6.

1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
So far in our study of calculus
we have been concerned with the process
entiation, that is, the calculation and of differ-
use of the derivatives of functions. This aspect
the subject is called differential calculus. of
We shall now turn to the second area of study
within the general area of calculus, called
integral calculus,in which we are concerned
with the opposite processto differentiation.
We saw before that, if s(t) is the distance
traveled in time t by a movingobject,
then the instantaneous velocity is v(t) s'(t), the derivative of s(t). In order to calcu-
late v, we simply differentiate s(t). However it may happen that we already know the
velocity function v(t) and wish to calculate the distance s traveled. In such a situation,
we know the derivative s'(t) and need to find the function s(t), a step oppositeto that
of differentiation. As another example, we may be concerned with a chemicalreaction
in which the rate at which a certain product is formed is a known function of time,
and we may wish to calculate the amount formed up to a generaltime. Or we might
know the rate p'(t) at which a certain population is growing, and wish to calculate the
population size at time t, p(t).
(The process of finding the function when its derivative is given is called integration,
and the function is called the integral or antiderivativeof the given derivative.Let f (x)
antideri-
be the derivative of F(x), so that dF/dx = f (x). Then F(x) is an integral or
vative off (x). We write this statement in the form
Jf(x) dx = F(x),
to F(x)." The function f(x) to be
which is read as "the integral of f (x), dx, is equal
is the "integral sign." The symbol
integrated is called the integrand, and the symbol
dx

to x, of " It is the inverse of the symbol

stands for "integral, with respect
dx
with respect to x, of " The integral sign and dx go
which means "derivative,means the operation of integration and the dx specifiesthat
together; the integral sign x. The integrandis alwaysput betweenthe
integral
integration" is
the "variable of of the variable of integration.
sign and the differential we just have to think of a function F(x) whose derivative
dx,
To evaluate f (x) f (l/x) dx, we think of a function whose derivative
to evaluate
is f(x). For example,
is l/x. Since 1
u (Inx)
dx x

we concludethat 1
—dx In x.
x
269
270 Ch. 6 Integration

However, it should be observed that this answer is not unique because the functions
(In x + l), (In x — 3), and (In x + 4) all have derivative l/x. In fact, for any constant
C, In x + C is an integral of l/x. We write
—-dx = Inx + C.

The constant C, which can have any arbitrary value, is called the constant of integra-
tion.
This aspect is common to all antiderivatives,namely that they are not unique;
any constant can be added to them without destroyingtheir property of being the
antiderivative of the given function. However this is the only ambiguity that there is:
If F(x) is any antiderivativeoff(x), then any other antiderivativeoff(x) differsfrom
F(x) only by a constant. (This result will be proved at the end of this section.) There-
fore we can say that if F'(x) = f(x), then the general antiderivative off(x) is given by

Jf(x) = F(x)+ C,
where C is an arbitrary constant.
Since the constant of integration is arbitrary—that is, it can be any real number—
the integral so obtained is given the more completename, indefiniteintegral. Some-
times different methods of evaluatingan integral can give different forms for the
answer, but the student will soon realize that the two answers will always differ by a
constant.
From the definition of the integral, it is clear that

the processes of differentiation and integration neutralize each other.

We shall establish a number of simple and standard formulas for integration.
The first of these is known as the power formula and gives us the rule to integrate
any
power of x except the inverse of x. It is:

Thus to integrate any power of x except the inverse first power, we must increase the
power by 1, then divide by the new exponent, and finally add the arbitrary constant
of integration.
This formula is obtained by reversing the correspondingformula for differen-
tiation. We observe that
d xn+i
n 1 dx
1
 Sec. 6.1 Antiderivatives
211
Therefore, since the derivative of xn+l/(n + l) is x", an antiderivativeof x"
must be
xn+l/(n+ l). The general antiderivativeis then obtained by adding the constantof
integration.

EXAMPLES (a)
x-2+1
(b)

—2).
x

(c)
1
dt t-1/2dt

l).
A number of formulas giving antiderivativesof simplefunctionsare givenin
using
the following table of standard integrals. Each formula is stated twice, once
in section
x as a variable and once using u. The purpose of this will become clear
6.2 when we introduce the method of substitutions.
INTEGRALS
TABLE OF STANDARD ELEMENTARY

1. (a) un du —1).
1. (a) xn dx

— dx In Ixl + C.
eu du eu + C.
ex dx = ex + C.
2.
2.
sin u du
3. sin x dx = —cosx + C. 3.

4. cos u du sin u + C.
4. cosx dx = sin x + C.
5. sec2 u du tan u + C.
5. sec2 x dx = tan x + C.
—cot x + C. 6. cosec2u du
6. cosec2 x dx
sec u tan u du sec u + C.
7. secxtanxdx = secx + C. 7.

8. cosec u cot u du —cosec u + C.

