrinsic semiconductor, it is called N-type
semiconductor. pentavalent atoms are phosphorus,
arsenic and antimony. They are called donor impurities
because they donate one valence electron to the
semiconductor crystal.

N-Type Semiconductor

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N-Type P-Type
Doping Pentavalent Atoms(P, As,Sb,Bi) Trivalent Atoms (B,Al,Ga,In)
Majority Electrons Holes
Carriers
Minority Holes Electrons
Carriers
Ions Positive / Donor Ions Negative / Acceptor Ions

P-N Junction Diode

 Made by joining P-Type and N-Type Semiconductors

 Two terminal device
 Unidirectional Device
 Non Linear Device
 Basic Operation- as a SWITCH in electronic devices
 Applications: Rectifier, Zener Diode, Clipper , Clamper etc

Unbiased P-N Junction Diode- (V= 0 V)A P-N

Junction formed by injecting P-Type and N-Type
impurity atoms into the two halves of a single intrinsic
semiconductor crystal is called unbiased P-N-Junction.
The concentrations of the electrons and holes are
different across the junction. This is known as
concentration gradient; due to the concentration
gradient across the junction, some changes start taking
place as the P-N junction is formed.

The holes from the P-region cross the junction & the N-region where there is a scarcity of holes.
This is because the P-N junction tries to have an equal number of holes on both sides of the junction.
This process is called diffusion.
As soon as a hole from the P-region crosses the junction into the N-region, it confronts a free
electron generated by a donor ion. This hole recombines with the free electron, and the free electron
vanishes. The corresponding donor ion is now left without any electron associated with it. This donor ion
is called an uncovered charge. In this manner a large number of uncovered positive charges are produced
near the junction in the N-region.
The electrons from the N-region diffuse into the P-
region due to the concentration gradient across the junction.
These electrons are recombined with the free holes
associated with immobile acceptor ions near the junction,
uncovered negative charges are produced in the P-region
close to the junction.
The uncovered negative charges create a negative
electric field in the P-region & the uncovered positive
charges create a positive electric field in the N-region .
Now, if positively charged holes try to cross the junction
into the N-region, the positive field repels them back into
the P-region. Similarly the electrons are prevented from UNBIASED PN JUNCTION
crossing the junction from N-region to the P-region, due to
a repelling force exerted from the uncovered negative
charges in the P-region.

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After some time, the transportation of mobile charges, electrons & holes stops due to a negative
electric field in the P-region and a positive electric field in the N-region.

Depletion Region- The region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region due
to the “depletion” of free carriers in the region.“ In the absence of an applied bias across a semiconductor
diode, the net flow of charge in one direction is zero.”

VB = 0.3V for Ge
VB = 0.7V for Si
Reverse Bias Condition (V< 0V)– when the negative
terminal of the DC source is connected to the P-side & the
positive terminal of the DC source is connected to N-side
of the P-N junction. The P-N junction is known as a
reverse biased junction.

1- The Current does not flow because of majority carrier.

2- Due to an increase in positive & negative ions around the junction, the electric field around the
junction is increases, and as a result, the height of the potential barrier is increased.
3- The current that exist under reverse bias condition is called the reverse saturation current & is
represented by Is. (Because of minority carriers only)

Forward Bias Junction (V>0V)- If the positive terminal of

the voltage source is connected to the P-side & the
negative terminal of the source is connected to the N-side
of the diode, then the diode is said to be biased in the
forward direction or forward biased.

1- The current Flows because of majority carriers only.

2- Depletion layer decreases with the increase of voltage because effect of external electric field
is higher than internal potential barrier.

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

1 P-Type  Positive Terminal P-Type  Negative Terminal

N- Type  Negative Terminal N- Type  Positive Terminal

2 Current Flows because of majority Current Flows because of Minority carriers.
carriers.  Reverse Saturation Current
3 Depletion Layer decreases with increasing Depletion Layer increases with increasing
voltage. voltage.
4 Less voltage required High Voltage required

V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode shows the graphical relationship between voltage and flowing
current through diode

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Forward Bias- When a forward voltage is applied

at the terminals of a diode, the diode begins to
conduct. During conduction, the cut in or
threshold voltage exceeds the applied forward
voltage. The threshold voltage for a germanium
diode is 0.3V and for silicon diode is 0.7V. The
forward current (miliampere range) initially
increases linearly and then increases
exponentially for high currents.

