Aksum University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of electrical & computer engineering
Introduction to communication Systems
Chapter-2
Amplitude Modulation
Lecture -1
By
Yonas Desta (MSc. Candidate in Communication
Engineering)
Electronics & communication Engineering Stream
 Basic formulas(Trigonometry Identity)

 cos 𝑎 + 𝑏 =cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 − sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏

 sin 𝑎 + 𝑏 = sin 𝑎 cos 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 sin 𝑏

1 1
 cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 + 𝑏
2 2

1 1
 sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 − cos 𝑎 + 𝑏
2 2

1 1
 sin 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = sin 𝑎 − 𝑏 + sin 𝑎 + 𝑏
2 2
 Cont…

To find S 𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒:
𝑚 𝑡 ↔𝑀 𝑓
𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ↔ 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐
𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ↔ 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)𝑚(𝑡) ↔M(𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 )
exp(−𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)𝑚(𝑡) ↔M(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )
 Introduction

 Message signals /Baseband signals produced by various

information sources are not always suitable for direct
transmission over a channel.

 These signals are modified to facilitate transmission.

 This conversion process is modulation

 In amplitude modulation, the message signal m(t) is

impressed on the amplitude of the carrier signal c(t).
 Amplitude Modulation
 A modulation process in which the amplitude of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal.
 Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which
the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance
with the modulating signal or message signal.
 Illustration of amplitude modulation

 The amplitude of the carrier C(t) changes in accordance

with the input modulating signal m(t).
 S(t) is the modulated waveform which is transmitted by
the antenna
Cont…
 Amplitude Modulation
• AM is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave c(t)is varied about a mean value, linearly
with baseband signal m(t).
baseband signal (message signal) =m(t)
carrier wave/signal =c(t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
Then the general expression for the AM signal is given by
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (1)
Where,
 𝑘𝑎 =Amplitude sensitivity of AM modulator
 𝐴𝑐 =Carrier amplitude Measured in volts
 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) is the output AM-modulated carrier frequency

 Cont…
Equation(1) can be written as
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (2)

Carrier signal Modulated signal

which does not have information contains the

information, which has several spectral components,
requiring further analysis to quantify them
 AM signal contains carrier in addition to actual
modulated signal
 Because of this additional carrier ,transmission power
will be wasted, but modulator become much simpler
 AM Spectrum and Bandwidth

 𝑚(𝑡) FT

 c(t) FT

 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) FT
 Cont…
• 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) BW =Highest +ve freq + low freq
= 𝑓𝑐 +𝑊 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑊
Twice of message
= 𝑓𝑐 + W -𝑓𝑐 +W =2W
signal

the spectral response of the AM-modulated signal. It has

three spectral components:
 The carrier frequency : 𝑓𝑐
 Upper sideband: 𝑓𝑐 +𝑊
 Lower sideband: 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑊
NB:
The actual message signal will be retained only by the Side
bands. The bandwidth of each of the sideband is equal to the
message BW.
 Single Tone AM
In single tone AM, m(t) consists of one frequency
component i.e.
𝑚(𝑡) =𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t (3)
Substitute equ (3) to Substitute equ (1)
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (4)
𝜇
Where ,
𝜇 =𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 is modulation factor /modulation
index/modulation depth
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (5)
 Cont…
 We can be represent equation (5)
1 1
By using 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = cos(A-B) + cos(A+B)
2 2
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
=𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝜇𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 tcos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
1
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝜇𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2

Carrier Upper sideband

1
+ 𝜇𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 (6)
2

Lower sideband
 Equation(6) is the standard time domain equation for single-
tone AM signal
 Cont…
 We find that the Fourier transform of the AM wave 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) is
given by:
 Using the following relation ship

 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ↔ 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐
1 1
cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t ↔ 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2 2
 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 ↔ 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
𝑚(𝑡) =𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t

𝐴𝑚
𝑚(𝑓) = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 and
2
c(𝑡) =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t and
𝐴𝑐
c(𝑓) = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
 Cont…
Equation (6) becomes
𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (f) = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
𝜇𝐴𝑐
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚
4
𝜇𝐴𝑐
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 (7)
4
Then the spectrum of 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t)

