Electronic Devices & Circuits

(Unit – I / Junction Diodes)

Prepared By
Dr. K. Umapathy
 Syllabus / Unit - I
• Energy Band diagram - Formation of PN junction
– Junction diode - VI characteristics – Ratings –
Diode current equation – Transition and
Diffusion capacitance – Voltage breakdown in
diodes - Principle of Operation and
Characteristics of Zener diode, Tunnel Diode,
Varactor Diode, Schottky Barrier Diode,
Semiconductor photo devices - LDR, LED, Photo
diodes & Photo transistors - Silicon Control
Rectifier, Diac, Triac & Uni-Junction Transistor
(UJT)
•
 Topic 1

Energy Band Diagram

 Energy Band in Solids
 According to Quantum mechanical Laws, the energies of electrons
in a free atom can not have arbitrary values but only some definite
(quantized) values.
 However, if an atom belongs to a crystal, then the energy levels
are modified.
 This modification is not appreciable in the case of energy levels
of electrons in the inner shells (completely filled).
 But in the outermost shells, modification is appreciable because
the electrons are shared by many neighbouring atoms.
 Due to influence of high electric field between the core of the atoms
and the shared electrons, energy levels are split-up or spread out
forming energy bands.
 Consider a single crystal of silicon having N atoms. Each atom can be
associated with a lattice site.
 Electronic configuration of Si is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6,3s2, 3p2. (Atomic No. is
14)
Formation of Energy Bands in Solids:
Energy

Conduction Band
• • 3p2
Forbidden Energy Gap • • 3s2
Valence Band

•••••• 2p6 Ion

• • 2s2 core
state
• • 1s2

O a b c d Inter atomic spacing (r)

 Metals:
The first possible energy band diagram
shows that the conduction band is only
partially filled with electrons. • • • • • •
Partially filled
With a little extra energy the electrons can
Conduction Band
easily reach the empty energy levels above
the filled ones and the conduction is
possible. Conduction Band

The second possible energy band diagram • • • • • •

shows that the conduction band is Valence Band
overlapping with the valence band.
The highest energy level in the
This is because the lowest levels in the
conduction band occupied by
conduction band needs less energy than the
electrons in a crystal, at absolute 0
highest levels in the valence band.
temperature, is called Fermi Level.
The electrons in valence band overflow into
The energy corresponding to this
conduction band and are free to move about
energy level is called Fermi energy.
in the crystal for conduction.
If the electrons get enough energy
to go beyond this level, then
conduction takes place.
 Semiconductors:
At absolute zero temperature, no electron has
energy to jump from valence band to Conduction Band
conduction band and hence the crystal is an
insulator. At room temperature, some valence
electrons gain energy more than the energy gap Forbidden Energy Gap ≈1 eV
and move to conduction band to conduct even ••• •• •
Valence Band
under the influence of a weak electric field.

Eg-Si = 1.1 eV EgGe= 0.74 eV

Eg
- Since E g is small, therefore, the fraction
The fraction is pαe kB T
is sizeable for semiconductors.

As an electron leaves the valence band, it leaves some energy level in band as
unfilled.
Such unfilled regions are termed as ‘holes’ in the valence band. They are
mathematically taken as positive charge carriers.
Any movement of this region is referred to a positive hole moving from one
position to another.
 Insulators:
Electrons, however heated, can not practically Conduction Band
jump to conduction band from valence band
due to a large energy gap. Therefore,
conduction is not possible in insulators. Forbidden Energy Gap ≈6 eV
Eg-Diamond = 7 eV
•Valence
• • • •Band
•
Electrons and Holes:
On receiving an additional energy, one of the electrons from a covalent band breaks
and is free to move in the crystal lattice.
While coming out of the covalent bond, it leaves behind a vacancy named ‘hole’.
An electron from the neighbouring atom can break away and can come to the place of
the missing electron (or hole) completing the covalent bond and creating a hole at
another place.
The holes move randomly in a crystal lattice.
The completion of a bond may not be necessarily due to an electron from a bond of
a neighbouring atom. The bond may be completed by a conduction band
electron. i.e., free electron and this is referred to as ‘electron – hole recombination’.
 Topic 2

Formation of PN Junction
 Introduction
• If a piece of P type semiconductor is joined to a piece of
N type semiconductor such that the crystal structure
remains continuous at the boundary,, - A PN JUNCTION is
formed.
• A PN junction cannot be produced by simply pushing
two pieces together or by welding etc…. Because it gives
rise to discontinuities across the crystal structure.
• Special fabrication techniques are adopted toform a P N
junction.
• A PN junction is a device formed by joining a P type
semiconductor with a N type semiconductor and
separated by a thin junction is called a PN diode.
• Majority carriers - N region– electrons, P region--
holes
Fig 1 – Formation of PN junction & Depletion Layer
 Formation of Depletion Layer
• The excess electrons in the N region cross the junction
and combine with excess holes in the P region.
• N region loses the electrons – becomes positively
charged.
• P region loses the holes – becomes negatively charged.
• At one point – the migratory action is stopped.
• Additional electrons from the N region repelled by net
negative charge of the P region.
• Additional holes from the P region repelled by net
positive charge of the N region.
• A thin layer is created on each side of the junction
which is depleted of mobile charge carriers. This is
known as DEPLETION LAYER with thickness in of the
order of10-6 meter.
 Formation of Depletion Layer (contd)
• T h e depletion layer contains no free and mobile charge
carriers but only fixed and immobile ions.
• I t s width depends upon the doping level..
• Heavilydoped –thin depletion layer
• Lightlydoped –thickdepletion layer
 Potential Barrier
• T h e electrons in the N region have to climb the potential
hill in order to reach the P region
• Electrons trying to cross from the N region to P region
experience a retarding field of the battery and
therefore repelled.
• Similarly for holes from P region.
• Potential thus produced are called ..potential barrier
• For Ge..0.3V and for Si ..0.7V
Fig 2 – Potential Barrier
 Modes of Biasing the PN junction
• A PN junction can operate in two modes – forward
biased mode and reverse biased mode if connected to a
fixed battery.
• 1) Forward biased mode: positive terminal of battery
connected to P region and negative terminal connected
to N region.
• 2) Reverse biased mode: negative terminal of battery
connected to P region and positive terminal connected
to N region.
Fig 3 – Biasing the PN Junction
 Forward Biased Mode
• It forces the majority charge carriers to move across the
junction ….decreasing the width of the depletion layer.
• O n c e the junction is crossed, a number of
electrons and the holes will recombine .
• F o r each hole in the P section that occupies with
an electron from the N section, a covalent bond
breaks and an electron is liberated which enters the
positive terminal.
• T h u s creating an electron hole pair.
• C u r re nt in the N region is carried by ….electrons
• C u r re n t in the P region is carried by ….Holes.
 Reverse Biased Mode
• The free electrons and free holes are attracted towards
the terminals of the battery and the width of the
depletion layer increases.
• Thus a RB PN junction will not conduct the current.
• Only the minority carriers cross the junction and
constitute a small amount of current called reverse
saturation current.
• This current is in the order of micro-ampheres.
Fig 4 – Working of PN Junction
 VI Characteristics of PN Junction
• T h e curve drawn between voltage across the junction
along X axis and current through the circuits along the Y
axis.
• They describe the dc behavior of the diode.
• W h e n it is in forward bias, no current flows until the
barrier voltage (0.3 v for Ge) is overcome.
• Then the curve has a linear rise and the current increases
with the increase in forward voltage like an ordinary
conductor.
• A b o v e 3V , the majority carriers passing the junction
gain sufficient energy to knock out the valence electrons
& raise them to the conduction band.
• Therefore , the forward current increases sharply .
 VI Characteristics of PN Junction (contd)
• If the RB voltage is increased, the potential barrier at the
junction increased, junction resistance increases and
prevents current flow.
• However , the minority carriers accelerated by the
reverse voltage resulting in a very small current called
reverse current in the order of micro amperes.
• W h e n reverse voltage is increased beyond a value
called breakdown voltage, the reverse current
increases sharply and the diode shows almost
zero resistance .It is known as avalanche
breakdown.
• Reve rs e voltage above 25 V destroys the junction
permanently.
 Topic 3

