Differential Calculus 4.

Sum of a series
1 = lim 𝑆𝑛
Preview of Calculus 𝑛→∞

1. Area problem
𝐴 = lim 𝐴𝑛
𝑛→∞

A. Review of Functions

Note: A common misunderstanding is that the square root sign implies both
2. Tangent problem negative and positive roots. This is not correct. The square root sign implies
𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑎) only a positive root. When a negative root is needed you must use the
𝑚 = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 negative sign with the square root sign.

A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in set D a unique

element, called f(x), in a set E. It is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that no
two ordered pairs have the same x – value but different y – values.

Domain of f – set D. It is the set of all numbers for which the function
makes sense and defines a real number.

Range of f – set of all possible values of f(x) as x varies throughout the

domain.

Independent variable – symbol that represents any arbitrary number in the

domain.

Dependent variable – symbol that represents a number in the range.

Vertical line test – a curve in the xy – plane is the graph of a function of x

if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

3. Velocity
If you watch the speedometer of a motor vehicle as you travel in
town, you can see that the speed doesn’t constant for very long
time. The velocity of the motor vehicle at each moment is called
instantaneous velocity.
 Then, 3 − 𝑡 ≥ 0, 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 3
The domain of the first term is (−∞, 3]
For the second term, the function is not imaginary if √2 + 𝑡 ≥ 0
2 + 𝑡 ≥ 0, or 𝑡 ≥ −2
Therefore the domain of the whole function is 𝑡 ≤ 3 ∩ 𝑡 ≥ −2
Domain: [−2, 3]
Range: [√3 − √5, √5 − √3]
3
6. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √2𝑥 − 1
Solution:
Review Problem 9 Domain: ℝ
Find the domain and range of the following functions 𝑡 2 −1
Hint: For the domain, find and exclude a number or set of numbers 7. 𝑔 (𝑡 ) = 𝑡+1
on which the function will be undefined or imaginary. Solution:
1. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 1 The function is not defined if 𝑡 + 1 = 0
Solution: Then, 𝑡 + 1 ≠ 0 or 𝑡 ≠ −1
Domain: (−∞, +∞) or ℝ, Range: ℝ Domain: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞)
2. 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 Range: ℝ
Solution:
Find a formula for the described function and state its domain
Domain: (−∞, +∞) or ℝ, Range: [0, ∞)
3. 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = √𝑥 + 2 1. A rectangle has perimeter 20 m. Express the area of the rectangle
Solution: as a function of the length of one of its sides.
The function is not imaginary if √𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0 Solution
Square both sides of the inequality 𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0 Solve for primary equation
Transpose , 𝑥 ≥ −2 𝐴 =𝐿⋅𝑤
Domain: [−2, ∞), Range: [0, ∞) Solve for secondary equation
Find the domain of the following functions 𝑃 = 20 = 2𝐿 + 2𝑤 or
𝑥+4 𝑤 = 10 − 𝐿
4. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2
𝑥 −9
Substitute the secondary equation to the primary equation
Solution:
𝐴(𝐿) = 𝐿(10 − 𝐿)
The function is undefined if 𝑥 2 − 9 = 0
𝐴(𝐿) = 10𝐿 − 𝐿2
Therefore 𝑥 2 − 9 ≠ 0
Solve for the domain
𝑥 2 ≠ 9, 𝑥 ≠ −3, 𝑥 ≠ 3
The perimeter of the rectangle is limited up to 20 meters
Domain: (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)
Therefore, the length of any sides of the rectangle should not
Range: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞)
exceed half of the perimeter
5. 𝑓 (𝑡) = √3 − 𝑡 − √2 + 𝑡 Answer: 𝐴(𝐿) = 10𝐿 − 𝐿2 , 0 ≤ 𝐿 ≤ 10
Solution: 2. Express the area of an equilateral triangle as a function of the
For the first term, the function is not imaginary when √3 − 𝑡 ≥ 0 length of a side.
 Solution For the domain, the value of x must not exceed 6 in because no box
There are different formulas to find the area of the triangle. Here can be made.
are some of the formulas Answer: 𝑉 (𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 3 − 64𝑥 2 + 240𝑥, 0 < 𝑥 < 6
1. A = ½ bh
x x Symmetry
2. A= ½ ab sin 60°
h
Use 60° If a function f satisfies 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every x in its domain, then f
x is a an even function.
1
𝐴(𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥ℎ equation 1
If a function f satisfies 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −𝑓(𝑥) for every x in its domain, then f
√3 ℎ √3
is an odd function.
sin 60° = = ,ℎ= 𝑥, equation 2, substitute equation 2 to
2 𝑥 2
equation 1 Example. Determine whether the following functions is even, odd or
neither even nor odd.
1 √3 √3 2
𝐴 ( 𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥 ( 2 𝑥) = 𝑥
4 1. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2
√3 2
Solution
Answer: 𝐴(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ,𝑥 >0 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2
4
3. A closed rectangular box with volume 8 m3 has length twice the 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥)
width. Express the height of the box as a function of the width. Answer: even function
Solution 2. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3
𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ = 8𝑚3 transpose Solution
8
ℎ = 𝑙𝑤 (primary equation) 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥)3 = −𝑥 3
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑙 = 2𝑤 (secondary equation) substitute to primary eq.
