FOUNDATIONS Nature of Epidemiologic

Approaches
2. Cohort studies
Epidemiology
* The goal of epidemiology is to study
the frequency of occurrence of health- – Population with known levels of
- The study of factors that affect the exposure to potential causative and
health and cause diseases in related events, majority to the causes
and determinants of disease patterns in protective factors is recruited and
populations. followed over time to determine who
populations.
gets and who does not get the disease
- The backbone of disease prevention. of interest.
 Systemic investigation can identify
- The systematic study of the distribution causal (contributory) and preventive
factors – an observational science. - Relatively long term (5-20 years) -
patterns and determinants of health, More expensive.
diseases and conditions in a population
for the purpose of promoting wellness  Does population exposure to X
increases the risk of disease Z? Patterns of Disease Occurrence
and preventing diseases or disease-
causing conditions. 1. Sporadic – intermittent occurrence or
 Are dietary supplements (X, Y, Z)
beneficial in lowering the risk of on-and-off presence of disease.
*The objective is to provide effective
solutions for controlling diseases and disease?
2. Endemic – continuous or constant
preventive measures to populations that occurrence of a disease in certain area.
are at risk. Epidemiologic Classification
3. Epidemic – sudden increase in the
Epidemiology  Descriptive – attempts to describe
number of cases in short period of time
patterns (tabulations or summaries of
in certain area.
Multiple Causation Theory: polls or surveys) of disease according to
spatial and temporal information about
4. Pandemic – worldwide epidemic or
the members of a population.
global outbreak.
 Analytical – attempts to explain and Epidemiologic Process
predict the state of a population’s health.
The goal is to summarize the 1. Determine the nature, extent and
Web of Causation: relationship between exposure and scope of the problem.
disease incidence by comparing two
measures of disease frequency. a. Establishing the epidemic – present
prevalence of the disease and incidence
Descriptive vs Analytical of the disease

b. Appraisal of facts – involves

studying the characteristics of epidemic
Ecological Triad: in terms of the distribution patterns
involving: Person – demographic data,
Place, Time – onset of outbreak.

2. Formulate hypothesis – collect and

analyze data to test the hypothesis

3. Testing the hypothesis – conducting

a diagnostic exam to prove the source of
the disease.

4. Making conclusion and

recommendations – emphasizing the
significant results of investigation.

5. Plan for control of spread of the

disease by suggesting what can be done
to stop the epidemic.

6. Implement the control program

7. Evaluate the control program

8. Make appropriate report as basis for

diagnostic purposes, preventive or pre-
emptive actions to prevent the
Ecological Triad reoccurrence of the same disease or
Approaches to Epidemiology (use to
analyze and determine factors that condition and research activities.
affect rates of a particular disease)
Agriculture and Health
1. Case control studies
 Population health is strongly
– Individuals with and without the influenced by society and environment.
disease of interest are recruited from the
same population, and their prior histories  Agriculture is one of the social and
of exposure to potential causative and environmental determinants of health.
protective factors are compared.
 Agriculture is essential for good health
- Relatively short term (2-5 years) - — it produces the world’s food, fibre,
Less expensive and materials for shelter, and can
produce medicinal
plants; it is also an important source of In the other direction, health affects years, meaning humans are said to have
livelihood for many of the poor in people’s abilities, needs and desires to a lifespan of 122 years.
developing countries. consume different amounts and types of
food, which in turn affects demand from  People will have only one life span
 Agriculture also can lead to poor agricultural systems and the types of while life expectancy changes as you
health – linked to the main causes of products. grow older, and as you face different
death and disease — malnutrition, risks.
infectious diseases and chronic
diseases.  Many infants and young children in
Technology and Health America used to die due to infections.
 Importance of examining agriculture - High infant and child mortality kept life
presents not only opportunities for  Technological developments changes expectancy (which is usually expressed
improving health but also risks to health. healthcare dramatically. as life expectancy from birth) low until
well into the 20th century, but once
 Bidirectional relationship: agriculture  New drugs and treatments, new people passed those vulnerable early
influences health and health influences devices, new equipment and years, the life expectancy was much
agriculture. higher. For instance, the life expectancy
machine, new social media support for for a female born in 1900 was about 48
 In agricultural communities, poor healthcare, and etc. years old, but if she reached age 20, her
health reduces income and productivity, life expectancy was over 60, and at age
further decreasing people’s ability to  Technology automates and extends 40, her life expectancy was nearly 70.
address poor health and inhibiting things that previously had to be done by
economic development more broadly, people.  We can calculate an average life span
while in the population at large, of people in a group if we have birth and
malnutrition and disease patterns  Patients generate huge amounts of death dates for its members.
influence market demand for agricultural information – patient records– from X-
products. rays to blood test results. Replacing
paper with computerized summaries
Conceptual framework of the links make patient care easier and more
between agriculture and health efficient.

Links on agricultural producers  Social media, patient power, mobile

health and education stopping people
 Link is via income– farmers and going to hospital and empowering
workers earn income from agriculture  people to care for themselves and their
ability to purchase and gain access to families.
food, water, land and health-related
services  determines their overall  Healthcare sensors can be readily
health status. bought off the internet, and it is easy for
technically-minded people today to build
 Links is via labor – labor affects sophisticated equipment (to hack) to
energy expenditure and the time collect and analyses any personal or
available for child care and food clinical data using their own computers.
preparation. Farming exposes producers
to a range of occupational health Life Expectancy vs Life Span
hazards.
Life Expectancy
 Links is via labour – amount and
type of agricultural employment   refers to the number of years a person
migration and the search for alternative is expected to live, based on the
income sources  the spread of and statistical average.
exposure to disease (e.g., HIV/AIDS)
 statistical average is calculated based
 Links is via access to health-related on a population overall, including those
services and food –malnutrition and who die shortly during childbirth, shortly
poor health  affecting their capacity to after childbirth, during adolescence or
work and generate food and income  adulthood, those who die in war and
malnutrition and poor health. those who live well into old age.

 Links is via environmental change -  Influenced by factors such as gender,

livestock production animals are race, exposure to pollution, education
associated with different zoonoses (e.g., status, race, income level and
working with dairy cows and sheep is a healthcare access.
risk factor for brucellosis).  Health 
agricultural systems – poor health   Influenced also by modifiable lifestyle
reduces the ability of producers to factors such as exercise, alcohol status,
innovate, invest in and operationalize smoking status and diet.
changes in agricultural systems —
including changes that promote health.  Therefore, life expectancy is highly
variable from one individual to another.
 Major output — (unsafe) food
contaminated during agricultural Life Span
production — can carry foodborne
illnesses and affects nutrition.  refers to the maximum number of
years that a person can potentially
 Example: pathogens on raw fruits and expect to live based on the greatest
vegetables may be the result of irrigation number of years anyone from the same
with inadequately treated wastewater, data set has lived.
and aflatoxins may be present in staple
crops.  Example: the oldest documented age
reached by any living individual is 122