PN Diode
Fig 1 – PN Diode
 Introduction
• A PN diode consists of a PN junction formed from either
germanium or silicon crystal.
• It has two terminals – anode & cathode referring to P
type region & N type region respectively.
• Figure 1 shows the circuit symbol which points the
direction of current flow.
• Figure 2 shows the commercially available diodes in the
market.
• The diodes which can pass a forward current of –
• 1) 100 mA – low current diodes
• 2) 500 mA – medium current diodes
• 3) several amperes – power diodes
Fig 2 – Low, Medium & High Current Diodes
Fig 3 – Biasing of PN Diode
 Forward Characteristics of PN diode
• It is a graph between the voltage applied across the
terminals of a diode and the current flowing through it.
• Figure 2 shows the VI characteristics of a PN diode wrt the
breakdown voltage (VBR).
• 1) Forward characteristics: anode & cathode connected to
positive & negative terminals of the battery respectively –
diode forward biased.
• A potentiometer used to vary the applied voltage,
Ammeter to measure the current & voltmeter to measure
the voltage across diode.
• A resistance ‘R’ used to limit the flow of excessive current
through the diode.
• If the applied voltage varied – the corresponding values of
current are noted down.
Fig 4 – VI Characteristics of PN Diode
 Reverse Characteristics of PN Diode
• The diode starts conducting above a certain applied
voltage – called Knee voltage or cut-in voltage or threshold
voltage.
• The graph OAB – forward characteristic curve of the diode.
• This value equal to 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for
germanium.
• 2) Reverse characteristics: the same circuit arrangement
used for this also. The diode is reverse biased. The applied
voltage increased and the corresponding values of current
noted. If the applied voltage below the breakdown voltage
– the diode current remains very small and if crossing that
value – the current increases rapidly as shown by curve CD.
• The curve OCD – reverse characteristics of the diode.
Fig 5 – Effect of Temperature on Diode Characteristics
 Effect of Temperature
• The diode current is a function of temperature and it
appears in the denominator of the exponential term of the
diode current equation – I = I0 (eV/ηVT – 1).
• With the increase in temperature – the exponential term will
decrease & hence the diode current must also decrease.
• But the reverse saturation current – I0 is much greater than
the exponential term & given by –
• I02 = I01 2.(T2-T1)/10
• The reverse saturation current normally doubles its value for
every 10 deg rise in temperature.
• The increasing level of I0 with temperature for the lower
threshold voltage shown in figure 3.
• In forward bias region – the characteristics shifts more &
more to the left of characteristics at 25 deg C.
• In reverse bias region – the breakdown voltage increases
with increase in temperature.
Fig 6 – Static & Dynamic Resistances of Diode
 Static & Dynamic Resistances
• A diode does not offer zero resistance when forward
biased and infinite resistance when reverse biased.
• A diode has a forward resistance when forward biased
called static resistance of the diode.
• Due to non-linear shape of the diode characteristic, it is
called as dynamic or ac resistance which is given by –
• Rac = change in voltage / change in current
• This value of ac resistance – 1 to 25 ohms.
• Another resistance called reverse resistance of the
diode – when the diode reverse biased due to the flow
of leakage current whose value will be in several mega
ohms.
 Applications of the diode
• A PN junction diode conducts well in forward direction
and poorly in reverse direction. This characteristic used
for a number of applications –
• 1) as rectifiers or power diodes in dc power supplies
• 2) as signal diodes in communication circuits
• 3) as zener diodes for voltage stabilizing circuits
• 4) as varactor diodes for radio & TV receivers
• 5) as a switch for logic circuits in computers
 Topic 4