8 8 4 Answer: odd function
ℎ (𝑤 ) = = =
𝑙𝑤 2𝑤(𝑤) 𝑤2 3. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥 − 𝑥 2
4
Answer: 𝑦(𝑤) = 𝑤 2 , 𝑤 > 0 Solution
4. A box with an open top is to be constructed from a rectangular 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 2(−𝑥 ) − (−𝑥)2
piece of cardboard with dimensions 12 in. by 20 in. by cutting out 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 (the first term is odd while the second term is
even)
equal squares of side x at each corner and then folding up the sides
Answer: neither even nor odd
as in the figure. Express the volume V of the box as a function of
x. Determine whether each function is even, odd or neither. Then find the
Solution: zeros of the function.
𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ
Where, 𝑙 = 20 − 2𝑥, = 𝑤 = 12 − 2𝑥, ℎ = 𝑥 4. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥
𝑉 (𝑥 ) = (20 − 2𝑥)(12 − 2𝑥)(𝑥) Solution
𝑉 (𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 3 − 64𝑥 2 + 240𝑥 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥)3 − (−𝑥 ) = −𝑥 3 + 𝑥 the first term is odd, second
term is also odd function
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −(𝑥 3 − 𝑥)
 To find the zeros of function, equate it to zero. Common Mathematical Model/Functions
𝑥3 − 𝑥 = 0 factor the left side of the equation
𝑥(𝑥 2 − 1) = 0 or 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) A. Polynomial functions
Answer: odd function, x = 0, 1, -1. Example: 𝑃(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
5. 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 1 + cos 𝑥 1. Linear function
Solution Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑔(−𝑥 ) = 1 + cos(−𝑥) but cos(−𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥
𝑔(−𝑥 ) = 1 + cos 𝑥 2. Quadratic function
To find the zeros of the function, equate it to zero Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
1 + cos 𝑥 = 0 3. Cubic function
cos 𝑥 = −1 solve for x Example: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑, 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑥 = arccos(−1) these are quadrantal angle located in the B. Power functions
negative x – axis. Example: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑎
Answer: even function x = (2n + 1) π C. Rational Functions
2𝑥 4 −𝑥 2 +3
6. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 Example: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 +1
Solution
D. Algebraic functions – functions which can be constructed using
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (−𝑥)2 + 2(−𝑥 ) + 1
algebraic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 the first and last terms are even while division and taking roots.
the second term is an odd function 3 2𝑥+3
Example: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √𝑥 + 3, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2+2 + (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
(𝑥 + 1)2 = 0 E. Trigonometric functions – functions which involves either one or
Answer: neither odd nor even function, x = -1 more of the six trigonometric functions.
1
Example: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥 ) =
cos 𝑥+1
Basic types of transformations (c > 0)
F. Exponential functions – functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑏 𝑥 , where
Original graph 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) b is a positive constant.
G. Logarithmic functions – functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥 ) = log 𝑏 𝑥,
Horizontal shift c units to the right 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑐) where the base b is a positive constant.
Horizontal shift to the left 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐) Evaluating a function
Example
Vertical shift c units downward 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑐 Evaluate each expression for the function f defined by
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 7
Vertical shift c units upward 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑐 1. 𝑓(3𝑎)
Reflection about x – axis 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) Solution
𝑓 (3𝑎) = (3𝑎)2 7
Reflection about y – axis 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) Answer: 9𝑎2 + 7
2. 𝑓 (𝑏 − 1)
Reflection about the origin 𝑦 = −𝑓(−𝑥) Solution
 𝑓(𝑏 − 1) = (𝑏 − 1)2 + 7 (𝒇 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) = (𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 = 𝒙𝟒
𝑓 (𝑏 − 1) = 𝑏2 − 2𝑏 + 1 + 7 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥 − 3)
Answer: 𝑏2 − 2𝑏 + 8 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3) − 3
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) (𝒈 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒙 − 𝟔
3. ∆𝑥
Answer: (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3)2 , (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 3, (𝑓 ∘
Solution
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) [(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +7]−(𝑥 2+7)
𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 , (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 6
= 2. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = √2 − 𝑥
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
2𝑥∆𝑥+(∆𝑥)2 ∆𝑥(2𝑥+∆𝑥) Solution
= =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 ))
Answer: 2𝑥 + ∆𝑥
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(√2 − 𝑥)
Combinations of Functions (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = √√2 − 𝑥
