CALCULUS I

Unit 1: FUNCTIONS

LE THAI THANH (010218@tmp.hcmut.edu.vn)

HCMC University of Technology

Week 1: Oct. 4, 2021 to Oct. 9, 2021

Sequences

Definition of a sequence
A sequence can be thought of as a list of numbers written in a
definite order:
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . , an , . . .
The number a1 is called the first term, a2 is the second term, and
in general an is the nth term. We will deal exclusively with infinite
sequences and so each term an will have a successor an+1 .

The sequence {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . , an , . . . } is also denoted by {an } or

{an }∞
n=1 .

Example
 ∞
n 1 2 3 n
= , , , ..., , ...
n+1 n=1 2 3 4 n+1
n−1
∞
= 1, −1, 1, −1, . . . , (−1)n−1 , . . .

(−1) n=1
Sequences
Definition
A sequence {an } has the limit L and we write

lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞

if for every ε > 0 there is a corresponding integer N such that if

n > N then |an − L| < ε. In this case, we say that the sequence is
convergent; otherwise, it is divergent.
Sequences

Limit Laws for Sequences

If {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences and c is a constant,
then
lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim (c · an ) = c · lim an
n→∞ n→∞
lim (an · bn ) = lim an · lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an lim an
lim = n→∞ lim bn ̸= 0
n→∞ bn lim bn n→∞
n→∞
If lim |an | = 0, then lim an = 0.
n→∞ n→∞
If an ⩽ bn ⩽ cn and lim an = lim cn = L, then lim bn = L.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
(Squeeze Theorem)
Sequences

Some Useful Limits

√
lim n n = 1
n→∞
nα
lim = 0, (a > 0, a ̸= 1)
n→∞ an
an
lim = 0, (a > 0, a ̸= 1)
n→∞ n!
1 n
 
lim 1 + =e
n→∞ n

0, k <m
a0 nk + a1 nk−1 + · · · + an

a
0
lim = k =m
n→∞ b0 nm + b1 nm−1 + · · · + bn 
 b 0
∞ k >m

Functions of One Variable

Definition of a function
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D
exactly one element, called f (x), in a set E .

The set D is called the domain of the function. The range of f is

the set of all possible values of f (x) as x varies throughout the
domain.
Functions of One Variable
Definition of a graph of a function
If f is a function with domain D, then its graph is the set of
ordered pairs
{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D}

In the other words, the graph of f consists of all points (x, y ) in

the coordinate plane such that y = f (x) and x is in the domain of
f . The graph of a function is a curve in the xy -plane.
Functions of One Variable

There are four possible ways to represent a function:

verbally (by a description in words). For example, the area of
a circle as a function of its radius.
algebraically (by an explicit formula). For example, A = πr 2
numerically (by a table of values). For example,

r 1 2 3 ...
A π 4π 9π . . .

visually (by a graph). We can sketch a graph of A (half a

parabola).
Because a circle has to have a positive radius, the domain is
{r | r > 0} = (0, ∞), and the range is also (0, ∞).
Functions of One Variable

Example
A rectangular storage container
with an open top has a volume of
10m3 . The length of its base is
twice its width. Material for the
base costs $10 per square meter;
material for the sides costs $6 per
square meter. Express the cost
of materials as a function of the
width of the base.
Functions of One Variable

SOLUTION
Let w , 2w , h be the width, length, and height of the container
(w > 0). The total cost is

C (w ) = 10(2w 2 ) + 6[2(wh) + 2(2wh)]

5
Since the volume of the container is 10m3 , we have h = 2 .
w
Finally, we obtain
180
C (w ) = 20w 2 + (w > 0)
w
Functions of One Variable

Example
Find the domain of each function.
√
1 f (x) = x +2
1
2 g (x) =
2
x −x
Functions of One Variable

SOLUTION
1 Because the square root of a negative number is not defined

(as a real number), the domain of f consists of all values of x

such that x + 2 ⩾ 0. This is equivalent to x ⩾ −2, so the
domain is the interval [2, +∞).
1 1
2 Since g (x) = = and division by 0 is not
x2 − x x(x − 1)
allowed, we see that g (x) is not defined when x = 0 or x = 1.
Thus the domain of g is {x | x ̸= 0, x ̸= 1}.
Functions of One Variable

The following test is used to test any curves, which are graphs of
functions.
The Vertical Line Test
A curve in the xy -plane is the graph of a function of x if and only
if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
The Elementary Functions

The Constant Function

The function f (x) = C , where C is a real constant, is called a
constant function.
This function is defined for all x in R. Its value is unchanged when
x varies in R. Its graph is a line, that is parallel to the x-axis.

y
y =C

|C |

O x
The Elementary Functions

The Power Function

The function f (x) = x α , where α is a real constant, is called a
power function.