Power & Current Ratings of a Diode

 Power Rating of a Diode
• The power dissipation of a diode is the product of voltage
and current through it.
• The power dissipation for a FB diode given by-
• PD = VF * IF ; VF – forward voltage drop, IF – forward
current.
• The power dissipation for a RB diode given by-
• PD = VR * IR ; VR – reverse voltage drop, IR – reverse
current. The maximum value of power which a diode can
dissipate without failure called power rating of a diode.
• If power dissipation exceeds the power rating – the diode
gets damaged.
• For example the diode 1N 914 has a the power rating of
250 mW.
 Current Rating of a Diode
• The maximum current which the diode can handle
called current rating of the diode.
• Some manufacturers indicate current rating rather the
power rating.
• The data sheet of device IN 4003 does not indicate the
power rating but indicate the current rating of diode as
1 ampere.
• It means if it passes a current more than one ampere –
the device gets damaged.
 Two categories of Diodes
• 1) Small signal diodes – have a power rating below 0.5
W. Typical example is – 1N 914 has a power rating of
0.25 W.
• 2) Power or Rectifier diodes – have a power rating
greater than 0.5 W. Typical example is – 1N 4003 has a
power rating of 1 W.
 Topic 5

Diode Current Equation

 Equation for FB Diode
• The mathematical equation which describes the
forward and revere characteristics of a semiconductor
diode called the diode current equation.
• It is given by - I = I0 (eV/ηVT – 1).
• Where I – forward diode current
I0 – reverse saturation current
V – external voltage -- positive for FB & negative for RB
η – a constant whose value is 1 for Ge and 2 for Si
VT – volt equivalent of temperature - T / 11600 ; T –
absolute temperature (300 K); VT equal to 26 mV
Substuting the value of VT = 26 mV or 0.026 V in the
current equation –
I = I0 (e40V/η – 1).
 Equation for RB Diode
• The diode current equation for germanium –
• I = I0 (e40V – 1).
• The diode current equation for silicon –
• I = I0 (e20V – 1).
• If the value of applied voltage greater than unity, the
diode current equation becomes –
• I = I0 . e20V
• The current equation for a RB diode given by –
• I = I0 (e-V/ηVT – 1).
• If the value of V >> VT, then e-V/ηVT << 1, hence the diode
current I = I0 as long as the applied voltage below the
breakdown value.
 Topic 6

Transition and Diffusion Capacitances

Fig 1 – Depletion Layer Capacitance
 Transition Capacitance
• When a PN junction formed – a layer of positive and
negative ions formed on either side of the junction called
depletion region or space charge region or transition
region.
• This depletion layer acts as a dielectric separated by the
P and N regions like that of a capacitor as shown in
Figure 1.
• The capacitance formed in the junction area called
depletion capacitance or transition capacitance or space-
charge capacitance.
• This capacitance depends upon the nature of PN
junction, semiconductor material and magnitude of the
applied voltage given by –
• CT = K / (VB – V)n where ‘K’ a constant depending upon
the nature of semiconductor material.
• VB – Barrier voltage which is 0.6V for Si and 0.2V for Ge.
 Transition Capacitance (contd)
• V – applied reverse voltage, n – a constant depending
upon nature of the junction.
• The value of depletion layer capacitance controlled by
varying the applied reverse voltage.
• This property of variable capacitance possessed by a RB
junction used for the construction of a device called
Varicap or Varactor.
 Diffusion Capacitance
• The depletion layer or transition capacitance exists with
a RB junction whereas the diffusion capacitance exists
with a FB junction.
• This capacitance arises due to the arrangement of
minority carrier density and its value is greater than
depletion layer capacitance – given by
• CD = τ I / η VT where ‘τ’ mean lifetime of the carriers, I
– forward current; η – a constant whose value is 1 for Ge
and 2 for Si, VT – volt equivalent of temperature.
• The diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the
forward current.
• Consider a FB junction with a forward current ‘I’ flowing
through it.
 Diffusion Capacitance (contd)
• If the junction is suddenly reverse biased – the forward
current reduces quickly to zero leaving a number of
majority carriers stored within the depletion region.
• This charge represents a stored charge in RB condition
which has to be removed.
• The quantity of the stored charge represents the
magnitude of diffusion capacitance.
 Topic 7

Zener Diode
Fig 1 – Zener Diode
 Introduction
• Also called voltage reference, voltage regulator or
breakdown diode.
• Very important in many power applications.
• Figure 1 shows the schematic symbol & VI characteristics
of a zener diode.
• Differs from a rectifier diode in the way – it can be
operated under reverse breakdown region.
• The breakdown voltage of a zener diode set by controlling
the doping level during the time of manufacturing.
• It is heavily doped so that – depletion region formed is
very thin.
• When the RB voltage increased beyond a critical voltage
called breakdown voltage – the reverse current increases
sharply as shown in Figure 2.
 Avalanche & Zener Breakdown
• When the accelerated electrons acquire sufficient energy to
ionize a lattice atom by bombardment, the avalanche
breakdown occurs.
• The additional free electrons created by this way are
accelerated by the reverse electric field causing more and
more ionization.
• This causes the reverse current to increase rapidly.
• The zener breakdown occurs – if a high electric filed exists
across the junction due to applied RB voltage.
• This high electric field creates free electrons breaking the
covalent bond of atoms.
• Due to this ionization – the reverse current increases
rapidly.
• If breakdown voltages less than 6V – zener breakdown and
if greater than 6V – avalanche breakdown.
Fig 2 – Reverse Characteristics of Zener
 Reverse Characteristics of Zener
• Zener diode operated only in breakdown region.
• Figure 2 shows the reverse characteristics of a zener
diode.
• If the RB voltage increased – the reverse current remains
negligibly small up to the point ‘K’ and then increased
rapidly wrt applied voltage – called breakdown region.
• This breakdown region – called the regulating region of a
zener diode.
• Two observations from the graph-
• 1) Minimum value of current called break over current
(IZK) which must be maintained to keep the diode in
regulating region.
• 2) Maximum value of current above which the diode will
be damaged (IZM).
 Zener Diode Specifications
• Zener diode specified by four factors – zener
breakdown voltage (VZ), maximum power dissipation
(PDZ), break over current (IZK) & zener resistance (rZ).
• The maximum power dissipation of a zener diode is the
product of breakdown voltage (VZ) and the zener
current (IZ).
• PDZ = VZ * IZ
• The maximum value of zener current given by –
• IZM = PZM / VZ
• Where PZM – power rating of the zener diode.
Fig 3 – Equivalent Circuit of Zener Diode
 Zener Equivalent Circuit
• Figure 3 shows the equivalent circuit of a zener diode.
• The zener diode is equivalent to a battery with a voltage
VZ and a series resistance called zener resistance (rZ).
• The presence of zener resistance – the reverse
characteristics of zener diode is not ideally vertical but
slightly tilted as shown in Figure 3.
• Its value given by – rZ = ΔVZ / ΔIZ
• The ideal value of zener resistance is zero but its
practical value ranges from few ohms to several
hundred ohms.
• The voltage across the zener diode is – VZ’ = VZ + IZ.rZ
Fig 4 – Terminal Voltage of Zener
 Applications of Zener Diode
• As a voltage regulator
• As a fixed reference voltage for transistor biasing
circuits.
• As peak clippers for wave shaping circuits.
• For meter protection against damage from accidental
applications.
 Topic 8

