Design and Construction of a Structure

for a Three Point Bending Test

Universidad Carlos III de Madrid

Mechanics of Structures

Degree in Engineering in Industrial Technologies

Academic Year 2022/2023

SUB-GROUP 37-1-4

100428564 Iñigo Arana Bereziartua

100472475 Ana Andriychuk Cherevata

100454361 Jaime Mercado de Diego

 1. Three Point Bending Test

The tests are generally carried out on rectangular beams. These beams are placed on
two roller supports and the load is applied via a third roller normally mounted halfway
between the supports. As a result of this bending, tensile stress develops in the material
on the convex side of the beam, while compressive stress is generated on the concave
side.

The rst step in analyzing this test method is to convert our setup to its appropriate free
body diagram. The central roller is replaced with an applied load of F and each of the
supports with forces F/2. Now, these support reactions are easily calculated by placing the
beam in static equilibrium. Once the free body diagram is in place, we can begin to
analyze the two unique regions in this beam: region AB and region BC.

Once we have identi ed the potential internal charges, we can use the equations of static
equilibrium to determine their magnitudes and directions. Now, an easy way to summarize
these results is to present them in the form of shear and bending moment diagrams.
Once in this shape, it is easy to identify where the maximum moment occurs and, as a
result, where the maximum bending stress will occur. Using the bending stress equation
and the knowledge that the x axis passes through the centroid of the cross section, we
know that the maximum stress occurs at the top and bottom surfaces of this beam. We
can calculate this stress by inserting the value of the maximum moment (FL/4), the
distance from the neutral axis (plus or minus h/2), and the moment of inertia of the area
about the z-axis (bh^3/12) into our stress equation. Also, this equation can be simpli ed in
a much more useful way
fi
fi
.

fi


One way to determine the stress experimentally is to mount strain gauges on the
surface of this beam. Then, we can use Hooke's Law to relate the recorded surface
strain to the applied load and the properties of the specimen. While this is a relatively
easy test to set up and analyze, there are some drawbacks to using the three-point
bending test. For one, the roller used to apply the load also causes stress at the point
of application and this can cause premature failure. This risk is ampli ed by the fact
that the point of application occurs exactly where the maximum bending stress is also
generated. It can also be di cult to place a strain gauge exactly at the point of
maximum stress, an issue that is complicated by the fact that there is non-uniform
stress on each side of the applied load.

1.1. Euler–Bernoulli theory

There are two common kinematic hypotheses to represent the bending of beams and
arches
• The Navier-Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis. In it, the cross sections to the barycentric axis
are considered to be non-deformable in a rst approximation and remain perpendicular
to it (which curves) after the deformation.
• Timoshenko's hypothesis. In this hypothesis it is accepted that the cross sections
perpendicular to the barycentric axis come to form an angle with that barycentric axis
due to the effect of the shear stress
:

ffi
.

fi
fi
Where the barycentric axis represents the locus of the barycenters or centers of gravity
of the various cross sections that make up a prismatic piece

The Euler-Bernoulli theory for the calculation of beams is the one that derives from
the Euler-Bernoulli kinematic hypothesis, and can be used to calculate stresses and
displacements on a beam or arc with a large axis length compared to the maximum
depth or height. of the cross section (for example, a beam).

To write the formulas of the Euler-Bernoulli theory, it is convenient to take a suitable

coordinate system to describe the geometry, a beam is in fact a mechanical prism on
which the coordinates (s, y, z) can be considered with s the distance along the axis of the
beam and (y, z) the coordinates on the cross section.

For a straight section beam in the case of de ected compound bending, the stress is
given by the Navier formula:

Where:

• Iy, Iz are the second moments of area (moments of inertia) along the Y and Z axes.

• Iyz is the mixed moment of area or product of inertia along the Z and Y axes.

• My(x), Mz(x) are the bending moments in the Y and Z directions, which in general
will vary with the x coordinate.

• Nx(x) is the axial stress along the axis.

If the direction of the coordinate axes (y, z) are taken to be coincident with the
principal directions of inertia then the products of inertia vanish and the above
equation is considerably simpli ed. Furthermore, if the case of simple non-de ected
bending is considered, the stresses according to the axis are simply:

fi
fl
.

fl
 2. Theoretical basis for the design and construction of the
beam

The objective of each subgroup is to achieve optimal design and manufacturing so that
the beam supports the highest possible transverse load, in a three-point bending
con guration, with the least possible weight. Sample tests will be performed to obtain
the mechanical properties (breaking stress and density) of the speci c wood used for the
beam.

