Lecture #2

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
Dr. Muhammad Uzair
Associate Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
NED University of Engineering & Technology

DICE Lab (MED, NED)

+99261261 (Ext. 2206)
uzair@neduet.edu.pk

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
PASSION!
"I’d put my money on
the Sun and Solar
Energy, what a source
of Power!
I hope we don’t have
to wait until oil and
coal run out, before Thomas Edison
we tackle that.“ 1847-1931
uzair@neduet.edu.pk Inventor of light bulb
 The sun

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 The sun
• Effective blackbody
temperature of 5777 K
• Hot because of continuous
fusion reactions:
e.g. H + H → He + (Heat
Energy)
• Pores and sunspots on sun
surface

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 The earth
• Very small as compared to sun
• Rotate about its own axis (day)
• Revolve around the sun in orbit (year)

Rotation Revolution
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 Earth-sun distance

152 MKm 147 MKm

• Mean earth-sun distance is 1 astronomical unit

(1au=149.5Mkm)
• It varies by ± 1.7%
• This variation is not responsible for earth’s seasons
uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Earth’s geometry

Northern
Hemisphere

Southern
Hemisphere
 Earth’s geometry
Locating position on earth:
Φ : Latitude
L : Longitude

Unit: Degrees

X
Prime-meridian
at Greenwich Equator
(L=0°) (ø=0°)
 Earth’s geometry
N
Where is Karachi on earth?

Latitude (Φ) : 24.8508°N X

Longitude (L) : 67.0181°E W E

Try: ”Latitude Karachi” at Google

S
Q1) In which hemisphere, Karachi is located?
Q2) To which direction from Greenwich, Karachi
is located?
 Exercise-1:
Earth’s geometry
Where the following cities are located?
1) Sydney (Australia)
2) Nairobi (Kenya)
3) Balingen (Germany)
4) Jeddah (Saudi Arabia)
5) Oregon (USA)
6) Greenwich (UK)

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Magnetic compass directions
• The magnetic poles are not
at the geographic poles.
• Directions shown by a
magnetic compass are not
the “Geographic” directions.
• All solar engineering
calculations are based on
geographic directions!

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Magnetic declination
• Magnetic declination is the
angle between geographic
north (Ng) and magnetic north
(Nm).
• Facts:
– M.D in Alberta (Canada) is
approx. 16°W
– For Karachi, M.D. is almost 0°!

To get M.D: http://magnetic-declination.com/

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Magnetic declination

(e.g. 16°W or -16° (e.g. 16°E or 16°

i.e. Nm is 16°W of Nguzair@neduet.edu.pk
) i.e. Nm is 16°E of Ng)
 Date and day
• Date is represented by month and ‘i’
• Day is represented by ‘n’
Month nth day for ith date
January i
February 31 + i
March 59 + i
… …
December 334 + i

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 15
Date and day

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 16
 Sun position from earth
• Sun rise in the east and set in the west
• “A” sees sun in south
• “B” sees sun in north
N
A

W E

B
S uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Solar noon

Solar noon is the time when

sun is highest above the
horizon on that day
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 Solar altitude angle
• Solar altitude angle (αs) is the angle between
horizontal and the line passing through sun
• It changes every hour and every day

αs
S N
In northern hemisphere
E
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 Solar altitude angle at noon
Solar altitude angle is maximum at “Noon” for a
day, denoted by αs,noon

αs,noon
S N
In northern hemisphere
E
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 Zenith angle
• Zenith angle (θz) is the angle between vertical
and the line passing through sun
• θz = 90 – αs

θz W

S N
In northern hemisphere
E
uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Zenith angle at noon
• Zenith angle is minimum at “Noon” for a day,
denoted by θz,noon
• ϴz,noon = 90 – αs,noon
θz,noon W