𝑆𝐴𝑀 (f) ↔
 Cont…
• The spectrum of AM becomes
 Cont…
AM spectrum consists of two impulse frequencies located
𝐴𝑐
at +𝑓𝑐 and weighted
2
𝜇𝐴𝑐
Two USB’s at 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 and −𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 weighted
4
𝜇𝐴𝑐
Two LSB’s at 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 and −𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 weighted
4
Note :
 For positive frequencies: The spectrum of an AM wave
above fc is referred to as the upper sideband, below fc is
referred to as the lower sideband.
 For negative frequencies: The upper sideband is below –
fc and the lower sideband is above – fc. The
 Cont…

 AM𝐵𝑊𝑇 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 - 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚
=2𝑓𝑚
Note:
 For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component of the AM
wave equals fc +W, and the lowest frequency component equals fc –
W.
 The difference between these two frequencies defines the
transmission bandwidth(BT) for an AM wave.
Example: Given: Input modulating frequency 𝑓𝑚 = 10 kHz
Carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 = 400 kHz
Spectral components
𝑓𝑐 = 400kHz
USB =𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 = 410 kHz,
LSB =𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 =390kHz
BW = 2𝑓𝑚 =20kHz
 Modulation index
 Modulation index (𝜇 =𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 ) specifies to what extent the
carrier is modulated by the 𝑚(𝑡).

Resulting AM signal
 The envelope of s(t) has essentially the same shape as the
baseband signal m(t).
 Modulation index defined as the ratio of amplitude of message
signal to the amplitude of carrier signal. i.e.
𝐴𝑚
𝜇 =
𝐴𝑐
 Cont…
From the above figure the modulation index/depth is:
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜇=
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 1 − 𝜇
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑐 =
2
Types of modulation index
(1) Under modulation (𝜇 < 1) 𝐴 𝑚 < 𝐴𝑐

(1) Critical/ideal modulation (𝜇 =1) 𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴𝑐

(1) Over modulation (𝜇 > 1) 𝐴𝑚 > 𝐴 𝑐

 𝐴𝑚 & 𝐴𝑐 denote he maximum and minimum values of the

envelope of the modulated wave.
Percentage modulation
 The maximum value of 𝜇 multiplied by 100 is referred to
as the percentage modulation
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜇= x100%
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Total power in AM
Analyzing AM spectrum we see that from
1
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝜇𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2
1
+ 𝜇𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2

𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵
 The power in the carrier and sidebands can be calculated by
𝑣2
using the power formula P= where P is the output power, V is
𝑅
the rms output voltage, and R is the resistive part of the load
impedance, which is usually an antenna. or
 Power of any signal is equal to the mean square value of
the signal
We know that:
2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣
𝑃= and 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴𝑀 or where 𝑣𝐴𝑀 is the peak value
𝑅 2
Note: For power calculations, rms values must be used for the
voltages.
We can convert from peak to rms by dividing the peak value by 2

𝑣𝑀2
𝐴2𝐶
there fore𝑃𝑐 = =
2𝑅 2𝑅
 Assume that the AM signal is dissipated in antenna load of ‘R’ Ω
i. e . normalized power which is average power normalized across
1Ω resistor

𝐴2𝐶
𝑃𝑐 =
2
 Cont…

𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 =𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵
2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑀
But, = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑅 2
Then
𝜇𝐴𝑐 2
2 𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶
𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 =𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = =
2𝑅 8𝑅 8
So,
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 +𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵
𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶
= + +
2𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅
𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶
= + + due to
2 8 8
 Cont…

𝐴2𝐶 2𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2

𝑃𝑡 = + = + = 1 + wats
2𝑅 8𝑅 2𝑅 4𝑅 2𝑅 2
But due to normalized power R=1 𝛺
𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2
𝑃𝑡 = 1+ wats
2 2