8. cosec x cot x dx — —cosecx + C.
du Sin¯ u C.
dx = Sin-I x + C.
1 Tan-I x + C. du = Tan -I u + C.

correspondingresults for
All of these results are obtained by simply reversing is straight-
formula
derivatives. Formula I(b) requires some comment. For x > 0 this
 272

then r, and we know that

x
l/x is the derivativeof In x, it followsthat the antiderivativeof l/x must be
In x plus the constant of integration.
When x < O, we have that Ixl —x. Therefore

In (—x) —
1

where the chain rule has been used in carrying out the differentiation. Thus l/x is the
derivative of In IXI for x < O,as well as for x > O.Therefore the antiderivative of Ilix
must be In Ixl + C, as given in the table.
Now we shall prove two theorems that will simplifythe algebra of integation.

TREOREM e.t.l
The integralof the product of a constant and a function of x is equal to the
constant times the integral of the function. That is, if c is a constant,

cf(x) dx = c Jf(x) dx.

ÄAMPLES (a) 3x2dx=3 x2dx=3 + c=x 3+C.

(b) 2ex dx=2 ex dx=2e X+C.

(c) Sdx=5 Idx=5x+C.

OF THEOREM6.1.1
We have

cf(x).
Thereforecf(x) is the derivativeof c Jf(x) dx,
the antiderivative, it follows that c f(x) and so from the definition of
dx must be the antiderivative of c f (x).

J cf(x) dx c Jf(x) dx,

which proves the result.

From this theorem it follows that

the integral sign. (Caution: we can move any multiplicative
Variables must not be moved constant across
across the integral sign.)
THEOREM 6.1.2
The integral of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their integrals;
that is,
[f (x) dx f (x) dx g(x) dx.

NOTE. This result can be extendedto the differenceof two functionsor an

algebraic sum of any finite number of functions.

EXAMPLE Find the integral of (x --- (3/x)12.

SOLUTION We want to evaluate f (x — (3/x)12 dx. func-

First we expand [x — to express the integrand as a sum of power
tions. Thus
dx X2 dx
x
x2 dx — 6 dx + 9x-2 dx

x2 dx 9 x-2 dx

x 2+1 — 6x+9 x-2+1 + C

C.
— 6x — — +

Of •
EXAMPLE Find the
3 — 5t + 7t2 + t3 dt.
SOLUTION
7t2 + t3 dt _ _ + 7 + t) dt
3 — 5t +
t dt
3 t -2 dt—5
1+1
—5Inltl + 7t+t-_fi4..c
—1

3 + 7t C.
5 In It I

6.1.2
PROOF OF THEOREM g(x) dx
f(x) dx + g(x)dx d [f f(x) dx1 +
dx

273
274 Ch. 6 Int«ration

dx, and so by the

nerefore f(x) g(x) is the derivativeof f (x) dx + g(x)
definition of the antidetivative,

J (f (x) + g(x)) dx f (x) dx + g(x) dx.

EXAMPLE The rate of growth of a colony of fruit flies at time t(t 1) is equal to IO(t + 2)/t.
When 1 there are 20 fliesin the colony. Calculate the number of flies at a
value of t(t > l).
SOLUTION Let the size of the colony at time t be denoted by p(t). We are that p'(t)
IO(t + 2)/t. But p(t) is the antiderivative of p'(t), and so

= 10 (1 + —)dt
IO[t-k 2 In + C],
where C is the constant of integration. We are also given that when t = 1, p
Therefore, setting t = 1, we obtain:

p(l) = 20 = 10[1+ 21n 1 + C]

10(1+ C).
Therefore 1 + C = 2, or C = 1. Consequently we can substitute this value of C
into the expressionfor p(t), obtaining the result
IO[t 2 In It I 1)
for the population size at time t.

EXAMPLE During daylight hours the velocityof a migrating goose is given by v = 20 —

1/3(mph), where t is time measured in hours starting with t 0 at dawn. How
many miles has the goose traveled up to time t? How far does the goose fly in a
12-hrday?

SOLUTION Let s(t) be the distance traveled between dawn (t 0) and the time t. Then, of
course, s(O) 0. Also, the derivative s'(t) equals the velocity so that

20

Integrating, we find s(t):

s(t) = J (20 — dt
--- 20t — å(åti) + C.
In order to determine the value of C we set t = O, since we know that s(0)
275 Sec. 6.1 Antiderivatives

We find that
s(O) 0 — 20(0) — + C,
from which it follows that C O.Therefore
s(t) 20t —
which gives the required distance traveled up to time t.
To find the distance flown in a full day we set t 12. we get
s(12) 2002) — {(12)2 240 — 24 216.

The goose flies 216 miles in the 12-hr day.