Reverse Bias- When a a reverse voltage is applied,

a reverse saturation current flows through the
diode. The diode continues to be in the non
conducting state until the reverse voltage drops
below the zener voltage. As the reverse voltage
approximates the peak inverse voltage a
breakdown called as the ’Avalanche breakdown’
occurs. During the breakdown, the minority
charge carriers ionize the stable atoms which are
followed by a chain ionization to generate a large
number of free charge carriers. Thus the diode
becomes short circuited and gets damaged.

Temperature Effect on V-I Characteristics

As the temperature increases, the electron pairs generated thermally also increases thereby increasing
the conductivity in both directions. The reverse saturation current also increases with the increase in
temperature. The change is 11% per °C for a germanium diode and 8% per °C for a silicon diode. On the
other hand the diode current is doubled for every 10°C rise. With increase in voltage, the firing voltage
in forward characteristics is reduced while peak reverse voltage is increased.

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Diode Equation

The current that flows through a diode is given by the equation:

where ID - diode current. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)
IS - constant reverse saturation current
V - Applied voltage. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)
- Factor dependent upon the nature of semiconductor.
(1 for germanium and 2 for silicon)
VT - volt equivalent of temperature which is given by T/11600. (T is
Temperature in Kelvin)
Diode Capacitance
Storage or Diffusion Capacitance- This capacitance originates due to diffusion of charge carriers in the
opposite regions. The capacitance which exist in a forward-biased junction is called a diffusion or
storage capacitance. It is called diffusion capacitance to account for the time delay in moving charges
across the junction by diffusion process.

CD = Where CD = Diffusion capacitance

η = Constant *1 for Si and 2 for Ge+
VT = volt equivalent of temperature
τ = mean life time of carrier
IF = Forward current

Hence CD is proportional to ID .

Depletion or Transition Capacitance- The capacitance which appears between positive ion layer in n-
region and negative ion layer in p-region. The transition capacitance is very small as compared to the
diffusion capacitance.
When a PN junction is formed, there exists a depletion region at the junction. this
depletion region or layer consist of positive and negative immobile ions. This depletion layer is non
conductive and hence acts as a dielectric medium between P-region and N-region.
In reverse bias transition, the capacitance is the dominant and is given by:

where CT - transition capacitance

A - diode cross sectional area
W - depletion region width

Since the depletion layer width (d) increases with

increase in reverse bias voltage, the depletion
capacitance should decrease with the increase in
reverse bias.
Diode capacitance is given by

CT = where K is constant Diode Capacitance Curve

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Diode Resistance
Static Resistance or DC resistance- Static Resistance is basically the DC resistance offered by a pn
junction diode and originates when it is connected in a DC circuit. It is the resistance offered by the
diode to the flow of DC current.
Mathematically, it is given as the ratio of the DC voltage across the terminals of
the diode to the DC current flowing through it.
Rf= =
Dynamic Resistance or AC resistance- Dynamic Resistance is the AC resistance offered by a pn junction
diode and originates when it is connected in an AC circuit. It is the resistance offered by the diode to the
flow of AC current.
Mathematically, it given as the ratio of the change in AC voltage across the
terminals of the diode to the resulting change in AC current flowing through it.
Rf= =

Breakdown Mechanism

If the reverse-bias applied to a P-N junction is increased; a point will reach when the junction breaks
down and reverse current rises sharply to a value limited only by the external resistance connected in
series. This specific value of the reverse bias voltage breakdown voltage (VZ). After breakdown voltage
depends upon the width of depletion layer. The width of depletion layer depends upon the doping
level.The following two processes cause junction breakdown due to the increase in reverse bias voltage.

1- Zener Breakdown-

Occurred when a heavily doped junction is reverse biased.

This is observed at V< 6 V.
Field Ionization (E= 3 x 106 V/cm) takes place in this mechanism.
Tunneling of electrons [ the valence electrons are pulled into conduction band]
V-I characteristics with zener breakdown is very sharp.
Negative temperature coefficient. (When T increases VZ decreases)

Tunneling Process- Due to intense electric field (E= 3 x 106 V/cm), the valence electrons are pulled into
conduction band by breaking covalent bonds. These electrons become free electrons which are available
for conduction. A large no. of such free electrons will constitute a large reverse current through the zener
diode and breakdown is said to have occurred due to the zener effect. A current limiting resistance should
be connected in series with the zener diode to protect it against the damage due to excessive heating.

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2- Avalanche Breakdown-

Occurred when a lightly doped junction is reverse biased.

Multiplication of electrons takes place in avalanche breakdown.
This is observed at V> 8 V
Impact Ionization.
This V-I characteristics with the avalanche breakdown increases gradually.
Positive temperature coefficient of voltage. (When T increases VZ increases).

