IN THE NAME OF GOD, THE GRACIOUS,

THE MERCIFUL.
1. SAY, “HE IS GOD, THE ONE.
2. GOD, THE ABSOLUTE.
3. HE BEGETS NOT, NOR WAS HE
BEGOTTEN.
4. AND THERE
IS NOTHING COMPARABLE TO HIM.”
[112:1-4]
 Lecture
Settlement and Consolidation

Dr. Zia ur Rehman

3
Contents

1. Introduction
2. Types of settlement
3. Fundamentals of consolidation
4. One-dimensional (1D) consolidation test/Oedometer test
5. Consolidation settlement determination
6. Immediate/ elastic settlement determination in sand
7. Immediate/ elastic settlement determination in Clay

4
 1. Introduction
Consolidation
Consolidation is time-dependent settlement of fine grained soils resulting from the
expulsion of water from the soil pores. The rate of escape of water depends on the
permeability of the soil.

• Permeability of clay is low

• Drainage occurs slowly– therefore, the settlement is delayed.
• Clayey soils undergo consolidation settlement not only under the action of external
loads (surcharge loads) but also its own weight or weight of soils that exist above
the clay (geostatic loads)
• Clayey soils also undergo the settlement when dewatered (e.g., ground water
pumping) – because the effective stress on the clay increases.

Consolidation settlement is the vertical displacement of the surface corresponding to

the volume change on saturated cohesive soils as a result of expulsion of the water
that occupies the void spaces.
5
 1. Introduction
Soil volume reduction due to expulsion of water upon application of
external load/pressure.
• Settlement of structure
• Cracks in walls, foundations, etc.

6
 1. Introduction
Difference b/w Compaction and Consolidation
Sr. no. Compaction Consolidation
1 It is a instant process, it can be used for It is a slow process, it can be used
all type of soil. for only clayey type of soil.
2 It is an artificial process. It is a natural process.
3 Dynamic loads by rapid mechanical Static and sustained loading is
methods like tamping, rolling and applied for a long interval in soil
vibration are applied for a small consolidation.
interval in soil compaction.
4 In compaction, soil changes from In consolidation, soil remains in
partially to fully saturation condition. fully saturation condition.
5 Compaction is due to expulsion and Consolidation is due to expulsion of
compression of air in soil mass under pore water from voids under
short duration by moving or vibratory steady, static, long term load.
loads.
6 Dry density of soil increases but water Dry density of soil increases but7
content will remains same. water content will decreases.
 2. Types of settlement
Elastic settlement or immediate settlement (Se), which is caused by the elastic
deformation of dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without any change in the
moisture content. The completion time is usually few days (say about 7 days). Usually
this type of settlement is completed during the construction period and is called built-in
settlement.

Primary consolidation settlement (Sc), which is the result of a volume change in

saturated cohesive soils because of expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.
This is the time-dependent or long-term settlement and completion time varies from 1-5
years or more.

Secondary consolidation settlement (Ss), which is observed in saturated cohesive soils

and is the result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It is an additional form of
compression that occurs at constant effective stress. it is predominant in certain organic
soils as compared to inorganic soils. This is similar to creep in concrete

8
 2. Types of settlement
The total settlement of a foundation can then be given as

ST = Sc + Ss + Se

where ST = total settlement

Sc = primary consolidation settlement
Se = elastic settlement
Ss = secondary consolidation settlement

Here we discuss the estimation of elastic and consolidation settlements of soil layers
under superimposed loadings.