It was stated earlier in this section that the only ambiguity in the antiderivative of
a function consists of the arbitrary constant of integration. This result, which underlies
much of the work in the above examples, is proved in the following theorem.
THEOREM 6.1.3
If F(x) and G(x) are antiderivatives of the same function f(x), both defined on
some interval a < x < b, then F and G differ by a constant on that interval.
PROOF SinceF and G are antiderivativesoff,
F'(x) = f (x) and G'(x) g(x).
Let H(x) = F(x) — G(x) be the differencebetween these two functions.
Then
H'(x) —F'(x) — G'(x) —f(x) O.
So the function H has a derivative that is identically zero. We shall prove from
this that H must be a constant function, and this will complete the proof that
F and G differ by a constant.
Let and x2 be two arbitrarypoints in the giveninterval a < x < b. By
the mean value theorem (Theorem 4.1.4), there exists a number c lying between
and x2 such that
H(XI) — H(X2).

But H'(c) 0 since H' is identically zero in a < x < b. Consequently, H(XI) —
H(X2) 0, or H(XI) H(X2).Since and x2 can be any two points in a < x <
b, it followsthat H(x) has a constant value for all x in a < x < b.

EXERCISES 6.1
Write down the integrals of the following:
(b)
1

x
 276 Ch. 6 Integration

2. 7x 2 — 3x + 8 —
x
5. x 2(x +

to the independent
Find the antiderivatives of the following functions with respect
variable involved :
8. 3et_ 5t3+ 7 + —
3

2y3 + — + 9.
9. N/7(u2 + 3u + 7). 10. 3y
(t — t2)2
11.E (x+ l). 12.

Evaluate the following integrals:

1 + 3x + '7x2
— 2x3 (2t + dt
dx.
x2

(39 2 — 60 -h T + d9. 16. (VT y + dy.

17. tan2 x dx 18. coe 0 d9.

[Hint for exercises 17 and 18: Use tan2 9 = sec2 9 — 1, coe 9 = cosec2 e
1.]

19. If the velocityof motion at time t is = (t + find the distance traveled

betweenthe times t = Oand t = 4.
20. During a chemical reaction the rate at which the end-product BS is produced at
time t(t l) is equalto (VT + 1)/t2mg/min.At the time t = I the reactionis
started. How much BS is produced up to time t?

6.2 METHODOF SUBSTITUTION

Not all integrals,as they are given, can be evaluated directly by the use of stan-
dard integrals discussedin the previous section. Often the given integral can be
reduced to a standard integral already known by a change of the variable of
integration. Such a method is called the method of substitution and corresponds to the
chain rule in differentiation.
First of all, we shall discuss linear substitutions in which we set a linear function
of the original variableequal to a new variable. This is explained in the following
theorem.
THEOREM 6.2.1

If ff(x) dx C, then
b) + C,
f (ax + b) dx — a F(ax +
inte-
where a and b are any two constants (a O).In other words, in order to
divide
gratef(ax + b), we treat (ax + b) as if it were a single variable, and then
the resulting integral by a, the coeffcient of x.
all,
Before proving this theorem, let us illustrate it with some examples. First of
we have seen in the last section that the rule for integrating a power of x is
11
f
of
This corresponds to setting f (x) = x" and F(x) = xn+l/(n+ 1) in the statement
by
the theorem. Then, accordingto the theorem, we can replace the argument x
ax + b:
(ax + b)n+i
f (ax -l- b) = (ax + b)n,
The theorem then gives the following result:
dx 1 (ax + b)n+l
(ax +

For example,when a = 2, b = 3, and n = 4 we obtain the formula

1 (2x 3)4+1

(i)
+
(2x

Whenf(x) l/x, F(x) = In Ix l, since we have the standard formula

— dx = In Ixl + C.

If x is replaced by ax + b, the two functions become

1
f (ax + b) F(ax + b) = In lax + bl.

Then the theorem provides the followingresult:

f (ax + b) dx = -—F(ax
1
+ b) + C,
a
i.e.,
1
Inlax + bl + C. (ii)
277
 278 Ch. 6 Integration

For example,whena = 3 and b —2,this formula becomes

13x —21 + C.

It is easy enough to verify that the results contained in these examples are Correct.
For example,in order to prove that the result (i) above is correct we must show that
the derivativeof the function [(2x -F 3)s/104- CJ, which appears on the right-hand
side, is the given integrand. But from the chain rule,

+ C • 5(2x -h -+-3) + F (C)

7Ü(2x +

So we see that the required integrand is obtained; hence (i) is correct.