The domain and graph are dependent on α. Here are graphs of

power functions for some values of α.
y y

x x
y =x y = x2
(α = 1) (α = 2)
The Elementary Functions

y y

x x
√ 1
y = x 1/2 = x y = x −1 = x
(α = 1/2) (α = −1)
The Elementary Functions
Polynomials
A function P is called a polynomial if

P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an

are constants called the coefficients of the polynomial. The domain
of any polynomial is R = (−∞, +∞). If the leading coefficient
an ̸= 0, then the degree of the polynomial is n.

Example
A polynomial of degree 1: P(x) = mx + b is called a linear
function.
A polynomial of degree 2: P(x) = ax 2 + bx + c is called a
quadratic function.
A polynomial of degree 3: P(x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d is
called a cubic function.
The Elementary Functions

Rational Functions
P(x)
A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials: f (x) = ,
Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomials. The domain consists of all values
of x such that Q(x) ̸= 0.

Example

The function
2x 4 − x 2 + 1
f (x) =
x2 − 4
is a rational function with domain
{x | x ̸= ±2}.
The Elementary Functions

Algebraic Functions
A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed
using algebraic operations (such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and taking roots) starting with
polynomials. Any rational function is automatically an algebraic
function.
Here are examples of algebraic functions:
√
f (x) = x 2 + 1
x 4 − 5x 2 √
g (x) = √ + (x + 3) 3 x − 1
2x + x
√
(x + 2)3 + 4 x
h(x) = √
(1 + x)5 + 3x 2
The Elementary Functions

The Exponential Function

The function f (x) = ax , where a is a real constant (a > 0, a ̸= 1),
is called an exponential function.

The exponential function is defined for all x ∈ R. It has the

following properties:
ax > 0 for all x ∈ R
a0 = 1
ax+y = ax · ay
ax 1
ax−y = y =⇒ a−x = x
a a
(ax )y = axy
When a = e (e ≈ 2.718281828...) we have the most popular
function y = ex , that has many applications in all sciences.
The Elementary Functions

The graphs of the exponential functions are dependent on a.

y y

x x
y = ax y =ax
(a > 1) (0 < a < 1)
The Elementary Functions

The logarithmic function

The function f (x) = loga x, where a is a real constant
(a > 0, a ̸= 1), is called a logarithmic function.

The logarithmic function is defined for all x > 0. It has the

following properties:
loga 1 = 0
loga (xy ) = loga x + loga y
x 1
loga = loga x − loga y =⇒ loga = − loga x
y x
loga x y = y loga x
When a = e (e ≈ 2.718281828...) we denote y = ln x, and
ln x
loga x = .
ln a
The Elementary Functions

The graphs of the logarithmic functions are dependent on a.

y y

x x
y = loga x y = loga x
(a > 1) (0 < a < 1)
The Elementary Functions

The trigonometric functions

We have the following trigonometric functions and their graphs.
y = sin x : its domain is R, its range is [−1, 1].
y = cos x : its domain is R, its range is [−1, 1].
y y

x x

y = sin x y = cos x
The Elementary Functions

The trigonometric functions

 
sin x π
y = tan x = : its domain is R − + kπ, k ∈ Z .
cos x 2
1 cos x
y = cot x = = : its domain is R − {kπ, k ∈ Z}.
tan x sin x

y y

x x

y = tan x y = cot x
The Elementary Functions

Properties of Trigonometric Functions

cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x = 1 − 2 sin2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1.
From this property we obtain the following useful formulas:
1 + cos 2x 1 − cos 2x
cos2 x = ; sin2 x =
2 2
1
1 + tan2 x = , and from this we have
cos2 x
1 tan2 x
cos2 x = ; sin2 x =
1 + tan2 x 1 + tan2 x
And more · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
The Elementary Functions

The Hyperbolic Functions

The following functions are called the hyperbolic functions:
ex − e−x
(1) The Sine Hyperbolic Function: y = sinh x =
2
ex + e−x
(2) The Cosine Hyperbolic Function: y = cosh x =
2
(3) The Tangent Hyperbolic Function:
sinh x ex − e−x
y = tanh x = = x
cosh x e + e−x
(4) The Cotangent Hyperbolic Function:
1 cosh x ex + e−x
y = coth x = = = x
tanh x sinh x e − e−x
The Elementary Functions

Properties of The Hyperbolic Functions

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x − 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2 x.
From this we have
1 + cosh 2x cosh 2x − 1
cosh2 x = sinh2 x =
2 2
And more · · · · · · · · · · · ·
The Elementary Functions

Piecewise Defined Functions

The functions in the following examples are defined by different
formulas in different parts of their domains. Such functions are
called piecewise defined functions.