9
 2. Types of settlement
The total soil settlement S T may contain one or more of these types:
 2. Types of settlement
For coarse grained soils For Fine grained soils

Granular soils are freely drained, and GL

thus the settlement is instantaneous.

saturated clay
settlement

When a saturated clay is loaded externally,

the water is squeezed out of the clay over a
long time (due to low permeability of the
clay).
time
settlement

This leads to settlements

0 0 occurring over a long
time which could be
ST = Se + S c + S s several years
time
0
St = Se + S c + S s
 3. Fundamentals of consolidation
When a saturated soil layer is subjected to a stress increase, the pore water pressure is
increased suddenly.
1. In sandy soils that are highly permeable, the drainage caused by the increase in the
pore water pressure is completed immediately. Pore water drainage is accompanied
by a reduction in the volume of the soil mass, which results in settlement. Because
of rapid drainage of the pore water in sandy soils, elastic settlement and
consolidation occur simultaneously.
2. When a saturated compressible clay layer is subjected to a stress increase, elastic
settlement occurs immediately. Because the hydraulic conductivity of clay is
significantly smaller than that of sand, the excess pore pressure generated by
loading gradually dissipates over a long period. Thus, the associated volume
change in clay may continue long after elastic settlement. The settlement caused
12 by

consolidation in clay may be several times greater than the elastic settlement.
 3. Fundamentals of consolidation – Spring analogy
i. At equilibrium under overburden stress

• System is analog to soil layer at

equilibrium with weight of all soil layer
(overburden) above it.
• In equilibrium, valve is closed.
• Piston is loaded, compresses a spring in
chamber.
• Hydrostatic pressure = u0
Spring = soil skeleton
Water = water in soil voids
Valve = pore sizes in soil 13
 3. Fundamentals of consolidation – Spring analogy
ii. Under Load (t = 0) • Soil is loaded by stress increment Ds
• Valve is initially closed
• As water is incompressible and valve
is closed, no water is out, no
movement of piston.

• Stress is (Ds) is transferred to water.

• Pressure gauge reads an excess pore
pressure (Du) such that:
Du = Ds
u = uo + Du

No
From the principle of effective stresses: Settlement
Ds’ = Ds – Du Then Ds’ = 0
 3. Fundamentals of consolidation – Spring analogy

iii. Under Load (0 < t < ∞) • To simulate fine grained cohesive

soil, where permeability is slow,
valve is slightly opened.

• Water slowly leave the chamber.

• As water flows out excess pore
pressure (Du) decreases, and load is
transferred to the spring.

• Settlement is observed.

From the principle of effective stresses:

Du < Ds Ds’ = Ds – Du Du < Ds Then Ds’ > 0
u = uo + Du
 3. Fundamentals of consolidation – Spring analogy

iv. End of consolidation (t = ∞) • At the end of consolidation, no further

water is squeezed out, excess pore
pressure is zero.

• Pore water pressure is back to

hydrostatic.
Du = 0
u = uo
• The spring (soil) is in equilibrium
with applied stress.

• Final (ultimate) settlement is reached.

All stresses are
transferred to soil

From the principle of effective stresses:

Ds’ = Ds – Du Du = 0 Then Ds’ = Ds
Example 11.2 (Coduto, 1999)

Before Fill:
s A  18.7 1  192  16.54.8  136kPa
u A  9.816.8  67kPa
s ' A  s A  u A  69kPa
Short Term After Fill: Long Term After Fill:
s A  136  19.55  234kPa s A  136  19.55  234kPa
u A  u A0  Du  u A0  Ds  67  19.55  165kPa u A  u A0  67kPa
s ' A  s A  u A  69kPa s ' A  s A  u A  167kPa
4. One-dimensional (1D) consolidation test/Oedometer test
The one-dimensional consolidation testing procedure was first suggested by Terzaghi.
• This test is performed in a consolidometer (sometimes referred to as an
oedometer). The schematic diagram of a consolidometer is shown in Figure a.
Figure 11.7b. shows a photograph of a consolidometer.