In the same way we can verify that the result (ii) is correct by showing that the
derivativeof the right-hand side is the integrand 1/(ax + b). Setting u ax + b and
using the chain rule, we find that

In lax -k bl = 7üln lul • —

du = L (a) a
dx u ax + b
Therefore

7 Inlax+bl-l-c 1
ax + b
from which it follows that
1
ax + b dx = —
1
+ C.
a In Iax + bl
The proof of the general theorem
particular formulas in these follows the same pattern as our
examples. proofs of the
PROOF OF THEOREM6.2.1
Sinceff(x) dx = F(x) +
C, it is necessarythat

f(x) dx
Therefore

7F(ax + b) 7 GF(ax+ b)
4,
wherewehave • 7üF(u) •
7
introducedthe new
variable u ax +
b and made use of the
7üF(u)
+ b) and du
dx
 279 Sec. 6.2 Method of Substitution

we have that
7 F(ax b)] f (ax + b).
Then, from the definitionof the integral,it followsthat (l/a) F(ax + b) is the
antiderivative off (ax + b), that is,
f (ax + b) dx _ F(ax + b) + C,
1

a
as required.
Theorem 6.2.1 is a powerful tool and can be used to generalize each integral
in the table given in Section 6.1 by replacing x by ax -k b (a * 0). Some of these
integrals are given below, with the constants of integration omitted.

1. 1. (ax -k dx —1)
a
— In IXI (n lax + bl (n —
eax+b
2. ex dx = ex. 2. eax+b
a
—cos(ax + b).
3. sin x dx = —cosx. 3. sin (ax + b) dx a
tan (ax + b).
4. sec2 x dx = tan x. 4. sec2 (ax -k b) dx a
5. 1
Sin-I x 5. -.-.-=—;— dx = Sin—I(ax + b)•
VI —x 2 dx = a

+ b) are
It can be seen from this table that the integrals of f(x) and f(ax
essentially similar in form.

EXAMPLE Evaluate

SOLUTION From the general result (1) in the above table,

(ax + dx
(ax+ b)n+l

We must set a 3, b — —7, and n 5 in this general formula in order to

evaluate the required integral:
(3x ----7)5+1

EXAMPLE Evaluate
sin (5 — 3x) dx.
 a —3and b 5 in formula (3) of the table we obtain
SOLUTION
--cos 5 — 3x
sin (5 — 3x)

linear substitution from a different point of view.Let

We can look at this type of
integral Jf(ax + b) dx, and let us pretend that the dx that
us write u ax + b in the
can be treated as a differential Then du adx,
appearsat the end of the integral or
dx —(l/a) du, and we get that
f(ax + b)dx = f(u) a

— f (u) du
1
a
= —F(ax
1
a
+ b) + C,
whichis the correct answer.So in making a linear substitution, we get the right
answer by treating the dx in the integral as if it were the differential of x. (We shall see
later that this is also true for more.general substitutions.)
Let us repeat the last two examples working from this new viewpoint.

D(AUPLE Evaluate

SOLUTION Put 3x — 7 = u, so that

3dx=du or dx = } du.

s } du

us du

I u6

because u
EXAMPLE Evaluate

J sin (5
 Put 5 — 3x u, so that
SOLUTION
—3 dx du or dx
Then du.

sin (5 3x) dx sin u • ( *du)

sin u du

cosu + C
cos (5
because u 5 — 3x.

The general substitution method is stated in the

following theorem.
TREOREM 6.2.2
If F'(x) then

dx F lg(x)]+ C
for any differentiable function g(x) that is not a constant function.

Let us illustrate this theorem with a couple of examples before we prove it. Again
let us start with the power formula,

which corresponds to settingf(x) = xn and F(x) = xn+l/(n + 1). Then accordingto

the theorem we must replace the argument x in these two functions by the function

The theorem then states in this particular case that

In this result, g(x) can be any differentiabefunctionthat is not constant.For

example, let us take g(x) ==x2 + I and n —4. Then g'(x) 2x, and we obtain that
(X2 l)4+i
(x2 + l) 42x dx — 4+1
After division by 2, this becomes
(x2 + l)4x dx
281
 20 Ch.6 Integration

where C' = C/2. (Note that C' can still be any arbitrary constant, since dividing
by2
As a further examplelet us take g(x) = In x and n = 2. Since then g'(x)
we get the result

It is clear that by choosing differentfunctions f (x) and g(x), a great variety

differentintegralscan be evaluated. In practice, when using this substitution methodof
to evaluate a given integral, it is necessaryto spot how to choose these functions
such a way that the given integrand is expressed in the form f[g(x)Jg'(x), with in
f being
a sumciently simple function. We shall elaborate on this later, but first let us
pauseto
prove the theorem.

PROOF OF THEOREM 6.2.2

Set u = g(x). Then, from the chain rule,

dx = 7ÆF(u)= 7üF(u) • du
dx
—f( u) g'( x)

Therefore,from the definitionof the antiderivative,

it follows that

as required.