Example
A function f is defined by
(
1 − x, if x ⩽ −1
f (x) =
x 2, if x > −1

Then
Since −2 ⩽ −1, we have f (−2) = 1 − (−2) = 3
Since −1 ⩽ −1, we have f (−1) = 1 − (−1) = 2
Since 0 > −1, we have f (0) = 02 = 0
The Elementary Functions

Example

The next example of a piecewise

defined function is the absolute
value function
(
x, if x ⩾ 0
f (x) = |x| =
−x, if x < 0

We see that the graph of f coincides with the line y = x to the

right of the y -axis and coincides with the line y = −x to the left of
the y -axis.
Properties of Functions

The even function

If a function f satisfies f (−x) =

f (x) for every number x in its
domain, then f is called an even
function. For instance, the func-
tion f (x) = x 2 is even because

f (−x) = (−x)2 = x 2 = f (x)

The geometric significance of an even function is that its graph is

symmetric with respect to the y -axis (see Figure). This means that
if we have plotted the graph of f for x ⩾ 0, we obtain the entire
graph simply by reflecting this portion about the y -axis.
Properties of Functions

The odd function

If a function f satisfies f (−x) =

−f (x) for every number x in its
domain, then f is called an odd
function. For instance, the func-
tion f (x) = x 3 is odd because

f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x 3 = −f (x)

The geometric significance of an even function is that its graph is

symmetric about the origin (see Figure). This means that if we
have plotted the graph of f for x ⩾ 0, we obtain the entire graph
simply by rotating this portion through 180o about the origin.
Properties of Functions

Example
Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or
neither even nor odd.

(1) f (x) = x 5 + x; (2) g (x) = 1 − x 4 (3) h(x) = 2x − x 2

SOLUTION.
1 f (−x) = (−x)5 + (−x) = −x 5 − x = −(x 5 + x) = −f (x).
Therefore f is an odd function.
2 g (−x) = 1 − (−x)4 = 1 − x 4 = g (x). So g is even.
3 Since h(−x) ̸= h(x) and h(−x) ̸= −h(x), we conclude that h
is neither even nor odd.
Properties of Functions

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

A function f is called increasing on an interval I if f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
whenever x1 < x2 in I . It is called decreasing on I if f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
whenever x1 < x2 in I .

Example

The function y = x 2 is decreas-

ing on (−∞, 0) and increasing on
(0, +∞).
Properties of Functions

Periodic Functions
A function f is called periodic if there exists a positive constant τ
such that for all x from its domain f (x + τ ) = f (x). The smallest
positive value T of all values of τ is call the period of this function.

Example
The functions y = sin x and y = cos x are periodic (T = 2π).
The functions y = tan x and y = cot x are periodic (T = π).
2π
The function y = sin kx is periodic (T = k )
The functions y = tan x2 and y = tan x3 are periodic with the
periods T = 2π and T = 3π, respectively. Then the function
f (x) = tan x2 + tan x3 is periodic with the period
T = Smallest Common Multiple(2π, 3π) = 6π
Transformations of Functions

Vertical and Horizontal Shifts

Suppose C > 0. To obtain the graph of
y = f (x) + C , shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance C units
upward
y = f (x) − C , shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance C units
downward
y = f (x − C ), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance C units
to the right
y = f (x + C ), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance C units
to the left
Transformations of Functions
Transformations of Functions

Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting

Suppose C > 1. To obtain the graph of
y = Cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a
factor of C
1
y = f (x), shrink the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a
C
factor of C
y = f (Cx), shrink the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a
factorof C
x
y =f , stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a
C
factor of C
y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis
y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the y -axis
Transformations of Functions
Transformations of Functions

Example
The following figure illustrates these stretching transformations
when applied to the function y = cos x with C = 2 to obtain the
graphs of y = 2 cos x, y = 12 cos x, y = cos 2x, and y = cos 12 x.
Combinations of Functions

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Two functions f and g can be combined to form new functions
f + g , f − g , fg , and f /g in a manner similar to the way we add,
subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers. The sum, difference,
product, and quotient functions are defined by

(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x), (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x)

f (x)
(fg )(x) = f (x)g (x), (f /g )(x) =
g (x)

Note that if the domain of f is A and the domain of g is B, then

the domain of f ± g is the intersection A ∩ B because both f (x)
and g (x) have to be defined. The domain of fg is A ∩ B too,
however, the domain of f /g is {x ∈ A ∩ B | g (x) ̸= 0}.
Combinations of Functions