S N
In northern hemisphere
E
uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Air mass
• Another representation of solar altitude/zenith
angle.
• Air mass (A.M.) is the ratio of mass of
atmosphere through which beam passes, to the
mass it would pass through, if the sun were
directly overhead.
𝐴. 𝑀. = 1 cos 𝜃𝑧
If A.M.=1 => θz=0° (Sun is directly overhead)
If A.M.=2 => θz=60° (Sun is away, a lot of mass of air
is present between earth and sun)
uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Air mass

𝐴. 𝑀. = 1 cos 𝜃𝑧

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Solar azimuth angle
• In any hemisphere, solar azimuth angle (γs) is
the angular displacement of sun from south
• It is 0° due south, -ve in east, +ve in west

γs S

E W
Morning Noon Evening
(γs = -ve) (γs = 0°) (γs = +ve)
 Solar declination
Important! March equinox
Equator faces sun directly
June solstice (Spring)
Northern
hemisphere is
towards sun
(Summer)

December solstice
Northern
September equinox hemisphere is away
Equator faces sun directly from sun
(Autumn) uzair@neduet.edu.pk (Winter)
 Solar declination
Declination June
angles solstice
Equinox +23.45°

-23.45°
W

December
solstice 90 - φ φ
S N
In northern hemisphere
E
Note: Altitude depends upon latitude but declination is independent.
 Exercise-2:
Solar declination and altitude angle
What is the altitude of sun at noon in Karachi
(Latitude=24.8508) on:
1) Equinox
2) June solstice
3) December solstice

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Solar declination
• For any day in year, solar declination (δ) can be
calculated as:
284 + 𝑛
𝛿 = 23.45 sin 360
365
Where, n = numberth day of year
(See “Days in Year” in Reference Information)
• Maximum: 23.45 °, Minimum: -23.45°
• Solar declination angle represents “day”
• It is independent of time and location!
uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Solar declination
Days to
Remember δ
March, 21 0°
June, 21 +23.45°
September, 21 0°
δ
December, 21 -23.45°

Can you prove this?

n
uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Solar altitude and zenith at noon
• As solar declination (δ) is the function of day
(n) in year, therefore, solar altitude at noon
can be calculated as:
αs,noon = 90 – ø + δ
• Similarly zenith angle at noon can be
calculated as:
ϴz,noon = 90 – αs,noon= 90 – (90 – ø + δ)= ø - δ

uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Exercise-3:
Solar declination and altitude angle
What is the altitude of sun at noon in Karachi
(Latitude=24.8508) on:
1) January, 12
2) July, 23
3) November, 8

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 Solar time
• The time in your clock (local time) is not same
as “solar time”
• It is always “Noon” at 12:00pm solar time

Solar time “Noon” Local time (in your clock)

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 33
 Solar time
The difference between solar time (ST) and local
time (LT) can be calculated as:
4 × 𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑇 − 𝐿𝑇 = 𝐸 −
60
Where,
ST: Solar time (in 24 hours format)
LT: Local time (in 24 hours format)
SL: Standard longitude (depends upon GMT)
LL: Local longitude (+ve for east, -ve for west)
E: Equation of time (in hours)
Try: http://www.powerfromthesun.net/soltimecalc.html
34
uzair@neduet.edu.pk
 Solar time
• Standard longitude (SL) can be calculated as:
SL = (𝐺𝑀𝑇 × 15)
• Where GMT is Greenwich Mean Time, roughly:
If LL > 0 (Eastward):
𝐺𝑀𝑇 = 𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙 𝐿𝐿 15
If LL < 0 (Westward):
𝐺𝑀𝑇 = −𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝐿 15
• GMT for Karachi is 5, GMT for Tehran is 3.5.
• It is recommended to find GMT from standard
database e.g. http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/
uzair@neduet.edu.pk 35
 Solar time
• The term Equation of time (E) is because of
earth’s tilt and orbit eccentricity.
• It can be calculated as:
0.000075
+0.001868 cos 𝐵
229.2
𝐸= × −0.032077 sin 𝐵
60
−0.014615 cos 2𝐵
−0.04089 sin 2𝐵
Where,
𝐵 = 𝑛 − 1 360 365 36
 Hour angle
• Hour angle (ω) is a representation of solar
time
• If ST is standard time then::
𝜔 = (𝑆𝑇 − 12) × 15
(-ve before solar noon, +ve after solar noon)