Tunnel Diode
Fig 1 - Schematic Symbols for Tunnel Diode
 Introduction
• A semiconductor device capable of fast operation well
into the microwave frequency region using quantum
mechanical effects.
• These diodes have heavily doped PN junction having a
width of 10 nm.
• Tunnel diodes usually made from germanium but can be
also from gallium arsenide and silicon materials.
• Can be used for oscillators, amplifiers, frequency
converters etc.
• If the concentration of impurity atoms greatly increased
by 1000 times or more in a normal PN junction, then the
characteristics completely changed giving rise to a new
type of diode called Tunnel diode.
 Introduction (contd)
• Invented by Essaki in 1958 and also called Essaki diode.
• If the impurity concentration increased to a greater value-
the width of the depletion layer becomes narrow forming a
small potential barrier.
• Generally the charge carriers acquire energy to cross the
potential barrier.
• In case of tunnel diodes, the charge carriers do not require
energy to cross the potential barrier but instead penetrate
through it.
• This process called tunneling. Figure 1 shows the symbols
for a tunnel diode.
• They should be handled with care since they are low power
devices and can be easily damaged by heat or static
electricity.
Fig 2 - VI Characteristics of Tunnel Diode
 Characteristics of Tunnel Diode
• Figure 2 shows the characteristics of a Tunnel diode.
• If the applied forward voltage increased from zero, the
current increases rapidly until it reaches a maximum
value called peak point – (VP, IP)
• If the applied voltage increased beyond the peak point
– the current decreases reaching a minimum value
called valley point (VV, IV)
• Beyond the valley point if forward voltage increased –
the current increases in an usual manner to that of a
normal PN junction.
• If the tunnel diode reverse biased – the reverse current
increases linearly with respect to increase in reverse
voltage.
 Observations on Characteristics
• 1) Between the peak point and valley point – the
current decreases with increase in applied voltage –
tunnel diode exhibits negative resistance in this region
indicated by the curve AB – used in high frequency
oscillators.
• 2) Between the peak point and valley point – each value
of current indicated by three values of different applied
voltages – this useful for pulse and digital circuits.
• 3) The curve BC – similar to forward characteristics of a
normal PN junction.
• 4) the shaded region – tunneling current flows through
the device.
 Parameters of Tunnel Diode
• 1) Negative resistance: resistance offered by the tunnel
diode when operated in a negative resistance region –
RF = - ΔVF / ΔIF
• Value of negative resistance depend upon the
semiconductor material used for manufacturing the
tunnel diode and the range from 10 – 200 Ohms.
• 2) Ratio of peak current to valley current (Ip/Iv):
• This parameter important for high speed switching
circuits used in computers. This value for germanium
type & gallium arsenide type tunnel diodes are ‘6’ &
‘10’ respectively.
Fig 3 – Equivalent Circuit of Tunnel Diode
 Tunnel Diode Equivalent Circuit
• Figure 3 shows the equivalent circuit for a tunnel diode.
• Consists of a series resistance, inductance, junction
capacitance and a negative resistance (-RV).
• The series Resistance (RS) – due to leads, contacts
and semiconductor material. Range from 1- 5 Ohms.
• The series Inductance (LS) – due to lead lengths.
Range from 0.1 – 4 nH.
• The junction capacitance (C) – due to diffusion
capacitance and the applied voltage. Range from 0.35 –
100 pF.
 Applications of Tunnel Diode
• 1) As an ultra high speed switching device.
• 2) As a logic memory storage device.
• 3) As a microwave oscillator at frequencies in the order
of 10 GHz.
• 4) In relaxation oscillator due to negative resistance of
the device.
 Topic 9

Varactor Diode
Fig 1 – Varactor Diode
 Introduction
• A varactor diode – basically a reverse biased PN
junction which utilizes the inherent capacitance of the
depletion layer.
• Also known as Varicap, Voltcap or a Tuning diode.
• Acts as a voltage variable capacitor.
• In a PN junction – the depletion layer created by the
reverse bias acts as a capacitor dielectric whereas P & N
regions act as parallel plates as shown in Figure 1 (a).
• For example if the RB voltage increases – the width of
depletion layer widens, increases the dielectric
thickness which in turn reduces the capacitance.
• Figure 1 (b) shows the variation of capacitance with the
reverse voltage.
• The variation of capacitance is maximum when the RB
voltage equal to zero.
 Abrupt Doping Profile
• In a varactor diode – the capacitance parameters
controlled by the method of doping in the depletion
layer, size & geometry of the diode construction.
• Figure 2 (a) shows the doping profile for an abrupt
junction diode.
• In this type – the doping is uniform on both sides of the
junction.
• The range of capacitance variation – the tuning range of
an abrupt junction diode is 4:1.
• It means if maximum value is 100 pF and the minimum
value is 25 pF.
Fig 2 – Profiles of Varactor Diode
 Hyper Abrupt Profile
• Higher tuning range obtained for varactors having hyper
abrupt junction.
• The doping profile of such a junction shown in figure 2 (b).
• In this type, the doping increases if move towards the
junction.
• The heavy doping at the junction results in narrow depletion
layer & larger capacitance value.
• Moreover if RB voltage increased – large variation in
capacitance value obtained.
• A hyper abrupt junction has a tuning range of 10:1.
• This range enough to tune a broadcast receiver from 550 kHz
– 1650 KHz.
• The schematic symbol & equivalent circuit shown in figure 3.
Fig 2 – Symbols for Varactor Diode
 Varactor Diode Application
• It is used in electronic tuners in radio, television & other
commercial receivers.
• When a varactor used in a tuning circuit – a resonant
frequency to be adjusted by a variable voltage level as
shown in figure 4.
• In this circuit – two varactor diodes D1 & D2 provide the
total variable capacitance & the dc voltage controls the
reverse bias and capacitance of the diodes.
• The resonant frequency of the tank circuit given by  f =
1 / 2π⌡LC where ‘C’ = C1.C2 / (C1 + C2) ;
• C1 and C2 – maximum and minimum values of the
capacitances of the diodes.
Fig 4 – Equivalent Circuit of Varactor Diode
 Topic 10