Example
√
The domain
√ of f (x) = x is [0, +∞) and the domain of
g (x) = 2 − x is (−∞, 2]. Therefore
√ √
The domain of f (x) + g (x) = x + 2 − x is
[0, +∞) ∩ (−∞, 2] = [0, 2].
√ √
The domain of f (x) − g (x) = x − 2 − x is also [0, 2].
√ √ p
The domain of f (x) · g (x) = x · 2 − x = x(2 − x) is
also [0, 2].
√ r
f (x) x x
The domain of =√ = is
g (x) 2−x 2−x
[0, 2] − {2} = [0, 2).
Combinations of Functions

The Composite Function

Given two functions f and g , the composite function f ◦ g (also
called the composition) of f and g is defined by

(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x))

The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g such

that g (x) is in the domain of f . In other words, (f ◦ g )(x) is
defined whenever both g (x) and f (g (x)) are defined.

Example
If f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = x + 3, find the composite functions f ◦ g
and g ◦ f . SOLUTION. We have
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = [g (x)]2 = (x + 3)2
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = f (x) + 3 = x 2 + 3
We see that, in general, f ◦ g ̸= g ◦ f .
Combinations of Functions

Example
√ √
If f (x) = x and g (x) = 2 − x, find each function and its
domain: f ◦ g , g ◦ f , f ◦ f , and g ◦ g .
SOLUTION. We have
p p√ √
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = g (x) = 2 − x = 4 2 − x. Its
domain is (−∞, 2].
p p √
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = 2 − f (x) = 2 − x. Its domain
is [0, 4].
p p√ √
(f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f (x) = x = 4 x. Its domain is
[0, +∞).
p p √
(g ◦ g )(x) = g (g (x)) = 2 − g (x) = 2 − 2 − x. Its
domain is [−2, 2].
Combinations of Functions

It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions.

For instance, the composite function f ◦ g ◦ h is found by first
applying h, then g , and then f as follows:

(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g (h(x)))

Example
x
If f (x) = , g (x) = x 5 , and h(x) = x + 2, then
x +1

g (h(x)) [h(x)]5
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g (h(x))) = =
g (h(x)) + 1 [h(x)]5 + 1
(x + 2)5
=
(x + 2)5 + 1
Inverse Functions
Definition
A function f is called a one-to-one function if it never takes on the
same value twice; that is f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) whenever x1 ̸= x2 .

Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects
its graph more than once.

This function is not one-to-one

because x1 ̸= x2 and
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
Inverse Functions

Example
The function f (x) = x 3 is one-to-one on R, because if x1 ̸= x2 ,
then x13 ̸= x23 . The function g (x) = x 2 is not one-to-one on R,
because 1 ̸= −1 but g (−1) = g (1) = 1. However, g (x) is
one-to-one on R+ = [0, +∞).
Inverse Functions

Definition
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain D and range E . Then
its inverse function f −1 has domain E and range D and is defined
by f −1 (y ) = x ⇔ f (x) = y for any y in E .

The following procedure shows you how to find the inverse

function of a one-to-one function f :
Step 1 Write y = f (x)
Step 2 Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible)
Step 3 To express f −1 as a function of x, interchange x and
y . The resulting equation is y = f −1 (x).
Inverse Functions

Example
Find the inverse function of f (x) = 2x + 3.
SOLUTION. According to the above procedure
We write y = 2x + 3.
y −3
Then we solve this equation for x: x = .
2
x −3
Finally, we interchange x and y : y = .
2
x −3
Therefore the inverse function is f −1 (x) = .
2
Inverse Functions

Note

Note that

f −1 (f (x)) = x

f (f −1 (x)) = x
and the graph of f −1 (x) is
obtained by reflecting the
graph of f (x) about the
line y = x.
Inverse Functions

Note
From the elementary functions we have

aloga x = x and loga ax = x

Then the exponential function y = ax is the inverse function of the

logarithmic function y = loga x and vice versa.

y = ax

x
y = loga x
x
=
y
Inverse Functions

The Inverse Function of y = sin x

 
π π
We consider y = sin x : − , −→ [−1, 1]. This is one-to-one
2 2
function. Therefore, it has an inverse function, that is denoted by
 
π π
y = arcsin x : [−1, 1] −→ − ,
2 2
Inverse Functions

The Inverse Function of y = cos x

We consider y = cos x : [0, π] −→ [−1, 1]. This is one-to-one
function. Therefore, it has an inverse function, that is denoted by

y = arccos x : [−1, 1] −→ [0, π]

Inverse Functions

The Inverse Function of y = tan x

 
π π
We consider y = tan x : − , −→ (−∞, +∞). This is
2 2
one-to-one function. Therefore, it has an inverse function, that is
denoted by  
π π
y = arctan x : (−∞, +∞) −→ − ,
2 2
That’s all. Thanks a lot

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