Combustion of solid fuels:

Weight based combustion numericals:

In general, if a fuel consists of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulphur, then
the combustion equations of these elements can be given as follows:
C + O2 CO2
12 32 44

H2 + ½ O2 H2O
2 16 18

S + O2 SO2
32 32 64

If oxygen is already present in the fuel, then it will be deducted from the total quantity of
oxygen required for combustion.

The minimum quantity of oxygen required for the complete combustion of fuel will be,
= (32/12 C + 16/2 H + 32/32 S – O) kg
= (32/12 C + 8 H + S – O) kg
Where C, H, O and S are expressed per kg
Assuming air contains 23% oxygen by weight, the minimum quantity of air required
for complete combustion = 100/23 x (32/12 C + 16/2 H + 32/32 S – O) kg
= 100/23 x (32/12 C + 8 H + S – O) kg
As air is a mixture of gases, average molecular weight of air is 28.94 g
∴ 28.94 g air occupies 22.4 L at STP
Or
28.94 kg air at STP occupies 22.4 m3 volume
(1 m3 = 1000 L and 1 kg = 1000 g)

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Solved numericals:
Example 1: A coal sample has the following composition by weight.
C = 82%, H = 7%, N = 3.5%, S = 1%, O = 2% and remaining ash.
Calculate the minimum quantity of air required for the complete combustion of 7 kg of this
fuel. Express the air requirement in terms of volume.
Solution:
Coal composition Per kg
C = 82% 0.82
H = 7% 0.07
N = 3.5% 0.035
S = 1% 0.01
O = 2% 0.02
Ash = 4.5% 0.045

Combustion equations are as follows:

C + O2 CO2
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
S + O2 SO2
The minimum quantity of oxygen required per kg of coal
= 32/12 C + 8 H + S – O
= (32/12 x 0.82) + (8 x 0.07) + 0.01 – 0.02
= 2.19 + 0.56 + 0.01 – 0.02
= 2.74 kg
For 1 kg of coal, oxygen required = 2.74 kg
∴ For 7 kg of coal, oxygen required = 2.74 x 7 = 19.18 kg
Assuming air to be a mixture of 77% nitrogen and 23% oxygen by weight, the minimum
quantity of air required for 7 kg coal = 19.18 x 100/23 = 83.39 kg
To calculate volume of air required,
28.94 kg air at STP occupies 22.4 m3
83.39 kg air at STP occupies 64.55 m3
Volume of air required for 7 kg fuel = 64.55 m3

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Example 2: Calculate the weight of air needed for complete combustion of 0.3 kg (300 g) of
coal containing: C = 74%, H = 12%, N = 5%, O = 7% and remaining ash. Express the air
requirement in terms of volume.
Solution:
Coal composition Per kg
C = 74% 0.74
H = 12% 0.12
N = 5% 0.05
O = 7% 0.07
Ash = 2% 0.02

Combustion equations are as follows:

C + O2 CO2
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
S + O2 SO2
The minimum quantity of oxygen required per kg of coal
= 32/12 C + 8 H + S – O
= (32/12 x 0.74) + (8 x 0.12) – 0.07
= 1.97 + 0.96 – 0.07
= 2.86 kg
For 1 kg of coal, oxygen required = 2.86 kg
For 0.3 kg (300 g) of coal, oxygen required = 2.86 x 0.3 = 0.858 kg (858 g)
Assuming air to be a mixture of 77% nitrogen and 23% oxygen by weight, the minimum
quantity of air required for 0.3 kg coal = 0.858 x 100/23 = 3.730 kg
To calculate volume of air required,
28.94 kg air at STP occupies 22.4 m3
3.730 kg air at STP occupies 2.887 m3
Volume of air required for 0.3 kg fuel = 2.887 m3

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Example 3: A coal sample has the following composition by weight.
C = 76%, H = 8%, N = 1.5%, S = 3%, O = 8% and remaining ash.
Calculate the minimum quantity of air required for the complete combustion of 5 kg of this
fuel. Express the air requirement in terms of volume.
Solution:
Coal composition Per kg
C = 76% 0.76
H = 8% 0.08
N = 1.5% 0.015
S = 3% 0.03
O = 8% 0.08
Ash = 3.5% 0.035

Combustion equations are as follows:

C + O2 CO2
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
S + O2 SO2
The minimum quantity of oxygen required per kg of coal
= 32/12 C + 8 H + S – O
= (32/12 x 0.76) + (8 x 0.08) + 0.03 – 0.08
= 2.03 + 0.64 + 0.03 – 0.08
= 2.62 kg
For 1 kg of coal, oxygen required = 2.62 kg
∴ For 5 kg of coal, oxygen required = 2.62 x 5 = 13.1 kg
Assuming air to be a mixture of 77% nitrogen and 23% oxygen by weight, the minimum
quantity of air required for 5 kg coal = 13.1 x 100/23 = 56.96 kg
To calculate volume of air required,
28.94 kg air at STP occupies 22.4 m3
56.96 kg air at STP occupies 44.09 m3
Volume of air required for 5 kg fuel = 44.09 m3

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Example 4: Calculate the minimum quantity of air and the volume of air required for complete
combustion of 6 kg fuel containing the following composition.
C = 92%, H = 8%.
Solution:
Coal composition Per kg
C = 92% 0.92
H = 8% 0.08

Combustion equations are as follows:

C + O2 CO2
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
S + O2 SO2
The minimum quantity of oxygen required per kg of coal
= 32/12 C + 8 H + S – O
= (32/12 x 0.92) + (8 x 0.08)
= 2.45 + 0.64
= 3.09 kg
For 1 kg of coal, oxygen required = 3.09 kg
∴ For 6 kg of coal, oxygen required = 3.09 x 6 = 18.54 kg
Assuming air to be a mixture of 77% nitrogen and 23% oxygen by weight, the minimum
quantity of air required for 6 kg coal = 18.54 x 100/23 = 80.61 kg
To calculate volume of air required,
28.94 kg air at STP occupies 22.4 m3
80.61 kg air at STP occupies 62.39 m3
Volume of air required for 6 kg fuel = 62.39 m3

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Combustion of gaseous fuels:

Volume based combustion numericals:

Here, the composition of air is considered to be 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen.
For any hydrocarbon, to balance the combustion reaction, the following formula is useful-
CxHy + (x + y/4)O2 xCO2 + y/2H2O

Solved numericals:
Example 1: A sample of gaseous fuel has the following composition:
H2 = 32%, CO2 = 15%, C2H4 = 4%, N2 = 49%
Calculate the volume of air required for the complete combustion of 2 m3 of this fuel.
Solution:
Combustion equations are as follows:
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O

Composition Volume in 1 m3 of fuel Volume of O2 required (m3)

H2 = 32% 0.32 0.32 x 0.5 = 0.16
CO2 = 15% 0.15 -
C2H4 = 4% 0.04 0.04 x 3 = 0.12
N2 = 49% 0.49 -
Total O2 required = 0.28 m3
Volume of O2 required for complete combustion = Total O2 required – O2 present in the fuel
= 0.28 m3
For 1 m3 of fuel, volume of O2 required = 0.28 m3
For 2 m3 of fuel, volume of O2 required = 2 x 0.28 m3 = 0.56 m3
Assuming air to be a mixture of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume, volume of
air required for 2 m3 fuel = 0.56 x 100/21 = 2.67 m3

Example 2: A fuel has the following composition by volume:

CH4 = 44%, C2H2 = 24% rest is ash.
Calculate the volume and the weight of air required for the complete combustion of 4 m3 of
this fuel.

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Solution:
Combustion equations are as follows:
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
C2H2 + 2.5O2 2CO2 + H2O

Composition Volume in 1 m3 of fuel Volume of O2 required (m3)

CH4 = 44% 0.44 0.44 x 2 = 0.88
C2H2 = 24% 0.24 0.24 x 2.5 = 0.6
Ash = 32% 0.32 -
Total O2 required = 1.48 m3
Volume of O2 required for complete combustion = Total O2 required – O2 present in the fuel
= 1.48 m3
For 1 m3 of fuel, volume of O2 required = 1.48 m3
For 4 m3 of fuel, volume of O2 required = 4 x 1.48 m3 = 5.92 m3
Assuming air to be a mixture of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume, volume of
air required for 4 m3 fuel = 5.92 x 100/21 = 28.19 m3
To calculate weight of air required,
22.4 m3 air at STP weighs 28.94 kg
28.19 m3 air at STP weighs 36.42 kg
The weight of air required for the complete combustion = 36.42 kg

Example 3: A fuel has the following composition by volume:

H2 = 18%, CH4 = 40%, C2H6 = 10%, C4H8 = 2%, CO = 6%, CO2 = 7%, O2 = 1% and rest is
nitrogen.
Calculate (i) the volume of oxygen and air required for the complete combustion of 10 m3 of
this fuel; (ii) the weight of air required for the complete combustion of 10 m3 of this fuel.
Solution:
Combustion equations are as follows:
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
C2H6 + 3.5O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
C4H8 + 6O2 4CO2 + 4H2O
CO + ½ O2 CO2