Note that, as with the linear

simplysubstitutedu = g(x) into substitution, we would get the right answer if we
the given integral, pretending
as a differential.For du = that dx can be treated
g'(x) dx,

dx = Jf(u) du F(u) + C,

Whenusingthe
substitutionmethod in
practice, this is usually
the easiest way in
EXAMPLE Evaluate

SOLUTION We
observe that the
appears in the differential of(x2 +
integral. Therefore 3x — 7) is equal
we set x2 + 3x to (2x + 3) dx, which
— 7 u. Then
(2x + 3) dx
 283 Sec. 6.2 Method of Sukstitution

du. Using this substitution the given

integral reduces to
u s du

I(x2+ 3x
where we have substituted back
the value of u.
EXAMPLE Evaluate
1

x In x dx•
SOLUTION The given integral is
1
x In x dx
1
•—
1
dx.
Inx x
Note that we have separated the integrand in
such a way that the combination
(I/x) dx occurs as a distinct factor. This
combinationis the differentialof In x,
and, moreover, the rest of the integrand is' also
a simple function of In x. So we
put In x u. Then (l/x) dx du.
The given integral now reduces to
1 1
In x • x dx
1
x In x dx
—
1
• du
u

In IIn xl + C
after substituting u In x.

We observe from these examples that the appropriate techniquein using the
substitution method is to lookfor afunction u g(x) whosedifferentialg'(x) dx occurs
in the original integral. The choice of substitution is by nature ambiguous,but the
student will soon learn from experience to spot the right one to make.

EXAMPLE Evaluate

sin6 t cos t dt.

and so we put
SOLUTION Clearly cos t dt, the differential of sin t, appears in the integral,
sin t = u. Then cos t dt du.
 We observe that the remaining factor in the integrand, 8in6t, is also
simple function of u. Therefore
sins t t dt — u' du

Sinl t C
becaue u = sin t.

Sometimesthe appropriate exact differential itself may not appear in the integal
but the function that does appear must be multiplied or divided by a certain constant.
This is illustrated by the following examples.

Evaluate

SOLUTION We have

Now (x + 1) dx is not the exact differential of x2 + 2x + 7. But if we multiply

(x + 1) dx by 2, we get (2x + 2) dx, which is now the exact differential of x2
2x + 7. Therefore we multiply and divide the integrand by 2, obtaining

and now put

x2+ 7 = y, so that (2x+ 2) dx = dye

(xa + 2x + 7)t/2• (2x + 2) dx

— dy
(1/2+1)

= iy3/a+ C
i(xa + 2x + 7)3/2+ C
because
y + 2x+ 7.
EXAMPLE Evaluate
e3+2 tany sec2 y
dy•
SOLUTION sec2y dy is the differential of 3 + 2 tan y when adjusted by a suitable constant.
Thus the differential of 3 + 2 tan y appears in the integral and so we put 3 +
2 tan y u. Then
2 secay dy du or sec2y dy = du.
Therefore
3+2tan' sec2 y dy = e" du

3+2tany + C
because u = 3 + 2 tan y.

EXERCISES 6.2
Make use of a linear 'substitution or direct use of Theorem 6.2.1to evaluatethe
following integrals :
1
1. dx.

dt.

5. e3x+2 dx. 6. e2-5xdx.

8. cosec2 (3 — 2u) du.

7. sin (2x + 1) dx.
dx
9.
dt

appropriate substitution to evaluate the followingantiderivatives:

Use an
(x + + 4x + 2)10 dx.
12.
11.
4x — 1 dx.
x + 1)
(2x2 —
(x2+ 3x +
x2 + 2x — 1

18. COS9 do.

17. ter' dt.
dt.
Sin-i x
19. dx.
I — x2
Ch. 6 Integration
22.
21. (In x)' dx.
x 1
dx.
24.
1 dx.
23.
26. y sin (y 2) dye
25. sin (In x) dx.
28. x n- l COS(X")dx.
3
27. seca (x ) dx.
30. S (x + dx.
ex
29. (1+ ex) 2 dx.
32. dy.
31. t(t2 + 1)
34. cos3 9 sin e de.
33. sin3 2t cos 2t dt.
36. cot 4 x cosec2 x dx.
35. tans 0 sec2 0 de.
38. cosecs x cot x dx.
37. secs x tan x dx.
cos x dx.
sec2 x dx
1 + tan x
cos x
41. tan x dx. (1 + sin

6.3 TABLES OF INTEGRALS

by meansof
In the previoussectionwe introduced the method of substitution inte
whichcertaincomplexintegralscan be reduced to one or other of the standard
•

grals listed in Section 6.1. Besidesthe substitutions mentioned in this section,

therc
tha
are othersthat are in commonuse; in particular, the trigonometric substitutions
we shall discussin Section 6.5 are especially important. Besides the substitutio
method,there are other techniquesthat are useful when it comes to evaluatinginti
grals,and certain of these will be discussed in later sections of this chapter.
In general,the evaluation of integrals requires considerable skill and often ing
nuity. The variety of techniques available for the purpose is an indication of this few
Moreover,it is not possibleto give hard and fast rules as to which method or su
stitutionwillwork in a givensituation, but it is necessary to develop through expe
ence an intuition for which method is likely to work best.
In the face of these diffculties, by far the most convenient way for the student
evaluateintegralsis by use of a table of integrals. A table of integrals is merely a
of a large number of integrals together with their values. In order to evaluate a gl
integral,it is possibleto extract the answer from the table, substituting the value
 METHOD OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS
6.4
can often be used to simplify integrals whose
fractions numerator and denominatorof
The method of partial algebraicfunction, the
integrandscontain a
rational the method with a simple example.
by illustrating
Let us begin
which are polynomials.