𝜇2
𝑃𝑡 =𝑃𝑐 1 +
2
𝜇2
=𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝑐
2
𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇2
= 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = =𝑃𝑐
8 4 2 4
So,
𝜇2 𝜇2 𝜇2
𝑃𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 +𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐
4 4 2
 Cont…
 𝑃𝑐 is independent of modulation index (𝜇)
 As 𝜇 , 𝑃𝑆𝐵 , hence 𝑃𝑡
Case(i)
If 𝜇 =0 No modulation
𝜇2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 and 𝑃𝑡
2
Case(ii)
If 𝜇 =100% i.e. 𝜇 =1
𝜇2 𝜇2 12
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝑐 =𝑃𝑐 1 + =𝑃𝑐 1 + =1.5𝑃𝑐
2 2 2
Note: if 𝜇 from 0 to 1 the AM power increase by 50%
 Cont…
For 𝜇 =1
𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝑡 = 1.5𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 = =0.667𝑃𝑡 and
1.5
𝜇2
From 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑆𝐵 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑡 - 𝑃𝑐
2
=𝑃𝑡 - 0.666𝑃𝑡
=0.333𝑃𝑡
𝜇2 𝑃𝑡 1
𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 =𝑃𝑐 =( )( ) = 0.666𝑃𝑡 0.25
4 1.5 4
= 0.166𝑃𝑡
Note: for 100% modulation 𝑃𝑐 =66.66% of 𝑃𝑡 &
𝑃𝑆𝐵 =33.33% of 𝑃𝑡
 Cont…

 which simply means that the share of power(p) by the

carrier gets reduced from 100% to 66.66% this is the
biggest drawback of AM .
Modulation efficiency 𝜂
 It specifies the share of the sideband(SB) power in the total
power
 For efficient power distribution, 𝜂 should be high
𝜇2 𝜇2
𝑃𝑆𝐵 𝑃𝑐 2 2 𝜇2 𝜇2
𝜂= = 𝜇2
= 𝜇2
= 𝜇2
= 2
𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑐 1+ 2 1+ 2 2 1+ 2 2+𝜇

If 𝜇 =0,then 𝜂=0, 𝑃𝑆𝐵 =0 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃𝑐 100% 𝑃𝑡

 Cont…
0.25
 If 𝜇 =0.5,then 𝜂= = 0.11 & 𝑃𝑆𝐵 =11% 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡 and
2.25
𝑃𝑐 = 89%of 𝑃𝑡
1
 If 𝜇 =100%,then 𝜂 = =0.33 & 𝑃𝑆𝐵 =33.33% 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡 and
3
𝑃𝑐 = 66.66% of 𝑃𝑡

Note:𝑃𝑐 is independent of 𝜇 and share of 𝑃𝑐 in 𝑃𝑡 as 𝜇

 Current & Voltage relations in AM
Current relations in AM
We know that
𝜇2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2
𝜇2
𝐼𝑡2 R = 𝐼𝑐2 𝑅 1+
2

𝜇2
𝐼𝑡 =𝐼𝑐 1 +
2
 𝐼𝑐 is independent of 𝜇
 Cont…
Voltage relations in AM
We know that
𝜇2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2
𝑉𝑡2 𝑉𝑐2 𝜇2
= 1+
𝑅 𝑅 2

𝜇2
𝑉𝑡 =𝑉𝑐 1 +
2
 𝑉𝑐 is independent of 𝜇
 Cont…
Multitone modulation
 If the message signal is having multiple frequencies , then the
modulation is corresponds to multiple modulation
Lets assume
𝑚(𝑡) =𝐴𝑚1 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 t+𝐴𝑚2 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 t 𝐴𝑚1 > 𝐴𝑚2 & 𝑓𝑚2 > 𝑓𝑚1
The general expression for AM is
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t

𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) =
𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
Let
𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚1 =𝜇1
𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚2 =𝜇2
 Cont…
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) =
𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 𝑡 + 𝜇2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
= [𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 𝑡cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
+ 𝐴𝑐 𝜇2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 𝑡cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t]
1 1
By using 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = cos(A-B) + cos(A+B) the above
2 2
equation becomes
𝑈𝑆𝐵1
𝐴𝑐 𝜇1
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + cos2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚1 t
𝐴𝑐 𝜇1 𝐴𝑐2𝜇2
+ cos2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚1 t+ cos2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚2 t
2 2
𝐿𝑆𝐵1 𝑈𝑆𝐵2
𝐴𝑐 𝜇2
+ cos2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚2 t
2
𝐿𝑆𝐵2
 Cont…

Then the spectrum of 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) becomes

𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (f) = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
𝜇1 𝐴𝑐
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚1 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚1
4
𝜇1 𝐴𝑐
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚1 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚1
4
𝜇2 𝐴𝑐
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚2 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚2
4
𝜇2 𝐴𝑐
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚2 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚2
4
 Cont…
BW = 2max freq of m(t)
if we assume 𝜇1 >𝜇2 & 𝑓𝑚2 >𝑓𝑚1
BW = 2𝑓𝑚2
The AM spectrum becomes
 Cont…
Total power of AM for Multitone Modulation (for two message
signals)
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵1 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵2 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵1 +𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵2
𝐴2𝐶 𝜇12 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇22 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇12 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇22 𝐴2𝐶
= + + + +
2𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅
𝐴2𝐶 𝜇12 𝜇22 𝜇12 𝜇22 𝐴2𝐶 𝜇12 𝜇22
= 1+ + + + = 1+ +
2𝑅 4 4 4 4 2𝑅 2 2
𝐴2𝐶 𝜇12 +𝜇22
= 1+ ,
2𝑅 2
but 𝜇𝑡2 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥=𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22
𝜇𝑡2
𝑃𝑡 =𝑃𝑐 1 +
2
 Cont…

Similarly:
𝜇𝑡2
𝜂=
2 + 𝜇𝑡2
𝜇𝑡2
𝐼𝑡 =𝐼𝑐 1 +
2

𝜇𝑡2
𝑉𝑡 =𝑉𝑐 1 +
2
 Generation of AM
There are two methods of generation of AM
(1) Square Law Modulator
(2) Switching Modulator
(1) Square Law Modulator
 Consists of three stages Adder, Non linearity(NL) devices
and BPF for extracting the desired message signal.
 Cont…
A non linear device (diode) is suitably biased and
operated in a restricted portion of its characteristic curve

Transfer characteristics' of diode

 Cont…
 When a nonlinear element such as a diode is suitably biased
and operated in a restricted portion of its characteristic curve,
that is ,the signal applied to the diode is relatively weak, we
find that transfer characteristic of diode-load resistor
combination can be represented closely by a square law :
𝑣0 (t)=𝑎1 𝑣𝑖 (t)+𝑎2 𝑣 2𝑖 (t)+….(1)
Where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 are constants & 𝑣0 (t) is out put voltage
Now, the input voltage Vi (t) is the sum of both carrier and
message signals i.e.,
𝑣𝑖 (t) =𝑣1 (t) = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑡
𝑣𝑖 (t) = 𝑚 𝑡 +Ac cos2 𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (2)
 The 𝑐 𝑡 sholud be such that the peak voltage of 𝑣1 must be
less than the cut in voltage( 𝑣𝐹 ) of the diode so that the diode
exhibits Square law characteristic
 Cont…

• Substitute (2) in (1)

𝑣0 (t)=𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
+ 𝑎2 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
=𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 +𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝑎2 𝑚2 𝑡
+2𝑎2 𝑚 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (3)
By collecting the same terms we obtain
AM wave
2𝑎2
𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 +𝑎2 𝑚2 𝑡
𝑎1
+𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (4)
 Cont…
The first bracketed term is desired AM wave at carrier
𝑓𝑐 with
2𝑎2
𝑘𝑎 =
𝑎1
Then the bracketed term in (4) becomes
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t)= 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
Remaining terms are at base band or at 2𝑓𝑐 and are
filtered out by BPF
BPF has center frequency 𝑓𝑐 band width of 2w
The 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 term has components at baseband and at 𝑓𝑐
becouse
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
2
The Fourier transform of 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) or the spectrum of 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t)
becomes
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t)= 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t)= 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 𝑎1 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (f) = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 +
2 2
𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
 Cont…
Spectrum of
Message signal

𝑚(𝑡) ↔

Spectrum of AM
signal

𝑆𝐴𝑀 (f) ↔
 Cont…
BPF:
 The pass band of the BPF is such that it has to allow only the
frequency component of AM

The out put of the diode

𝑣2 (t)=𝑎1 𝑣1 (t)+𝑎2 𝑣 21 (t) +𝑎3 𝑣 23 (t)+…

We can’t consider the higher order terms b/c they are not allowed
by the BPF.
 Cont…