Schotty Barrier Diode

Fig 1 – Schotty Diode
 Introduction
• A semiconductor diode with low forward voltage drop
and very fast switching action.
• Normal PN diode voltage drop – 0.6 V - 1.1 V
• Schotty diode voltage drop – 0.15 V -- 0.45 V
• Due to low voltage drop – high switching speed and
better system efficiency.
• Constructed by joining a doped semiconductor region
with a metal – gold, silver / platinum.
• Schotty diode – a metal semiconductor junction rather
than a PN junction.
• Also called Hot Carrier diode or Schotty Barrier diode.
 Mode of Operation
• Figure 2 shows the characteristics curves for a Schotty
barrier diode.
• Lower voltage drop (VF) and reverse breakdown voltage
(VBR) when compared to PN junction diode as shown in
figure 2.
• Schotty diode will have a typical value of VF = 0.3 V and VBR =
-50 V whereas these values for a PN diode – VF=0.7 V and VBR
= -150 V.
• Can be operated at High frequencies since little junction
capacitance compared to typical PN diode.
• The reduced junction capacitance results in much faster
switching time.
• Due to above reason, it can be used for digital switching
applications.
Fig 2 - Characteristics of Schotty Diode
Fig 3 – Schotty Diode Family
 Applications of Schotty diode
• To rectify High frequency signals (above 300 MHz).
• Switching device in Computers.
• In Clipping and Clamping circuits.
• In Mixing and Detecting circuits for communication
systems.
 Limitations of Schotty diode
• Low reverse voltage rating.
• High reverse leakage current.
• Thermal instability.
 Topic 11

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

 Introduction
• A light dependent resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor or
photocell is alight controlled variable resistor .
• Its resistance changeswith Light intensitythat falls on it.
• The resistance of a photo resistor decreases with
increasing Incident light intensity .
• In other words , itexhibits photoconductivity.
• The resistance range and sensitivity of a photo-resistor can
substantially differ among dissimilar devices.
• They are made up of semiconductor materials having high
resistance.
 Introduction (contd)
• Photocells or LDRS are non linear devices. There sensitivity
varieswith the wavelength of light incident onthem.
• Some photocells might not at all response to a certain range
of wavelength.
 Working of LDR
• A LDRworks on the principle ofphotoconductivity.

• Photo conductivity is an optical phenomenon in which

the materials conductivity reduces when light is
absorbed by thematerials.

• When light falls, on the devices , the electrons in the valence

band of the semiconductor material are excited to the
conduction band.

• These photons in the incident light should have energy

greater than the band gap of the semiconductor material
to make the electron jump from the valence band to the
conduction band.
 Working of LDR (contd)
• When light having enough energy incident on the device,
more and more electrons are excited to the conduction
band which results in large number of chargecarrier.
• The result of this process - more and more current starts
flowing and hencethe resistanceof the deviceshas decreased.
 Types of LDR
• There are two types of photocells:-

1) Intrinsic: These are pure semiconductor materials such

as silicon or germanium . Electrons get excited from
valence band to conduction band . When photons of
enough energy falls on it, the number charge
carriers increases.

2) Extrinsic: These are semiconductor materials doping with

impurities which are called as dopants. These dopants
create new energy bands above the valence band which
are filled with electrons. Hence this reduces the band
gap and less energy is required in exciting them .
 Characteristics of LDR
 LDRs are light dependent device whose resistance decreases
when light falls on them and increases in thedark.
 When a light dependent resistor is kept in dark , its
resistance is very high . This resistance is called as dark
resistance.
 It can be ashigh as1012 Ω .
 If the device is allowed to absorb light its resistance will
decreasedrastically.
 If a constant voltage is applied to it and intensity of light
is increased the current startsincreasing.
 When light is incident on a photocell it usually takes
about 8 to 12 ms for the change in resistance to take place
,while it take seconds for resistance to rise back again to its
initial value after removal of light. This phenomenon is
called resistance recovery rate.
 Comparison with Photo-diodes
LDRare lesssensitive than photo diodes and phototransistor

A photo diode and aphotocell (LDR)are not the same.

A photodiode is a pn – junction semiconductor device that
converts light toelectricity.
 A photocell is a passive device - there is no pn- junction nor
it converts light toelectricity.

If the light intensity is kept constant , the resistance may

still vary significantly due to temperaturechanges.

Extrinsic light dependent resistor are generally designed

forlonger wavelengths of light.
 Construction of LDR
Modern light dependent resistor are made of lead
sulphide , lead selenide, indium antimonide and most
commonly cadmium sulphide (Cds)and cadmium selenide.
 A light sensitive material is deposited on an insulating
substratesuchasceramic.
 The material is deposited in zig-zag pattern in order to obtain
the desired resistance and power rating.
 This zigzag area separates the metal deposited area into two
regions.
 The disk is then mounted in a glass envelope or encapsulated in
transparentplasticto prevent surfacecontamination.
Fig 3 - Construction of LDR
 Advantages & Disadvantages of LDR
• 1)Advantages:
• LDRsare cheap are readily available in many sizesandshapes.
• Practical LDRs are available in a variety of sizes and packages
styles , the most popular size having a face diameter of
roughly 10 mm.
• They needs very small power and voltage for itsoperation.
• 2) Disadvantages:
• Highly inaccurate with a response time of about tens or
hundreds of milliseconds.
 Applications of LDR
• Light Sensor
• Fire Alarm
• Automatic Street Light
• Audio Compressor
 Topic 12

Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

Fig 1 – Light Emitting Diode
 Introduction
• A PN diode which emits light when forward biased –
LED.
• Emitted light may visible / invisible.
• Amount of light output directly proportional to the
forward current.
• Higher the forward current – higher the light output.
• Basic schematic symbol. Construction and circuit
diagram shown in figure 1
• A N type layer grown on P-type substrate by a diffusion
process.
• Metal connections to both layers – anode & cathode
terminals.
 Mode of Operation
• When the LED forward biased – the electrons & holes
move towards the junction and recombination takes
place.
• Light energy emitted at the junction when
recombination of electrons and holes take place.
• In ordinary PN diodes – energy released in the form of
heat.
• Semiconductor materials used for manufacturing LED’s –
gallium phosphide, gallium arsenide phosphide, boron
nitride etc.
• LED’s emit light in different colors and invisible light also.
• Color of emitted light depends upon the type of
semiconductor materials used.
 Mode of Operation (contd)
• Thus gallium arsenide emits infrared radiations, gallium
arsenide phosphide produces either red or yellow light,
gallium phosphide emits green or red light and gallium
nitrite produces blue light.
• Figure 2 shows the different schemes of identifying the
leads of a LED.
• LED’S available in different shapes and sizes –
commonly cylindrical in shape and available in 1.8, 2, 3,
5, 8 and 10 mm diameter sizes.
Fig 2 – LED with different Leads
Fig 3 – Different sizes of LED
 LED Circuit
• The voltage drop across the LED depend upon the
current value, color of emitted light etc.
• In figure 4 – the LED connected to the supply voltage
through a current limiting resistor ‘R’.
• The current passing through LED given by-
I = VS – VD / RS
• VS – Supply voltage: VD – Drop across LED; RS – current
limiting resistor.
RS = VO – VF / IF
• VO – Peak output voltage; VF – LED voltage drop; IF – LED
current value.
Fig 4 – LED Circuit
 LED Circuit (contd)
• Since the voltage drop across the LED depend upon the
value of current – it controls the amount of emitted
light.
• In order to avoid the fluctuations – the current passing
through the LED kept constant.
 Applications of LED’S
• Seven segment and Dot matrix displays.
• Power Level indicators / Stereo level amplifiers.
• Optical Switching applications.
• Solid state video displays.
• In optical communication field
• For Image Sensing circuits.
• In burglar Alarm systems
• For Traffic Light Signal management
 Topic 13

Photodiodes
Fig 1 – Construction of Photodiode
 Introduction
• A type of photo detector to convert light energy into
either voltage or current depending upon the mode of
operation.
• Typical example – Solar cell – a large area of application
of photodiode.
• A PN junction diode operating in the reverse biased
mode.
• A small transparent window which allows light to strike
the PN junction.
• In normal PN diode – the reverse current produced by
thermally generated electron-hole pairs in the
depletion layer under the control of RBV.
 Mode of Operation
• This reverse current increases with temperature due to
increase in the number of electron-hole pairs.
• In photodiode, the reverse current increases with light
intensity at the PN junction.
• If no incident light – reverse current negligible and
called dark current.
• If increase in amount of light energy increases the
reverse current for a given RBV.
• Figure 2 shows the characteristic curves for a typical
photodiode.
Fig 2 - Characteristic Curves of Photodiode
 Applications of Photodiode
• Used in consumer electronic devices such as CD
players, Smoke detectors etc.
• For accurate measurement of light intensity in Science
and Industry.
• Widely used in Medical applications.
• Used for Optical communication due to its fast
switching speed.
• Character Recognition.
• Encoders etc.
 Topic 14

Phototransistors
 Introduction
• A junction transistor that have only collector and
emitter leads or also a base lead, with the base exposed
to light through a tiny lens in the housing.
• Collector current increases with light intensity, as a
result - amplification of base current by the transistor
structure.
 Introduction (contd)
• A transistor in which minority carriers are injected on
the basis of an internal photoelectric effect.
• Phototransistors are used to convert light signals into
amplified electric signals.
• A phototransistor consists of a single-crystal Ge or Si
semiconductor wafer in which three regions are
produced by means of special technological processes.
• Similar to a conventional transistor, the regions are
called the emitter, collector, and base; as a rule, the
base has no lead.
Fig 2 – Construction of Phototransistor
 Construction of Phototransistor
• The crystal is placed in a housing with a transparent window.
• A phototransistor is connected to an external circuit in the
same way as a bipolar transistor with a common-emitter
connection and a zero base current.
• When light is incident on the base or collector, charge-carrier
pairs (electrons and holes) are generated in that region.
• The carrier pairs are separated by the electric field in the
collector junction.
• As a result, the carriers accumulate in the base region,
causing a reduction of the potential barrier in the emitter
junction.
• This will increase the current across the phototransistor in
comparison with the current due only to the migration of
carriers generated directly by the action of the light.
 Construction of Phototransistor (contd)
• The main parameters and characteristics of photo-
transistors are the luminous sensitivity, spectral
response, and time constant.
• The luminous sensitivity is the ratio of the photoelectric
current to the incident luminous flux.
• For the best specimens of phototransistors—for
example, diffused planar devices—the luminous
sensitivity may be as high as 10 amperes per lumen.
 Characteristics of Phototransistor
• The spectral response as a function of wavelength,
defines the long-wavelength limit for the use of a
particular phototransistor.
• This limit depends primarily on the width of the
forbidden band of the semiconductor material, is 1.7
micrometers for germanium and 1.1 micrometers for
silicon.
• The time constant characterizes the inertia of a
phototransistor and does not exceed several hundred
microseconds.
• In addition, a phototransistor is characterized by the
photoelectric gain, which may be as high as 102–103
 Characteristics of Phototransistor (contd)
• The high reliability, sensitivity, and temporal stability of
phototransistors have led to their extensive use in
control and automation systems - for example, as light
detectors and as components of opto-isolators.
• Field-effect phototransistors, which are similar to field-
effect transistors, were developed in the 1970’s.
 Applications of Phototransistors
• Phototransistors are solid state light detectors that possess
internal gain.
• This makes them much more sensitive than photodiodes of
comparably sized area.
• These devices used to provide either an analog or digital
output signal.
• Available with gains from 100 to over 100,000.
• Moderately fast response times.
• Available in a wide range of packages including epoxy
coated, transfer molded, cast, hermetic packages and in chip
form
• Usable with almost any visible or near infrared light source
such as LEDs, neon, fluorescent, incandescent bulbs, laser
etc.
 Topic 15