EXAMPLE Evaluate 1 dx.

identities :
SOLUTION Consider the following
1
(x — l)(x -F 2)
1

simply combined the two fractions with their

In the first step, we have It follows therefore that the integrand
commondenominator (x — + 2).
as
written
in the given integral can be
1 1
1 1

integrand has been split into partial fractions.

In this form we say that the given has a denominator that contains
side
Note that each fraction on the right-hand
Therefore
only one linear factor of the form (ax + b).
1
dx= dx — dx

In I — In x 21 C
= — In

after using formula 6 in Appendix Il.

This result could, of course, also be obtained by using formula 15 in the
table.

In general,when the integrand is a rational algebraic function of the type

f(x)/g(x), the degreeoff(x) beingless than the degree ofg(x) and g(x) being a product
of linearfactors,then we first expressf(x)/g(x) as a sum of fractions with linear
denominators,calledpartial fractions. After we have resolved f(x)/g(x) into partial
fractions,each partial fraction can be easily integrated
formulas.
with the help of standard
The methodof partial fractions for
of nonrepeatedlinear factors proceeds the case when the denominator g(x) consists
as follows. To each linear nonrepated factor
293
Sec. 6.4 Methodof Partial Fractions

in the denominator we write a fraction with the same linear factor in the denominator
and a constant in the numerator. Then these constants in the numerators are evaluated
by giving certain values to x on both sides of the equation. This is illustrated in the
following example.

EXAMPLE Evaluate
dx.

SOLUTION First we resolve the integrand into partial fractions. Let

(i)
where A and B are certain constants to be determined. Multiplying both sides of
(i) by (x — l)(x + 2) we get:

This equation is an identity that must hold for all values of x.

Put x 1:
Put x = —2: —2+1 1) or B
Then from (i),
2 1

Therefore

dx 2 1
3(x — l) dx
2 1
dx+ 1 1
dx

1 21 -F C,
where we have used formula 6 in Appendix Il for the last step.

Note that in evaluating the constants A and B, we substituted the two values of x
that are the roots of the denominator. This is usually the simplest way of finding the
unknown constants.
When the numerator in the given integrand is not of degree lower than the denom-
inator, we first divide the denominator into the numerator until a remainder is
obtained whose degree is less than that of the denominator. This is illustrated in the
following example.
EXAMPLE Evaluate
dx.
SOLUTION The integrand is x'/(x2 — x — 2). Here the degree of the numerator is not
less
than the degreeof the denominator,so we first divide the numeratorby
the
denominator using the method of long division:

— x a — 2X

Therefore

Now we resolve (3x + 2)/(x2—x —2) into partial fractions. First resolve
x a — x — 2 into linear factors:
x 2 — x — 2 = (x — 2)(x+ 1).
Let the partial fractions be as follows:

x a — x — 2 = (x — 2)(x + l) = x — 2 x + I (ii)
Multiplying through by (x — 2)(x + 1),

To find A we put x = 2:

to find B we put x

Therefore, from (ii),

3x + 2 8
x2 — x — 2 = 1
and from (i), 3(x+ 1)'
x3

Thus

2
x -FTlnlx 21+ T InIx + Il C.
The method of
grand involves more partial fractions can be used when the denominator
than two linear factors. of the inte-
 Evaluate
EXAMPLE
1
dx.

integrand is split into partial fractions as follows:

SOLUTION The
1

Note that one fraction occurs on the right for each of the linear factors in the
denominator. Multiplying both sides of this equation by (x — l)(x + l)(x — 2)
we obtain

To determineA, set x 1, since then the coeffcientsof B and C become

zero :

To determine B, set x = —1:

1 — —2) = 6B, B 4.
To determine C, set x = 2:

Therefore
1
— l)(x 2)
dx= 1
2(x — l)
1 1
6(x -F l) 3(x 2)
dx

In x —1| In x I I In Ix —21 c.

In some cases the integrand of a given integral can be reduced to a rational alge-
braicfunction by means of a substitution.

EXAMPLE Evaluate
1
dx.
x I + In x)(l + 2 Inx)

SOLUTION The given integral can be written as

•—
1
dx.
1+ n x 1+2 n x) x
Since(l/x) dx is the differential of In x we put
Inx = y and x dx dy.
1
 Ch. 6 Integration

Then

(after splitting the integrand into partial

fractions),

Inli+yl+2
In Il + 2yl — In Il + C
1+2y + C

because y = In x.
It should be mentionedthat the method of partial fractions is not restricted to the
case whenthe denominatorof the integrand consists of a product of simple linear
factors.It can be used when the denominator contains repeated factors, for example,
the integral
1
dx,
(x — l)(x — 2) 2(x —

in whichthe factors (x —2) and (x — 3) are repeated, can be evaluated by partial

fractions.In this case we would write the integrand as
1

whereA, B F are six constants that have to be determined.