So,
𝑣2 (t)=𝑎1 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
1 2

+𝑎2 𝑚2 𝑡 +𝐴2𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+ 2𝑚 𝑡 . 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t

3 4 5

Note:
 𝑚 𝑡 , 𝑚2 𝑡 & 𝐴2𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t not allowed by BPF
 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t , & 2𝑚 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 allowed by BPF
 Cont…
Spectrum of 𝑣2 (t)

𝑣2 (f) ↔
 Cont…

To avoid un desired frequency components at the O/p of BPF

𝑓𝑐 ≫ 3𝑤
Thus, the O/p of BPF
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +2𝑎2 𝑚 𝑡 .𝐴𝑐 os2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2𝑎2
= 𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
𝑎1
2𝑎2
but, 𝑘𝑎 = ,then
𝑎1
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) =𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
(2) Switching Modulator

We use diode as switching device

I/p of diode = 𝑣1 (t) =𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
 The message signal is practically of low strength
 The carrier signal is generated with high frequency
 So the operation of diode is mainly controlled by carrier
 𝑣1 (t), 𝑐 𝑡 > 0, 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣2 (t) = 𝑣1 (t)
𝑣2 (t) ≈
0, 𝑐 𝑡 < 0, 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑓 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣2 (t) = 0
 Thus the O/p of diode is switch b/n ′𝑣1 ’ and
1
‘0’periodically at time interval of or
𝑓𝑐
 load voltage 𝑉2 (t) varies periodically between the values
𝑉1 (t) and zeros at a rate equal to the carrier frequency fc.
Then
𝑣2 (t) ≈ 𝑣1 (t) .𝑔𝑇0 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝑔𝑇0 𝑡
1
Where 𝑔𝑇0 𝑡 is pulse train with 𝑇0 =
𝑓𝑐
From trigonometric Fourier series, The pulse train is

(1)
Substitute (2) in (1) we obtain

1 2 ∞ −1 𝑛−1
𝑔𝑇0 𝑡 = + 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 2𝑛 − 1
𝑛=1 2𝑛−1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (3)
2 𝜋
Then
𝑣2 (t) ≈ 𝑣1 (t) .𝑔𝑇0 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝑔𝑇0 𝑡 (4)
substitute (3) to(4) we obtain
1 2 ∞ −1 𝑛−1
𝑣2 (t) ≈ 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝑛=1 2𝑛−1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 2𝑛 − 1 (5)
2 𝜋
Taking 𝑛 =1,2,3…. we obtain
1 2 2
𝑣2 (t) ≈ 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t − cos2𝜋(3𝑓𝑐 )t + ⋯
2 𝜋 3𝜋
only odd harmonics are present
1 𝐴𝑐 2 2𝐴𝑐
𝑣2 (t) ≈ 𝑚 𝑡 + cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 2 𝜋 𝜋
1 2 3 4
2 2𝐴𝑐
- 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋(3𝑓𝑐 )t − 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t. cos2𝜋(3𝑓𝑐 )t
3𝜋 3𝜋
5 6
 Now by designing the BPF with center frequency 𝑓𝑐 &
pass band of 2w, the result would be the required AM
signal i.e. BPF allow 2 & 3
𝐴𝑐 2
 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 𝜋
𝐴𝑐 4
= 1+ 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 𝜋𝐴𝑐
4
but, 𝑘𝑎 = ,then
𝜋𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2
Unwanted component, the spectrum of which contains
 Delta function at 0, ±2fc, ±4fc and so on.
 Occupy frequency intervals of width 2W centered at 0,
±3fc, ±5fc and soon, where W is the message bandwidth.
 Be removed by a band filter with mid frequency f and
using band-pass mid-band fc bandwidth 2W, provide that
fc >2W.
The Fourier transform of 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) or the spectrum of 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t)
becomes
𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 2
𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (f) = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
4
𝐴 𝑐 𝑘𝑎
+ 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
4
Spectrum of
Message signal

𝑚(𝑡) ↔

Spectrum of
AM signal

𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) ↔
 Demodulation of AM
 The process of demodulation is used to recover the
original modulating wave from the incoming modulated
wave.
 There are three methods of demodulation of AM
signal/wave
(1) Square law Demodulator
(2) Envelope detector
(3) Synchronous detector
 (1) Square law Demodulator