Silicon Controlled Rectifier

Fig 1 – Construction of SCR
 Introduction
• One of the most important semiconductor device in
the industrial or power electronics field.
• Consists of four semiconductor layers forming a PNPN
structure as shown in figure 1.
• Three junctions namely – J1, J2, J3 and three terminals
– anode, cathode and gate.
• Quiet similar to a PN diode and resembles the diode
electrically by conducting the current in one direction
only when forward biased.
• Different from a diode – has an additional terminal
called gate to turn ON the device.
Fig 2 – Biasing of SCR
 Biasing of SCR
• Can be biased in two modes depending upon the
polarity of applied voltage across the anode and
cathode terminals as shown in Figure 2.
• When forward biased – the junctions J1 & J3 are
forward biased and J2 reverse biased.
• No current except the leakage current through the
device but offers a high resistance in the range of
several mega ohms – SCR in OFF state.
• When reverse biased – the junctions J1 & J3 are
reverse biased and J2 forward biased.
• No current flows through SCR – SCR in OFF state.
 Operation of SCR
• If SCR forward biased with a small voltage – in OFF
state and no current flows.
• If the applied forward voltage increased above a value
called forward breakover voltage, junction J2
breakdown – current increases to a large value with the
device going to ON state.
• Now it offers small resistance in ON state.
• If SCR reverse biased with a small voltage – in OFF state
and no current flows.
• If the applied reverse increased above a limit, junction
J1 breakdowns due to avalanche effect – large current
flows causing damage to SCR.
 Operation of SCR (contd)
• Hence SCR conducts only in one direction like a
rectifier diode.
• Remains in OFF state until the applied voltage crosses
the forward breakover voltage.
• Generally SCR operated with anode-cathode voltage
less than the breakover voltage and a gate voltage or
gate current is used to turn ON the device.
Fig 3- SCR Equivalent Circuit
 SCR Equivalent circuit
• Basic structure of SCR divided into 3-layer structure –
upper one a PNP transistor with a lower one a NPN
transistor as shown in figure 3.
• This circuit is called Two transistor analogy or Ideal latch
of a SCR.
• The collector current of each transistor connected to the
base current of each transistor.
• If there is a change in current at any point in the loop , it
is amplified and returned to the starting point.
• For example, if base current of Q2 transistor increases –
IC2 increases, Ib1 increases with the increase in Ic1 –
continue until both transistors go to saturation.
• Now SCR goes to ON state and passes the current.
 SCR Equivalent Circuit (contd)
• If the base current of Q2 decreases – opposite
phenomenon occurs – transistors go to cutoff state.
• Now SCR into OFF state and blocks the current.
 Turning ON SCR
• Forward Breakover Voltage : if applied voltage exceeds
the above value, the SCR will start conducting due to
avalanche breakdown.
• Gate Triggering: Commonly used method to trigger the
SCR. Operated with a voltage less than the forward
breakover voltage but the device turned ON by a low
power gate pulse. Once SCR turned ON, the gate
terminal – no control on the device current.
• Rate effect: SCR turned ON by rapidly increasing the
anode-cathode voltage. This produces a charging
current which turns SCR On.
• Light Triggering: if light falls on the middle junction J2 –
the device turns ON – called Light activated SCR.
 Turning OFF SCR
• Reversing the polarity of anode-cathode voltage.
• Interrupting the anode current by means of
momentarily series or parallel switching arrangements
– anode current interruption.
• Reducing the current through SCR below the holding
current – forced commutation.
Fig 4 – Forward Characteristics of SCR
 Forward characteristics of SCR
• As the applied forward voltage increased above zero,
little anode current flows through the device – SCR in
OFF condition and offers high resistance.
• Procedure continued until it reaches the break-over
voltage indicated by point A as shown in Figure 4.
• As the anode-cathode voltage increased above break-
over voltage, SCR turns ON – anode-cathode voltage
decreases with the anode current increasing rapidly.
• The current corresponding to point B called holding
current – minimum current required to keep the SCR
turned ON.
 Forward Characteristics of SCR
• If the value of gate current increased above zero, then
the SCR turns ON at lower values of break-over
voltages marked by points A1 and A2.
• The region between points O and A0 called forward
blocking region – between B and C called forward
conducting region.
Fig 5 – Reverse Characteristics of SCR
 Reverse Characteristics of SCR
• As the applied reverse voltage increased above zero – a
little amount of current called leakage current flows –
SCR in OFF state which offers a very high resistance.
• As the applied voltage increased above breakdown
voltage – the reverse current increases rapidly shown
by the curve DE in Figure 5.
• The region between points – O & D – reverse blocking
region.
• The region between points – D & E – reverse avalanche
region.
 Ratings of SCR
• Forward Breakover voltage – at which SCR switched
from OFF to ON state.
• Holding current – value of anode current below which
SCR moves from ON to OFF.
• Gate Trigger Current - value of anode current to switch
SCR from from OFF to ON under specified conditions.
• Average forward current – maximum value of anode
current which SCR handle in ON position.
• Reverse Breakdown voltage – value of reverse voltage
at which device breaks into avalanche region.
 Applications of SCR
• A number of applications for industrial purposes-
• Motor speed control
• Light dimming control
• Heater control
• Phase control
• Battery Charger
• Inverters
• Rectifier Power Supplies
Topic 16

DIAC
Fig 1 – Construction of Diac
 Introduction
• A two terminal device which can pass current in either
direction when the break-over voltage reached in either
polarity across the two terminals.
• Basic construction similar to that of a Traic but without
a gate terminal as shown in Figure 1.
• It consists of two four layer diodes – P1N1P2N2 and
P2N1P1N3 connected in parallel but in opposite
directions.
• Since it can pass current in either directions – the
terminals are designated as MT1 and MT2.
• It can be turned ON only when the applied voltage
reaches the break-over voltage and turned OFF if the
current falls below the holding value.
 Fig 2 - Modes of Operation
• If MT2 is positive wrt MT1 – the current passes through
the diode P1N1P2N2 and through the other diode
P2N1P1N3 if it is made negative wrt MT1.
Fig 3 – Characteristics of Diac
 Characteristics of DIAC
• If the terminal MT2 is made positive wrt MT1, the curve
OAB and if it is made negative wrt MT1, the curve OCD
can be obtained.
• The curves OAB and OCD are symmetrical and identical.
• As the applied voltage reaches the break-over voltage –
the device turns ON and the current increases rapidly.
• The operating voltages and currents are the same in
either direction.
 Applications of DIAC
• It is used as a triggering device for TRIAC’s in phase
control circuits such as light dimming, heat control and
motor speed control etc.
Topic 17