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 Consolidation (Oedometer) Testing
1-D consolidation test:
• Undisturbed saturated soil (clay, silt) – representative of in-situ stratum
• Typical specimen size: h = 1”, diam. = 2”-3”
• Specimen confined in rigid ring (no lateral deformation, “plane strain”)
• Drainage allowed on top and bottom via porous stones
• Apply increment of load and measure 1-D compression with time
 Trimming Procedures

(Bardet, 1997)
4. One-dimensional (1D) consolidation test/Oedometer test
• The soil specimen is placed inside a metal ring with two porous stones, one at the
top of the specimen and another at the bottom.
• The specimens are usually 64 mm (2.5 in.) in diameter and 25 mm. (1 in.) thick.
• The load on the specimen is applied through a lever arm, and compression is
measured by a micrometer dial gauge.
• The specimen is kept under water during the test. Each load usually is kept for 24
hours. After that, the load usually is doubled, which doubles the pressure on the
specimen, and the compression measurement is continued.
• The load intensities commonly used being 1/4, 1/2,1, 2,4, 8, and 16 tons/ft2 (12.5,
25, 50, 100,200,400, 800, 1600, and 3200 kN/m2).
• The dial readings are taken at elapsed times of 1/4, 1/2, 1,2,4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120,
21
240, 480 and 1440 minutes from the time new increment of load is put on sample
 Assumptions
1) All compression occurs due to change in void ratio
• i.e., the grains do not compress
• Thus, we can relate change in void ratio (e) to change in volume
Vv
e if Vv  then e 
Vs
2) All strains are vertical (1-D)

DH DV
DH
 
H0
H0 Vt
e0
where DV  DVv
DVv DVv DVv Vs De
    
Vt Vv  Vs Vv V
 s 1  e0
Vs Vs
De

1  e0
Procedures for Incremental Consol Testing
1) Trimming
2) Specimen set up and initialization (seating load, s’v0)
3) Apply an increment of vertical load (s’v = P/A)
4) Record DH with time, compute De with time
5) Monitor until volume change ceases (~24 h)
6) Repeat 3-5 to generate load-compression curve
aka “e-log p” curve
s’v0 s’v1 s’v2 s’vn
log s’v
e0 e0
1st increment
e1 e1
~24h 2nd
e2 e2
nth

en en
We will use this data to predict We will use this data
rate of consolidation to predict magnitude
time of consol settlement
4. One-dimensional (1D) consolidation test/Oedometer test
• After the greatest load required for the test has been applied to the soil sample, the
load is removed in decrements to provide data for plotting the expansion curve of
the soil in order to learn its elastic properties and magnitudes of plastic or
permanent deformations.
• At the end of the test, the dry weight of the test specimen is determined. Figure
11.7c shows a consolidation test in progress (righthand side).
The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen against time for a given
load increment is shown in Figure 11.8. From the plot, we can observe three distinct
stages, which may be described as follows:
Stage I: Initial compression, which is caused mostly by preloading.
Stage II: Primary consolidation, during which excess pore water pressure gradually is
24
transferred into effective stress because of the expulsion of pore water.
4. One-dimensional (1D) consolidation test/Oedometer test
Stage III: Secondary consolidation, which occurs after complete dissipation of the
excess pore water pressure, when some deformation of the specimen takes place
because of the plastic readjustment of soil fabric.

25
4.1 Void ratio-Pressure Plot/Vertical strain-Pressure Plot

Plastic
Loading
deformation

Elastic
deformation

Unloading

26
4.2 Compression Characteristics
1. Initial void ratio (e0)
2. Recompression index (Cr)
3. Compression index (Cc)
4. Swell index (Cs) (almost same as Cr in
case of clays)
5. Co-efficient of consolidation (Cv)
6. Co-efficient of volume change (mv)
7. Co-efficient of compressibility (av)
8. Pre-consolidation stress/ Pre-
consolidation pressure (sp)

27
4.2 Compression Characteristics
Recompression index (Cr)

Compression index (Cc)

Swell index (Cs)

28
In case of clays
4.2 Compression Characteristics

29
4.2 Compression Characteristics
Co-efficient of compressibility (av)

Low compressibility

Middle compressibility

0.5

High compressibility
4.2 Compression Characteristics
Co-efficient of volume change (mv)
This parameter is defined as change in
volume per unit volume as a ratio with
respect to the change in stress.