Impact Ionization- In reverse biased condition, the conduction will take place only due to minority
carriers. As we increase the reverse voltage applied to the zener diode, these minority carriers tends to
accelerate. Therefore, the kinetic energy ( ) associated with them increases. While travelling, these
accelerated minority carriers will collide with the stationary atoms and impart some of the kinetic energy
to the valence electrons present energy these valence electrons will break their covalent bonds and jump
into the conduction bond to become free for conduction. Now these newly generated free electrons get
accelerated. They will knock out some more valence electrons by means of collision. This phenomenon is
called as carrier multiplication. In a very short time, a large number of free minority electrons and holes
will be available for conduction and carrier multiplication process become self sustained. This self
sustained multiplication is called “ avalanche effect” .a large reverse current starts flowing through the
zener diode and the avalanche breakdown is said to have occurred.

Zener Diode

Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped P-N junction diode which operates in the breakdown
region. The reverse breakdown of a P-N junction may occur either due to zener effect or avalanche effect.

Conduction direction of zener diode - For the zener diode the

direction of conduction is opposite to that of the arrow in the
symbol. Zener diode equivalent circuit-

Complete Approximate

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The complete equivalent circuit of the zener diode in the zener region includes a small dynamic
resistance and dc battery equal to the zener potential. Generally, the zener resistance value is quite small
than external resistance of the circuit in which zener diode is connected. Therefore zener resistance may
be neglected generally.

On State (V>VZ) If the reverse bias voltage across a zener diode is equal to or more than breakdown
voltage VZ, the current will increase sharply. Hence, in this region the current will be almost vertical.

V>VZ Equivalent zener diode at „ON‟ state

Off State (0<V<VZ) If the reverse voltage across the zener diode is less than VZ but greater than 0V.
the zener diode will be in the off state.

0<V<VZ Equivalent zener diode at „OFF‟ state

Application of ZENER Diodes-

Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator.

Zener diode is used as a peak clipper in waveshaping circuit.
Zener diode is used as a fixed reference voltage in transistor biasing circuits.
Zener diode is used as for meter protection against damage from accidental application of
excessive voltage.

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Voltage Multiplier Circuits

A voltage multiplier is that of circuit which produces an output d.c. voltage whose value is multiple of
peak a.c. input voltage (i.e 2Vm , 3 Vm , 4Vm….). a voltage multiplier circuit is a combination of two or more
peak rectifier circuits. Each peak rectifier contains a diode and a capactor.
Voltage Doubler- A voltage multiplier circuit, whose output d.c. voltage is double of the peak a.c. input
voltage, is known as voltage doubler.
(i) Half –Wave voltage doubler
(ii) Full- Wave voltage doubler

(i) Half –Wave voltage doubler- During the positive half cycle of the input signal the diode D1
conducts (and diode D2 is cut-off), charging the capacitor C1 upto the peak rectified voltage
(Vm). During negative half cycle, the diode D1 is cut-off and diode D2 conducts charging
capacitor C2
-Vm - VC1 + VC2 = 0
-Vm - Vm + VC2 = 0 [VC1 = Vm]
VC2 = 2 Vm
On the next positive half cycle, diode D2 is non conducting and capacitor C2 will discharge
through the load. If no load is connected across capacitor C2 , both capacitors stay charged stay
charged - C1 to Vm and C2 to 2 Vm .

(ii) Full- Wave voltage doubler - During the positive half cycle of a.c. input voltage, the D1
conducts charging capacitor C1 to a peak voltage Vm , the diode D2 is cut-off at this time.
During the negative half-cycle, the diode D2 conducts (while D1 is at cut-off)
charging capacitor C2 to Vm. If there is no load is connected across the output then the
output voltage is equal to 2Vm . However, if the load is connected then the voltage will be
less than 2Vm . the peak inverse voltage ( PIV) across each diode , in a full wave voltage
doubler is equal to 2Vm.

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Rectifier- A rectifier is a circuit which is used to convert A.C. voltage into the pulsating D.C. voltage.
1- Half-wave rectifier(HWR)
2- Full- wave rectifier (FWR)

1- Half-wave Rectifier-

During the interval t=0  T/2 - The Diode is in state of forward bias, Diode will behave as a short
circuit.
Vo = Vi
During the interval t=T/2  T - The diode is in state of reverse bias, diode will behave as open circuit.
Vo = 0

2- Full Wave Rectification – Full wave rectifier is that type of rectifier which utilizes both the half
cycle of a.c. input voltage.