11:00am 12:00pm 01:00pm

ω = -15° ω = 0° ω = +15°
uzair@neduet.edu.pk 37
 Exercise-4:
Solar time from local time
What is the solar time and hour angle in
Karachi (Longitude=67.0181°E) on 8 November
2:35pm local time?

Hint:
Find in sequence LT, LL, GMT, SL, n, B, E, ST and finally ω

Remember! You can always find solar time from local

time if you are given with longitude and day
uzair@neduet.edu.pk 38
 Exercise-5:
Local time from solar time
At what local time, sun will be at noon in
Karachi on 8 November?

Hint:
Solar time is given in terms of “noon”. Find in sequence
ST, LL, GMT, SL, n, B, E and finally ST

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 39
 A plane at earth’s surface
• Tilt, pitch or slope angle: β (in degrees)
• Surface azimuth or orientation: γ (in degrees,
0° due south, -ve in east, +ve in west)

W
(γ = +ve)
β
(γ = 0) S N
γ
(γ = -ve)
E
uzair@neduet.edu.pk 40
 Summary of solar angles

Can you write symbols of different solar angles shown in this diagram?
 Interpretation of solar angles
Angle Interpretation Set#
Latitude φ Site location 1
Declination δ Day (Sun position)
2
Hour angle ω Time (Sun position)

Solar altitude αs Sun direction (Sun position)

Zenith angle θz Sun direction (Sun position) 3

Solar azimuth γs Sun direction (Sun position)

Tilt angle β Plane direction

4
Surface azimuth γ Plane direction 42
 Angle of incidence
Angle of incidence (θ) is the angle between
normal of plane and line which is meeting plane
and passing through the sun

θ W

S N

E
 Angle of incidence
• Angle of incidence (θ) depends upon:
– Site location (1): θ changes place to place
– Sun position (2/3): θ changes in every instant
of time and day
– Plane direction (4): θ changes if plane is
moved
• It is 0° for a plane directly facing sun and at
this angle, maximum solar radiations are
collected by plane.
uzair@neduet.edu.pk 44
 Angle of incidence
If the sun position is known in terms of
declination (day) and hour angle, angle of
incidence (θ) can be calculated as:

cos 𝜃 = sin 𝛿 sin ∅ cos 𝛽

− sin 𝛿 cos ∅ sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾
+ cos 𝛿 cos ∅ cos 𝛽 cos 𝜔
+ cos 𝛿 sin ∅ sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾 cos 𝜔
+ cos 𝛿 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾 sin 𝜔
(Set 1+2+4) uzair@neduet.edu.pk 45
 Angle of incidence
If the sun position is known in terms of sun
direction (i.e. solar altitude/zenith and solar
azimuth angles), angle of incidence (θ) can be
calculated as:

cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝑧 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝜃𝑧 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾

Remember, θz = 90 – αs
Note: Solar altitude/zenith angle and solar azimuth
angle depends upon location.
(Set 1+3+4) uzair@neduet.edu.pk 46
 Exercise-6:
Angle of incidence
Calculate angle of incidence on a plane located
in Karachi (Latitude=24.8508°N,
Longitude=67.018°E) at 10:30am (solar time)
on February 13, if the plane is tilted 45° from
horizontal and pointed 15° west of south.
Hint:
Convert given data into solar angles and then check
which equation for calculating θ suits best.
For geeks!
Solve the same problem if 10:30am is local time. 47
 Special cases for angle of incidence
• If the plane is laid horizontal (β=0°)
– Equation is independent of γ (rotate!)
– θ becomes θz because normal to the plane
becomes vertical, hence:
cos 𝜃𝑧 = cos ∅ cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin ∅ sin 𝛿
Remember, θz = 90 – αs
Note: Solar altitude/zenith angle depends
upon location, day and hour.
uzair@neduet.edu.pk 48
 Exercise-7:
Special cases for angle of incidence
Reduce equation for calculating angle of
incidence for the following special cases:
1. Plane is facing south
2. Plane is vertical
3. Vertical plane is facing south
4. A plane facing south and is tilted at angle
equals to latitude