The method can also be used when the denominator contains
factors that are
polynomialsof degree two or higher. For example, the
integral

can be evaluated by writing the integrand

as
1

The three constants A, B, and

C again have to be determined.
 Sec. 6.3 Trigonometric Substitutions

We do not propose to go into detail here regarding these extensions of the method
of partial fractions.

EXERCISESea
Evaluate the following integrals:

dx.

3z — 4
dx.
x(x 2 —
2+1
(t
10. x2 + 1

11. 12. du.

x2 — 3x — 4
cos x dx
(l + sin x)(2 — sin x)
sec2 x 16.
sin t dt
(3 tan x)(2 + tan x) (1 — cos t)(2 + cos t)

as TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS

The trigonometric substitutions are particular examplesof the general substi-

tution method. They are often of use when the integrand contains factors of the type
(a2 —x 2), (a2 + x 2), or (x 2 — a 2), and particularly when such a factor appears under-
neath a radical sign. Their use is based on the trigonometricsquare identities(or
Pythagoreanidentities), which are as follows:
I — sin 2 0 == cos 2 9
I + tan 2 0sec2 9 or sec2 9— I tana e.
The substitutions themselves consist of writing either x a sin 9 or x a tan e
or x = a sec 9, where 0 is the new variable of integration and a is a certain constant
determined by the given integrand. The choice of substitution depends on which of the
threefactors appears in the integrand, and is summarized in the followingtable.
6.6 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

The method of integrationby parts can often be used to evaluatean integral

whose integrand consists of a product of two functions. It is analogous to the product
formula of differentialcalculus,and is in fact derived from it.
From differentialcalculuswe know that
+ u(x)v'(x)
= u'(x)v(x)
or
u(X)V'(X) = — u'(X)V(X).

Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get

u(x)v'(x) dx = u(x)v(x) — u'(x)v(x) dx.

Now let us set u(x) =f(x) and v'(x) = g(x). Then we can write v(x)
where G(x) denotes the integral of g(x), and the above equation becomes

dx =f(x)G(x) — dx.

This formula expresses the integral of the productf(x)g(x) in terms of the integral
of the product f'(x)G(x). It is useful because in many cases the integral off'(x)G(x) is
easier to evaluate than the integral of the original product f(x)g(x). The following
example illustrates this point.
EXAMPLE Evaluate
x sin x dx.

SOLUTION Choosef (x) = x and g(x) = sinx so that the given integral is equalto
J f(x)g(x) dx. Then f '(x) = 1 and G(x), the integral of g(x), is given by G(x)
—cosx + Cl, Cl being a constant of integration. Substituting these valuesinto
the formula for integration by parts we obtain that
dx =f(x)G(x) — dx,

x sinxdx = x + CD — x + CD dx
= --x cosx + CiX + (cosx — CD dx
= —XCOSX+ CIX + sinX — CiX + C
= —x cos x + sin x + C,
where C again is a constant of integration.
 Sec. 6.6 Integration by Parts
303
The integral in this example could also
be found using formula 92 in Appendix
11.The student should verify that the answer obtained
is the same as that above.
NOTE. It should be observed that the first
constant of integrationCi in the
above example, which arises in integrating g(x) to obtain G(x),
cancels from the final
answer. This is always the case when integrating by parts. Therefore, in practice, we
never bother to include a constant of integration in G(x), but simply take G(x) to be
any particular antiderivative of g(x).
When using this method it is important to make the right selectionoff(x) and
g(x) in expressing the original integrand as a product. Otherwisethe integral of
may turn out to be no easier to evaluatethan the integraloff(x)g(x). One
obvious criterion in choosing fand g is that we must be able to integrate g(x) in order
to write down G(x). Usually we should choose g(x) in such a way that its antiderivative
G(x) is a fairly simple function.
The following guidelines will be helpful in decidingthe choice off and g.

a. If the integrand is the product of a positive integral power of x (x, x2, x3, etc.)
and an exponential or trigonometric function, it is often useful to takef(x) as
the given power of x. The precedingexampleillustratesthis type of choice.
b. If the integrand contains as a factor either a logarithmicor inversetrigono-
metric function it is often useful to choose this function as f(x). If the inte-
grand consists simply of a logarithmicor inversetrigonometricfunctionwe
can take g(x) 1. The following examples illustrate this.

EXAMPLE Evaluate
x In Ix + 1 | dx.