As 𝜂 decrease it has certain drawbacks

𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) =𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝑘𝑎 . 𝑚 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (1)
But we know that
𝑣2 (t) =𝑎1 𝑣1 (t)+𝑎2 𝑣 21 (t) so,
𝑣2 (t) = 𝑎1 . 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) + 𝑎2 𝑆𝐴𝑀 2 (t) (2)
Then substitute (2) in (1)
𝑣2 (t)=𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝑘𝑎 . 𝑚 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +
𝑎2 [ 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝑘𝑎 . 𝑚 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
 1
We know that: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
2
𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐
𝑣2 (t) =𝑎1 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝑎1 𝑘𝑎 . 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + (1 +
2
 𝑆 𝑆
To reconstruct message ≫ 1 and if <1 then message
𝑁 𝑁
can’t be reconstructed
𝑆 𝑎2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 2
= = (1)
𝑁 𝑎 2 𝐴2 2 2
𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 (t) 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡
2
Assuming 𝑚 𝑡 =𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t (2)
Substitute (2) in (1) ,we obtain
𝑆 2
= (3)
𝑁 𝑘𝑎 .𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t
But 𝑘𝑎 . 𝐴𝑚 =𝜇 (4)
Substitute (4) in (3) we obtain
𝑆 2
=
𝑁 𝜇cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t
Assuming cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t =1, then
𝑆 2
=
𝑁 𝜇
𝑆 2
For ≫ 1, ≫ 1 or 𝜇 ≪ 2 , 𝑠𝑜 𝜂 ≪ 2
𝑁 𝜇
Note :to reconstruct message , 𝜇 should be small, which
means 𝜇 is below 1. hence this method is not practically
suitable
(2) Envelope Detector

 Envelope detector is simple and cheap

 Envelope detector is used to detect high level modulated
levels, where as square-law detector is used to detect low
level modulated signals (i.e., below 1v)
 It is also based on the switching action or switching
characteristics of a diode. It consists of a diode and a
resistor-capacitor(RC) filter.
We know diode is
forward biased diode Closed switch
reverse biased diode Open switch

Operation of envelope detector

 On a positive half cycle of the input signal, the diode is
forward biased and the capacitor C charges up rapidly to the
peak value of the input signal. When the input signal falls
below this value, the diode becomes reverse biased and the
capacitor C discharges slowly through the load resistor RL .
 The discharging process continues until the next positive half
cycle. When the input signal becomes greater than the voltage
across the capacitor, the diode conducts again and the process
is repeated.
The charging time constant 𝑅𝑠 C is very small when compared to
the carrier period 1/ 𝑓𝑐 i.e.,
𝑅𝑠 C << 1/ 𝑓𝑐
Where 𝑅𝑠 = internal resistance of the voltage source.
• C = capacitor
• fc = carrier frequency
i.e., the capacitor C charges rapidly to the peak value of the
signal.
 The discharging time constant RLC is very large when
compared to the charging time constant i.e.,
1/ 𝑓𝑐 << RLC << 1/W
Where RL= load resistance value
W = message signal bandwidth
i.e., the capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor.
 Advantages:
 It is very simple to design
 It is inexpensive
 Efficiency is very high when compared to Square Law
detector
Disadvantage:
 Due to large time constant, some distortion occurs which
is known as diagonal clipping i.e., selection of time
constant is some what difficult
Application:
 It is most commonly used in almost all commercial AM
Radio receivers.
(3) Synchronous detector