TRIAC
Fig 1 – Construction of Triac
 Introduction
• A three terminal device which conducts in either
direction if triggered by either positive or negative
pulses irrespective of the polarity of the applied voltage.
• Behaves like a two SCR’s connected in parallel but in
opposite directions with a common gate terminal
• Thus anode and gate voltage applied in either direction
will trigger the Triac.
• They are available with current ratings and voltage
ratings upto 25 A & 500 Volts respectively.
• The basic diagram of Traic shown in Figure 1 – Two four
layer switches connected in parallel – P1N1P2N2 &
P2N1P1N4.
• The terminals of triac are designated by the numbers
instead of anode & cathode.
 Introduction (contd)
• Triac has two terminals – Main terminal 1 & main
terminal 2 with a common gate terminal.
• The schematic symbol is also shown in Figure 1.
 Operation of Triac
• Four modes of operation depending the polarity of
voltage across the main terminals & gate terminal.
• Mode 1: (MT2 positive & Gate positive) – the operation
of triac similar to SCR and current flows from MT2 to
MT1 through the switch P1N1P2N2.
• Mode 2: (MT2 negative & Gate positive) – the current
flows from MT1 to MT2 through the switch P2N1P1N4.
inefficient mode and to be avoided.
• Mode 3: (MT2 positive & Gate negative) – the current
flows from MT2 to MT1 through the switch P1N1P2N2.
Lesser efficient when compared to Mode 1.
• Mode 4: (MT2 negative & Gate negative) – the current
flows from MT1 to MT2 through the switch P2N1P1N4.
Slightly less mode compared to Mode 1.
Fig 3 – Characteristics of Triac
 VI Characteristics of Triac
• When the Traic operated with both MT2 & gate positive
wrt MT1 – the curve OABC obtained.
• When the Traic operated with both MT2 & gate negative
wrt MT1 – the curve ODEF obtained.
• Both the above curves – OABC & ODEF are symmetrical
& identical to that of forward characteristics of SCR.
• The Triac is OFF until the applied voltage of either
polarity exceeds the break-over voltage.
• As the value of gate current increased above zero – the
break-over voltage gets lowered for the Triac to turn
ON.
 Ratings of Triac
• Latching Current
• Holding Current
• Gate Trigger Current
• Main Terminal RMS Current
• Reverse Current
• Maximum Average Gate Power
 Applications of Triac
• Phase Control
• Motor Speed Control
• Heater Control
• Light Dimming Control
• Static Switch to turn ac power
 Topic 18

Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

Fig 1 – Construction of UJT
 Introduction
• A three terminal semiconductor device having only one
PN junction like an ordinary diode.
• The behavior is quite different from other transistors.
• The basic construction is shown in Figure 1 which
consists of N type semiconductor bar with a P type
region.
• The N type bar called the base & the P type region
called the emitter forming a PN junction.
• The emitter region is heavily doped whereas the base
region is lightly doped.
• The terminals are called emitter, base 1 and base 2.
Fig 2 – UJT Equivalent Circuit
 Equivalent Circuit of UJT
• Figure 2 shows the equivalent circuit of UJT.
• The circuit consists of a diode and a resistance.
• The diode represents the PN junction while the
resistance represents the internal bulk resistance across
the base terminals (rBB).
• It includes rB1 & rB2 which represents the bulk resistance
between them and the emitter terminal.
• It varies inversely with the value of emitter current (IE).
• Mathematically rBB = rB1 + rB2
 Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio
• If a battery voltage – VBB applied across the base
terminals shown in Figure 3, the voltage across rB1 given
by – V1 = (rB1 / rB1 + rB2) * VBB = rB1/ rBB * VBB
• = η. VBB ; where ‘η’ is the intrinsic stand-off ratio of UJT –
an important characteristic of UJT.
• It’s value ranges between 0.5 and 0.8
• The drop across rB1 called intrinsic stand-off voltage
which reverse biases the emitter diode.
 Operation of UJT
• Figure 2 shows the equivalent circuit of UJT connected
across the supply source VEE.
• Hence the emitter diode normally reverse biased by the
drop across the resistance rB1 (ηVBB).
• To forward bias the emitter diode- the emitter voltage
must be greater than (ηVBB + VD); VD – potential barrier
of the emitter diode.
• If the emitter voltage crosses the peak point voltage –
VP = ηVBB + VD; the diode is forward biased and emitter
current flows through rB1 – UJT triggered from OFF to
ON state.
• At this instant – the holes from P type emitter region
injected to base region – reduces the base resistance
rB1 which reduces the intrinsic voltage.
 Operation of UJT (contd)
• This process is called conductivity modulation.
• By conductivity modulation – the emitter current
increases , decreases the voltage at the emitter causing
a negative resistance in the characteristics of UJT.
Fig 3 – Characteristics of UJT
 Characteristics of UJT
• Two important points on the characteristics of UJT –
Peak point and valley point as shown in Figure 3.
• These points divide the curve into three regions – cut-
off region, negative resistance region & saturation
region.
• 1) Cut-off region: the emitter voltage is below the peak
point voltage & emitter current is approximately zero –
UJT in OFF position.
• 2) Negative resistance region: the region between peak
point and valley point- the emitter voltage decreases
with increase in emitter current due to decrease in
resistance rB1.
 Characteristics of UJT (contd)
• 3) Saturation region: the region beyond the valley point
– the emitter voltage remains constant with increasing
emitter current – UJT in ON position.
 Applications of UJT
• UJT is not a thyristor but a device used to trigger the
devices like SCR’s and Triac’s.
• 1) Triggering device for SCR’s and Triac’s
• 2) Non-sinusoidal Oscillators
• 3) Saw tooth generators
• 4) Timing circuits