As it has been observed in the previous expression of the bending moment M(z), its
value does not depend on the geometry of the beam (the previous calculations are not
a ected by a beam with a section other than the rectangular one considered, whether it is
constant or variable with respect to the "z" coordinate). However, both the center of
mass and the moment of inertia Ix(z) do depend on the geometry of the beam section.
Therefore, the design of the beam plays a fundamental role in its resistance.

An optimally designed beam, in terms of achieving high strength regardless of its

weight, is one that minimizes the maximum normal stresses σ(ymax, z). Theoretically,
the beam will break at a speci c cross section, which is the one subjected to maximum
stress (the so-called critical cross section, z=z*). Failure occurs when a point on this
critical section reaches the failure stress of the material, which corresponds to the
moment when the transverse load removed by the beam is maximum:

In case of using a constant section along the beam, the critical section will be found
where the bending moment is maximum (the center of the beam). As shown in the
following graph, for the case of a square section with constant height, the height of the
beam 2*ymax and the inertia Ix(z) will be the same for any section. That is why the
stress along the beam σ(ymax,z) varies in the same way as the bending moment Mx(z)
(in absolute value).

ff
fi
fi
fi
In case of using a variable cross section, it is not necessary that the maximum stress is
in the cross section with the greatest bending moment, since neither the height 2*ymax
nor the inertia Ix(z) are constant. This fact can be seen in the following graph, where a
triangle-shaped beam has been used in the y-z plane. In this case the maximum
stresses occur near the supports (critical sections).

The objective is to design a beam by optimizing its geometry so that the normal
stress distribution along the beam allows the beam to support high transverse
forces with the lowest possible weight of the beam (maximize the NDS coe cient).

3. Choice of beam geometry and design

As we do not have su cient experience in the eld of structural systems, we could take
into consideration an endless number of di erent beam con gurations, resulting in the
choice and calculation of the most optimal option being somewhat chaotic. For this
reason, we will take into account the di erent con gurations of the at sections
(constants) proposed by the virtual tool "Civil Engineer" shown in class. Thus, we can
distinguish 10 di erent types of at sections:

Constant Plane Section Type

Rectangular
ff
ffi
fl
ff
ff
fi
fi
fi
fl
ffi
 Hollow Rectangular

Hollow Circular

I-Section

Channel Section

Circular

T-Section

Angle Section

Hexagonal Section

Pentagonal Section

3.1. Bending Moment & Shear Force Calculation for point load on simply
supported beam
In addition to the tool to calculate the moment of inertia and the position of the center of
mass, "Civil Engineer" also provides us with a tool to calculate the bending moment and
shear stress for di erent con gurations of loads and beams. Our case deals with the
application of a point load on a simply supported beam. This is:

This being the case, we proceed to calculate the moment of inertia, position of the
center of mass, bending moment and shear force for each type of section mentioned
above.

Constant Plane Section Type

- Area of section (mm2): 2.304000E+3

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (24, 24)

Rectangular - Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 4.423680E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 4.423680E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 67.8

- Area of section (mm2): 5.400000E+2

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (24, 24)

Hollow Rectangular - Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 1.830600E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 1.830600E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 164

- Area of section (mm2): 4.241150E+2

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (24, 24)

Hollow Circular - Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 1.078312E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 1.078312E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 278

- Area of section (mm2): 1536

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (24, 24)

I-Section - Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 4.05504E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 2.29376E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 73.98

ff
fi
 - Area of section (mm2): 1344

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (17.14,

Channel Section 21.43)

- Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 3.3210514285714E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 2.1123657142857E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 80.7

- Area of section (mm2): 1.809557E+3

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (24, 24)

Circular - Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 2.605763E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 2.605763E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 115

- Area of section (mm2): 1152

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (24, 30)

T-Section - Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 2.35008E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 1.2288E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 159.5

- Area of section (mm2): 1280

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (17.6,

Angle Section 17.6)

- Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 2.3702186666667E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 2.3702186666667E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 92.8

- Area of section (mm2): 1623.75

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (25,

Hexagonal Section 21.65)

- Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 2.112890625E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 2.112890625E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 128

- Area of section (mm2): 1548.43

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (24.27,

Pentagonal Section 20.65)

- Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 1.940360890745E-7

- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 1.940360890745E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 133

As can be veri ed after analyzing the results obtained for each type of constant beam
section, it is clear that the maximum bending moment is the same in all cases, and,
furthermore, said moment is applied at the same point (at the midpoint of the beam).