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 49
 Solar altitude and azimuth angle
Solar altitude angle (αs) can be calculated as:

sin𝛼𝑠 ⁡= cos ∅ cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin ∅ sin 𝛿

Solar azimuth angle (γs) can be calculated as:

cos 𝜃𝑧 sin ∅ − sin 𝛿

𝛾𝑠 = sign 𝜔 cos−1
sin 𝜃𝑧 cos ∅

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 50
 Sun path diagram or sun charts
αs

-150° -120° -90° - 60° -30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150°
γs 51
Note: These diagrams are different for different latitudes.
 Exercise-8:
Sun path diagram or sun charts
Draw a sun path diagram for Karachi with lines
of June, 21 and December, 21.

Hint:
You need to calculate αs and γs for all hour angles of the
days mentioned in question.

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 52
Shadow analysis (objects at distance)
• Shadow analysis for objects at distance (e.g. trees,
buildings, poles etc.) is done to find:
– Those moments (hours and days) in year when
plane will not see sun.
– Loss in total energy collection due to above.
• Mainly, following things are required:
– Sun charts for site location
– Inclinometer
– Compass and information of M.D.

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 53
 Inclinometer
A simple tool for finding azimuths and altitudes of objects

http://rimstar.org/renewnrg/solar_site_survey_shading_location.htm 54
 Shadow analysis using sun charts
αs

-150° -120° -90° - 60° -30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150°

γs 55
Sunset hour angle and daylight hours
• Sunset occurs when θ z = 90° (or αs = 0°). Sunset hour
angle (ωs) can be calculated as:
cos 𝜔𝑠 = − tan ∅ tan 𝛿

• Number of daylight hours (N) can be calculated as:

2
𝑁= 𝜔𝑠
15
For half-day (sunrise to noon or noon to sunrise),
number of daylight hours will be half of above.

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 56
 Exercise-9:
Sunset hour angle and daylight hours
What is the sunset time (solar) on August, 14 in
Karachi (Latitude=24.8508°N) and Balingen
(Latitude=48.2753°N)? Also calculate number
of daylight hours for each city.

For geeks!
Also convert solar time (sunset hour angle) to local
time. You will need longitudes of these places.

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 57
 Profile angle
It is the angle through which a plane that is initially
horizontal must be rotated about an axis in the plane of
the given surface in order to include the sun.

58
 Profile angle
• It is denoted by αp and can be calculated as follow:

tan 𝛼𝑠
tan 𝛼𝑝 =
cos 𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾

• It is used in calculating shade of one collector (row) on

to the next collector (row).
• In this way, profile angle can also be used in calculating
the minimum distance between collector (rows).

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 59
 Profile angle
• Collector-B will be in shade of collector-A, only when:

𝛼𝑝 < 𝛽

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 60
The sun position in the sky with respect to a
point on earth can be exactly specified by two
angles, the sun altitude (α) and the solar
azimuth (z)
 Exercise-10:
Profile angle and shading
According to figure, for a 25° profile angle, will
the collector-B be in the shade of collector-A?

uzair@neduet.edu.pk 62
 Angles for tracking surfaces
• Some solar collectors "track" the sun
by moving in prescribed ways to
minimize the angle of incidence of
beam radiation on their surfaces and
thus maximize the incident beam
radiation.
• Tracking the sun is much more
essential in concentrating systems
e.g. parabolic troughs and dishes.

(See “Tracking surfaces” in Reference

Information) uzair@neduet.edu.pk 63