SOLUTION Choosef(x) In Ix + 1 | and g(x) = x. Then

1 1
= -—x 2 .
2
integration by parts we obtain
Substituting into the formula for

1 x 2 dx
In Ix -k Il • xdx Inlx-k Il • TX 2
1
--—x 2 In Ix + Il —-—
that
out the fraction x2/(x + l) in the manner
In the last step we have divided
follows therefore that
was discussed in Section 6.4. It
xlnlx+ Il—
åx2 + C.
1) In Ix + 1 | —
 EXAMPLE Evaluate
Sin-t y dye

SOLUTION In this case we can express the integrand as a product by writingf(y) Sin-1
and g(y) = 1. Then
1
and G(y) = Y•

Integrating by parts, therefore, we obtain

Sin-i y dy = y Sin-i y
In order to evaluate the integral on the right-hand side we make the SUbstitution
I —Y2 = u, so that — 2ydy = du. Then
1
u -1/ 2 du
fÅ-2
—ul/2 + constant
= + constant.
Therefore
Sin-I y dy = y Sin-I y + —Y2+ C.
[Note that instead of substituting 1 —Y2 = u we could evaluate the second
integral by substituting y = sin x.]

The method of integration by parts can be summarized as follows. The given

integrand is split into the product of two functions f (x) and g(x) in such a waythat
the followingcriteria are met:
f(x) should have a relativelysimple derivativef '(x);
g(x) should have a simple antiderivativeG(x);
the product should form a simpler
integrand than the given integrandf(x)g(x).
The followingtable lists a number of basic situations in which integrationby
parts can be used. In each case the relevant functionsfand g are given,
togetherwith
the new integrandf'(x)G(x), which remains to be integrated.
It will be observedthat
this new integrand is in each case simpler than the original
integrand.
In the first three examples the simplification occurs in the
new integrand in that
the power of x is reduced from n to (n — 1). In order
to evaluate the resulting integrals
it is necessaryto integrate by parts again in order
to reduce the power of n still further•
This process of integration by parts is continued
until the power of n is reduced to zero
and we are left with an integrand that simply
consists of a trigonometric or exponential
304 function.
 Integration by Parts
Sec. 6.6

NEW INTEGRAND
ORIGINAL INTEGRAND g(x)
x" sin x (n 2 1) sinx —nxn- l COSX
x" cosx (n 1) cosx nxn- t sin x
xneax (n ) eax (n/a)xn- 1eax

x" In x Inx

x" Sin-t x Sin-I x

x" Cos-t x Cos-

aAMPLE Evaluate
x 2 sin x dx.

OLUTION Using integration by parts with f(x) = x2 and g(x) = sin x, we get
x2 sin x dx = —x2 cosx + 2x cos x dx.

For the remaining integral we integrate by parts again, this time takingf(x)
and g(x) = cos x:
x cos x dx = x sin x — sin x dx
= x sin x + cos x.
Therefore
x2 sin x dx = —x2 cos x + 2(x sin x + cos x) + C,
where we have finally added the constant of integration.

EXERCISES 6.6

Evaluate the following integrals :

1. x In x dx. 2. x 3 In x dx.

3. x" In x dx.
4. J In (x + l) dx.

In x dx. 6. In (x 2) dx.

7. xex dx. 8. xe -x dx.

 Ch. 6 Integration

xdx. 12. Tan -t x dx.

11.
(x*) dx. 14. x cos x dx.
13.
16. (2x + 3) cos x dx,
IS. x sin 2x dx.

17. x a cos 2x dx. 18. x 2e* dx.

J (x 3 5x + 7) sin
19. + 1) 2e2x dx. 20. x dx.

REVIEW EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER 6

1. State whether the following statements are true or false. If false, replacethemby
the corresponding correct statement.
(a) The antiderivativeof an integrable function is unique.
(b) The integral of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their integrals,
(c) The integral of the product of two functions is equal to the productoftheir
integrals.
(d) (e) dx
(f) Iff '(x) = g'(x),thenf(x) = g(x). (g) In x dx = + C.
(h) e* du = ex + C. (i) tan x dx sec2x + C.
[f dx = [f —1.
(k) x"dx + C for all n.

(1) xf(x) dx —x Jf(x) dx, (m) —idx = In x2 + C.

(n) ext dx ex'/3 + C, (o)
Make use of an appropriate substitution
to evaluate the following integrals:
2. cos (ex + l) dx.

S. sin s t dt.
 Exercises for Chapter 6
Ch. 6 Review
301

6. cos s t dt. 7. sec4 u tan u du.

Sin-tx dx (Tan-t du,

Making use of tables, or otherwise, evaluate the followingintegrals:

10. sins x dx.

dx. dx.

14. 15.f
16. f dx. 17. (25t2 — 9)3/2dt.

18. x In Ix + 1 | dx. 19. x s In x dx.

1 dt.
dx. + In — In t)
21

2. x3 sin x dx. 23. tan6 x dx.

cos 2x dx.
24. sin 3x dx.