This is because the bending moment does not depend on the geometry of the beam,
that is, its value is not altered no matter how much the moment of inertia Ix(z) or the
position of the centroid of the beam vary, as can be seen after the development of the
calculation of said magnitude. Thus, the bending moment depends solely on the load
applied to the beam and its position with respect to an established reference frame,
fi
so it remains constant in all types of constant sections. Let's analyze, again, the bending
stress equation or Navier's formula:

We thus see that the bending stress or normal stress applied to the beam does
depend on the geometry of the beam since its value depends both on the position of
the calculation point with respect to the neutral ber of the beam and on the
moment of inertia of the beam section at that point. As can be seen in the previous
table, the moments of inertia and the positions of the center of mass for each type of
section (knowing that the x axis passes through the centroid of the cross section in all
cases) vary according to the geometry of the section, so the value of the maximum
normal stress in the critical section of the beam will be di erent in each case. As
studied in laboratory practice 2, said critical section will be found where the bending
moment is maximum, which for the case of constant section is the center of the
beam (at a distance of approximately 25 cm from each end). In addition, if the section
remains constant throughout the entire length of the beam, both the moment of
inertia and the position with respect to the neutral ber of the beam will remain
constant throughout its length, so the normal stress will vary in the same way as the
bending moment (in absolute value).

In this way, the best beam design will be the one that resists a greater normal stress,
which, analyzing our calculations in the last table, turns out to be for that beam with a
circular hollow section. However, it would not be easy for us to build a beam with such
a section since we do not have the necessary tools to shape the beam into such a shape.
This is why we will opt for a design in which the cross section consists of straight parts
that are as little curved as possible. In this way, the best beam design will correspond to
the one whose section is of the hollow rectangular type, which can withstand a
maximum normal stress under a load of 10,000 kN (maximum load applied by the testing
machine) of approximately 164 MPa. We must take into account that the breaking stress
of balsa wood is 25 MPa, so the beam with this section will split long before reaching
the maximum normal stress corresponding to its con guration. This is due to the fact that
when making the calculations the nature of the material of which the beam is composed
has not been taken into account, which is analyzed in the laboratory with a specimen of
the same material that will be used.

Thus, we opted for a beam design with a hollow rectangular section, that is:

For which we obtain the following data considering the length of the
outer side of 48 mm and that of the inner side of 36 mm:

fi
fi
fi
ff
 - Area of section (mm2): 9.840000E+2

- Position of centroid [Xc (mm), Yc (mm)]: (21.5, 24)

- Moment of Inertia Ixx (m4) : 2.796480E-7

However, as learned in practice 2, a
- Moment of Inertia Iyy (m4) : 2.370280E-7

- Max. Bending Moment (kN·m): 1250

beam with an optimal design is one in
- Max. Normal Stress (MPa): 107.27 which the maximum normal stresses
are minimized. This is achieved by
adjusting the design and geometry of the beam in such a way that the maximum stress is
not applied at the point where the bending moment is maximum, which we have been
able to observe if a triangular shaped beam is used. In this way, to achieve this desired
e ect we will adapt the design of our beam so that at the point of application of the
load (and on both sides of it a distance x) its section is the chosen one (hollow
rectangular) and from said section until each support the beam adopts a triangular
shape with the aim of transferring the maximum normal e orts away from the
midpoint of the beam. Thus, the nal design of the beam will look like this:

In such a way that the section of the central part results in a hollow rectangular
geometry. This hollow rectangular section must have the largest empty space possible
since this results in a lower weight of the beam and a greater resistance to the normal
stress to which it is subjected. So:

ff
fi
ff
 3.2. Bending Moment & Shear Force Calculation for point load on simply
supported beam

3.2.1. Centre of Gravity Calculation

The rst thing it must be done is to set a coordinate system (x,y) from which all the
dimensions will be referred to. Then, the gure will be divided into less complex sections
to make the corresponding calculations.

Therefore, we obtain:

fi
fi
 3.2.2. Section Moment of Inertia Calculation

Let’s rst calculate the moments of inertia of each single section. As for the horizontal
axis:

As for the vertical axis:

fi