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 Composition Volume in 1 m3 of fuel Volume of O2 required (m3)
H2 = 18% 0.18 0.18 x 0.5 = 0.09
CH4 = 40% 0.40 0.40 x 2 = 0.80
C2H6 = 10% 0.10 0.10 x 3.5 = 0.35
C4H8 = 2% 0.02 0.02 x 6 = 0.12
CO = 6% 0.06 0.06 x 0.5 = 0.03
CO2 = 7% 0.07 -
O2 = 1% 0.01 -
N2 = 16% 0.16 -
Total O2 required = 1.39 m3
Volume of O2 required for complete combustion = Total O2 required – O2 present in the fuel
= 1.39 – 0.01
= 1.38 m3
For 1 m3 of fuel, volume of O2 required = 1.38 m3
∴ For 10 m3 of fuel, volume of O2 required = 1.38 x 10 = 13.8 m3
Assuming air to be a mixture of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume, volume of
air required for 10 m3 fuel = 13.8 x 100/21 = 65.71 m3
To calculate weight of air required,
22.4 m3 air at STP weighs 28.94 kg
65.71 m3 air at STP weighs 84.90 kg
The weight of air required for the complete combustion = 84.90 kg

Example 4: A gas has the following compounds by volume:

H2 = 22%, C3H6 = 14%, CO = 23%, O2 = 7%, CO2 = 17%, N2 = 17%.
Calculate the volume of air at 25°C and 740 mm pressure for complete combustion of 8 m3 of
fuel.
Solution:
Combustion equations are as follows:
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
C3H6 + 4.5O2 3CO2 + 3H2O
CO + ½ O2 CO2

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 Composition Volume in 1 m3 of fuel Volume of O2 required (m3)
H2 = 22% 0.22 0.22 x 0.5 = 0.11
C3H6 = 14% 0.14 0.14 x 4.5 = 0.63
CO = 23% 0.23 0.23 x 0.5 = 0.115
O2 = 7% 0.07 -
CO2 = 17% 0.17 -
N2 = 17% 0.17 -
Total O2 required = 0.855 m3
Volume of O2 required for complete combustion = Total O2 required – O2 present in the fuel
= 0.855 – 0.07
= 0.785 m3
For 1 m3 of fuel, volume of O2 required = 0.785 m3
∴ For 8 m3 of fuel, volume of O2 required = 0.785 x 8 = 6.28 m3
To calculate volume of oxygen required at 25°C and 740 mm pressure,
P0V0 P1V1
______ = ______
T0 T1 ____________ (1)

P0 = 760 mm
V0 = 6.28 m3
T0 = 273 K
P1 = 740 mm
V1 = To find
T1 = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K
Substituting the values in equation (1),
760 x 6.28 740 x V1
____________ = _________
273 298
∴ V1 = 7.04 m3
The volume of oxygen required = 7.04 m3
Assuming air to be a mixture of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume, volume of
air required for 8 m3 fuel = 7.04 x 100/21 = 33.52 m3

Example 5: A gas has the following compounds by volume:

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H2 = 20%, CH4 = 10%, CO = 25%, O2 = 5%, CO2 = 15%, N2 = 20% and remaining ash.
Calculate the volume of air at 25°C and 750 mm pressure for complete combustion of 1 m3 of
fuel.
Solution:
Combustion equations are as follows:
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
CO + ½ O2 CO2

Composition Volume in 1 m3 of fuel Volume of O2 required (m3)

H2 = 20% 0.20 0.20 x 0.5 = 0.1
CH4 = 10% 0.10 0.10 x 2 = 0.2
CO = 25% 0.25 0.23 x 0.5 = 0.125
O2 = 5% 0.05 -
CO2 = 15% 0.15 -
N2 = 20% 0.20 -
Ash = 5% 0.05 -
Total O2 required = 0.425 m3
Volume of O2 required for complete combustion = Total O2 required – O2 present in the fuel
= 0.425 – 0.05
= 0.375 m3
For 1 m3 of fuel, volume of O2 required = 0.375 m3
To calculate volume of oxygen required at 25°C and 750 mm pressure,
P0V0 P1V1
______ = ______
T0 T1 ____________ (1)

P0 = 760 mm
V0 = 0.375 m3
T0 = 273 K
P1 = 750 mm
V1 = To find
T1 = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K
Substituting the values in equation (1),

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 760 x 0.375 750 x V1
____________ = _________
273 298
∴ V1 = 0.415 m3
The volume of oxygen required = 0.415 m3
Assuming air to be a mixture of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume, volume of
air required for 1 m3 fuel = 0.415 x 100/21 = 1.976 m3

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