Co-efficient of consolidation (Cv)

k = co-efficient of permeability
The coefficient of consolidation is the parameter used to describe the rate at which
saturated clay or other soil undergoes consolidation, when subjected to an increase in
pressure. It is measure in square centimeters per second or square inches per minute.
4.2 Compression Characteristics

32
4.2 Compression Characteristics
Pre-consolidation stress/ Pre-consolidation pressure (sp’/Pc)
It is greatest effective vertical stress the soil has ever experienced throughout his life.
Adjustment of Laboratory Consolidation data
• Consolidation tests are very sensitive to sample
disturbance.
• Very high quality samples produce distinct
consolidation curve as shown in Fig.
• However, less than ideal sampling and handling,
drying during storage, and other effects can alter
the samples and make the test results more
obscure and difficult to interpret.
• It is especially difficult to obtained sp’ from poor quality samples because the
transition between recompression and virgin curves becomes much more rounded.
 Disturbance & Empirical Correlations
Disturbance “erases” stress history
For NC or undisturbed specimens:

C c  0.009( LL  10)

For OC or disturbed specimens:

(Disturbance decreases virgin compressibility)

C c  0.007( LL  10)

In general:

Cr
 0.1 ~ 0.2
Cc
For Local NCS: by (Rehman et al. 2021)

Cc = 0.007(LL – 8.4)
4.2 Compression Characteristics
Pre-consolidation stress (sp’/sc’) Determination
Casagrande Method (1936)
a. Mark the point of maximum curvature
(Point A), and draw a horizontal line
‘a’.
b. Draw a tangent (Line b) to the curve
B
at point ‘A’. A
c. Bisect the angle (Line c).
d. Extend the straight line (Line d)
portion of virgin curve.
e. The pressure corresponding to point
of intersection ‘B’ of line d and line c sp’ = 105 kPa
is pre-consolidation pressure (sp’/sc’).
4.2 Compression Characteristics
Pre-consolidation stress (sp’/sc’) Determination
Simplified method

1. Draw two tangents to the two straight

parts of recompression and virgin
curves. A

2. There points of intersection ‘A’

indicates the most probsble pre-
consolidation pressure (sp’/sc’).

sp’ = 110 kPa

4.2 Compression Characteristics

sp’ = 110 kPa

 Load-Rebound Behavior
Maximum past stress (preconsolidation
Stress) is a plastic yield stress.

If unloading occurs at a stress less than s’p, A

eA
then the soil rebounds elastically.

If unloading occurs at a stress greater than

s’p, then a new s’p results and the soil
rebounds plastically.

Similar to elastic-plastic response you

learned about in Mechanics of Materials
ec B
C

yield
s stress

s ’p s ’B

s ’A = s ’C

plastic 
deformation
 Log-Time Method for Determining cv
(Bardet, 1997)

e0
plot deformation
e1 vs. log time

e2

en

time
1)
2)
Select some point near U = 50% (tb, db) (this is an estimate of d50)
Find ta such that tb = 4ta T50 
cv t50   0.197
3) Calculate (db – da) and find d0 = da – (db – da) H dr 2
4)
5)
Find d100 graphically with two tangent lines
Calculate actual d50 as ½(d0 + d100); find corresponding t50 cv 
0.197H dr 
2

6) Calculate cv using t50 and time factor T t50

 Square-Root-Time Method for Determining cv

(Bardet, 1997)

*Preferred method in practice (don’t need to wait for t100)

T90 
cv t90   0.848
H dr 2
1) Extrapolate linear portion backward to find d0
2) Measure length of segment AB (linear portion)
3)
4)
Draw AC such that AC = 1.15(AB)
Draw line through d0 and C to find d90 and t 90 cv 
0.848H dr 
2

5) Calculate cv using t90 and time factor T t90

 Secondary Compression
t
Des  C log10  
 ts 
t
 s  C  log10  
 ts 

C = secondary compression index

C = mod. secondary compression index
ts = time of start of secondary comp.
t = time

• Additional time-dependent compression after

primary consolidation
• Not due to dissipation of excess pore pressure
(expulsion of water)
Secondary consolidation index
 Secondary Compression

C   0.0001wn 
 Thanks

 Geotechnical Engineering Principles and Practices by
D.P. Coduto

44