Domain of f = A, (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝟒√𝟐 − 𝒙
Domain of g = B (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥 ))
Domain (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑔(√𝑥)
1. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐴∩𝐵 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = √2 − √𝑥
2. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥) A∩B (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥 ))
3. (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) A∩B (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(√𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
4. (𝑔) (𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑥) {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵/𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0} (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = √√𝑥 = 𝟒√𝒙
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥 ))
Composite functions
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑔(√2 − 𝑥)
Given two functions f and g, the composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, called the (𝒈 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = √𝟐 − √𝟐 − 𝒙
composition of f and g is defined by (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 )(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) 3.
𝑥
If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥+1 , 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 10 and ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3, find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑓 ∘
The domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) 𝑔∘ℎ
is in the domain of f . Solution
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 ))
Example (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 10 )
𝒙𝟏𝟎
Find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔 of the following functions (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) =
𝒙𝟏𝟎 +𝟏
1. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 3, (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(ℎ(𝑥 )))
Solution (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 + 3)
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 3)10
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 3) (𝒙+𝟑)𝟏𝟎
(𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = (𝒙 − 𝟑)𝟐 (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 ∘ 𝒉)(𝒙) =
(𝒙+𝟑)𝟏𝟎 +𝟏
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥 ))
𝒈( 𝒙 𝟐 ) = 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝟑
 𝜋𝑡
Exercises 10. 𝑓 (𝑡) = sec 4
Evaluate the function at the given value(s) of the independent variable. Answers: Domain: All real numbers t such that 𝑡 ≠ 4𝑛 + 2, and n
Simplify the results is an integer; Range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
3
11. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥
1. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 7𝑥 − 4
Answers: Domain: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞); Range: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
a) 𝑓(0) Answer: - 4
b) 𝑓(−3) Answer: - 25 Find the domain of the following functions. (Problems 12 – 13)
c) 𝑓(𝑏) Answer:7𝑏 − 4
d) 𝑓 (𝑥 − 1) Answer: 7𝑥 − 11 12. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √𝑥 + √1 − 𝑥 Answer: Domain: [0,1]
2
13. 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 1−cos 𝑥 Answer: All real numbers x such that
2. 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 5 − 𝑥 2
𝑥 ≠ 2𝜋𝑛, where n is an integer.
(a) 𝑔(0) Answer: 5 14. Given 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 − 4, and 𝑔(𝑥) = 4, find
(b) 𝑔(√5) Answer: 0 (a) 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥) Answer: 3𝑥
(c) 𝑔(−2) Answer: 1 (b) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥) Answer: 3𝑥 − 8
(d) g(𝑡 − 1 ) Answer: 4 + 2𝑡 − 𝑡 2 (c) 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) Answer: 12𝑥 − 16
3
(d) 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥) Answer: 4 𝑥 − 1
15. Given 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1, evaluate
3. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = cos(2𝑥)
(a) 𝑔(𝑔(1)) Answer: -1
(a) 𝑓(0) Answer: 1
𝜋 (b) 𝑔(𝑓(1)) Answer: 0
(b) 𝑓(− 4 ) Answer: 0 (c) 𝑔(𝑓(0)) Answer: -1
𝜋
(c) 𝑓 ( 3 ) Answer: -1/2 (d) 𝑓(𝑔(−4)) Answer:√15
(d) 𝑓 (𝜋) Answer: 1 (e) 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) Answer: √𝑥 2 − 1
4. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 (f) ( )
𝑔(𝑓 𝑥 ) Answer: 𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)− 𝑓(𝑥)
∆𝑥
Answer: 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥∆𝑥 + (∆𝑥)2 , ∆𝑥 ≠ 0 For problem 16 -17, find the composite functions 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓.
1
5. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 16. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥 ) = √𝑥
√𝑥−1
𝑓(𝑥)− 𝑓(2) Answers: (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑥; (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = |𝑥 |
Answer: (√𝑥 − 1 − 𝑥 + 1)/[(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)] 3
𝑥−2 17. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1

Find the domain and range of the function.

6. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 2 Answers: Domain: (−∞, ∞); Range: [0, ∞)
( ) 3
7. 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥 Answers: Domain: (−∞. ∞); Range: (−∞, ∞)
8. 𝑔(𝑥 ) = √6𝑥 Answers: Domain: [0, ∞); Range: [0, ∞)
9. 𝑔(𝑥 ) = √16 − 𝑥 2 Answers: Domain: [−4,4]; Range: [0,4]