(i) Centre-tap full wave rectifier

(ii) Full wave Bridge rectifier

(i) Centre-tap full wave rectifier- it contains two diodes with a centre- tapped transformer to
establish the input signal across each section of the secondary of the transformer.

During positive portion of Vi applied to the primary of the transformer, D1 is short circuit & D2 is open
circuit.
During the negative portion of the input , diode D2 is forward bias & D1 is reverse bias.

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(ii) Bridge Rectifier- The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using
a process called full wave rectification.

In +ve half cycle D2 & D3 diodes are conducting while D1 & D4 are in “off” state.
In -ve half cycle D1 & D4 diodes are conducting while D2 & D3 are in “off” state.

Full Wave
S.No. Parameter Half Wave Centre-Tap Bridge
1 No. of diodes 1 2 4
2 Transformer No YES NO
Necessary
3 Efficiency 40.6 % 81.2 % 81.2 %
4 Ripple Factor 1.21 0.482 0.482
5 Peak Inverse Voltage Vm 2Vm Vm

6 Output Frequency fi 2 fi 2 fi
7 RMS Current Im /2 Im / Im /
8 DC Current Im/π 2Im/π 2Im/π

Ideal Diode-: VON= 0, Rr=∞and Rf= 0. In other words, the ideal diode is a short in the forward bias
region and an open in the reverse bias region.

Practical diode(silicon): VON= 0.7V,Rr<∞(typically several MΩ), Rf≈rd(typically < 50Ω).

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Diode Equivalent Models

Clipper

A circuit which cutoff voltage above or below are both specified level is called clipper. A clipper which
removes a portion of positive half cycle of the input signal is called positive clipper. A clipper circuit that
removes the negative half cycle is called negative clipper.

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Figure (a) shows the circuit of a positive clipper. Itconsists of a diode D and a resistor R with output
taken across the resistor. During positive half cycle the input voltage, the terminal A is positive with
respect to B. This reverse biases the diode and it acts as an open switch. Therefore all the applied
voltage drops across the diode and none across the resistor. As a result of this, there is no output
voltage during the positive half cycle of the input voltage.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the terminal B is positive with respect to A. Therefore
it forward biases the diode and it acts as a closed switch. Thus, there is no voltage drop across diode.
During negative half cycle of the input voltage. All the input voltage is drop across the resistor as shown
in the output waveform.
Figure (b) shows the waveform of the input voltage. During the positive half cycle of the voltage, the
terminal A is positive with respect to the terminal B. Therefore the diode is forward biased; as a result all
the input voltage appears across the resistor. During negative half cycle of the input voltage, the
terminal B is positive with respect to the terminal A. Therefore the diode is reverse biased and hence
there is no voltage drop across the resistor during negative half cycle.

Clamping

A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a
different dc level without changing the appearance of the applied signal.

Analysis- During reverse biased, the diode is open circuited (i.e“off”state). The voltage will be Vo=0
since the current is shorted through diode. The voltage across R will be VDC+ VC= -V+(-V)=-2V .

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Example Draw the output waveform for the following circuit.

Solution:

Step-1- Start the analysis when diode is in forward bias and

find VC and VO .In interval t1 to t2 , diode is in forward bias

At 2nd interval (t1 t2), the diode is short circuited, the

voltage across R will be the same as across the battery
(parallel) Vo= 5V
The voltage that charge up the capacitor, Applying KVL
-20V +Vc-5V =0 , then VC=25V

Step-2

The third interval will make the diode open circuited again
and current start to flow in the resistor (discharged the
capacitor). Applying the KVL
+10V +25V –Vo=0
Vo= 35V

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Diode Ratings

1- Average Current:- it is defined as average value of periodic function given by area under one
cycle of the function divided by the base.
2- Maximum Forward Current:- The maximum value of diode forward current, which a PN
junction diode can carry without damaging itself, is known as maximum forward current.
3- Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV):- The maximum value of reverse bias that a PN junction can
withstand without damaging it is called its Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV).
4- Maximum Power Rating:- The maximum power that a P-N junction can dissipate without
damaging . it is called as maximum power rating.
5- Reverse Saturation Current:- The amount of current through the diode in reverse-bias
operation, with the maximum rated inverse voltage applied (VDC). Sometimes referred to as
leakage current.

Applications of Diode:
1- Signal rectifier 5- As a Clipper 9- Freewheeling Diodes
2- Diode gate 6- As a Clamper 10- Precision rectifier using Op-Amp
3- Diode clamps 7- AM Detection
4- Limiter 8- Voltage Multiplier
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