 For perfect reconstruction of message ,LO O/p should be perfectly

synchronized both in frequency and phase transmitted with respect
to carrier
 Frequency synchronization can be easily achieved but achieving
phase synchronization is difficult and hence needs additional
complex circuitry, and detection becomes complex/expensive
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) =𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
=𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 . 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (1)
 Case (i)
assume Lo O/p having perfect synchronization i.e.
Lo =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
There fore o/p of multiplier=
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t). Lo
= 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 . 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
= 𝐴2𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 . 𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
1
By using 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
2
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 .𝑚 𝑡
1 + cos4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 1 + cos4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 2
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 .𝑚 𝑡 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 .𝑚 𝑡
+ cos4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + + cos4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 2 2 2
 From the above we neglect the dc term and carrier
frequency b/c LPF is desired for 𝑚 𝑡 𝐵𝑤
 So, the result is
𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 .𝑚 𝑡
O/p =
2
Case(ii)
Assume no phase synchronization of Lo with transmitted
carrier i.e. Lo =𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝜙)
o/p of multiplier = 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t). Lo
= 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 . 𝑚 𝑡 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝜙
= 𝐴2𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 tcos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝜙)+ + 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 . 𝑚 𝑡 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝜙)
By using
1 1
cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 + 𝑏 we obtain and
2 2
cos −𝑥 =cos(𝑥)
o/p of multiplier = 𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t). Lo
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 .𝑚 𝑡
cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝜙 + cos𝜙 + cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝜙
2 2 2
𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 .𝑚 𝑡
+ cos𝜙
2
 From the above we neglect the dc term and carrier frequency
b/c LPF is desired for 𝑚 𝑡 𝐵𝑤
𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 .𝑚 𝑡
So, the result is O/p = cos𝜙
2
 For reconstruction of message ‘𝜙’ should be constant.
 To maintain this ,additional circuit is to be used hence, result
is complex detector
 Advantages of AM
 Its system is relatively cheap to build:
Use simple and low cost circuit; we don’t need any special
equipment and complex circuits that are used in frequency
modulation. The reason that AM radio broadcasting has
been popular for so long.
 Zero crossing in Amplitude modulation is equidistant.
 Modulation & Demodulation is simple
 Used for long distance communication due to amplitude
modulation wave length
 Disadvantage/Limitations of AM
AM is wasteful of power:
 The carrier wave c(t) and baseband signal m(t) are
independent. The carrier wave represents a waste of
power, which means that in AM only a fraction of the total
transmitted power is actually affect by m(t).
AM is wasteful of bandwidth:
 The upper and lower sidebands of an AM wave are
uniquely related to each other by virtue of their symmetry
about the carrier frequency.
 AM is also susceptible to interference, since it affects the
amplitude of the carrier.
To overcome the limitations of AM, we trade off system
complexity for improved utilization of communication
resources.
Three modified forms of amplitude modulation: These
methods are
(1) Double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC)AM
(2) Single sideband (SSB)AM and
(3) Vestigial-sideband (VSB)AM.
 Double-sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)AM
 known as product modulator, is an AM signal that has a
suppressed /removed /attenuated carrier.
 The result is less power is transmitted with perfect
communication, thus the advantage of DSBSC over AM is
transmitter power will be saved.
 Product of the message signal m(t) and the carrier wave c(t):
We know that
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (t) = 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑐(𝑡) assume 𝑘𝑎 =1
= 𝑐(𝑡) + 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑚 𝑡
Hence DSBSC is suppress of carrier The general expression for
DSBSC is
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (t) =𝑚 𝑡 . 𝑐(𝑡) (1)
But, 𝑐(𝑡) =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (2)
Substitute (2) in (1) becomes
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (t) =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t . 𝑚 𝑡 (3)
Then The Fourier transform of 𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (t) or the spectrum of
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (t) becomes
 By using (recalling shifting property)
 exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)𝑚(𝑡) ↔M(𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 )
 exp(−𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)𝑚(𝑡) ↔M(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (t)=𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t . 𝑚 𝑡
𝐴𝑐
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −j2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 j2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝑚 𝑡
2
𝐴𝑐
We obtain 𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (f) = 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
As usual
𝑚 𝑡 ↔

𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (t) ↔
 Single tone DSBSC
Assume 𝑚 𝑡 =𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t (1) (single message frequency)
Then,
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (t) =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t . 𝑚 𝑡 (2)
Substitute (2) in (1) the result becomes
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (t) =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t (3)
1 1
By Using cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 + 𝑏
2 2
Equ(3) becomes
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (t) = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos[2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 −
2 2
Then The Fourier transform of 𝑚(t) & 𝑐(t) or the spectrum of
m(t) or 𝑐(t) becomes
𝑚 𝑡 =𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t
𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t = 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
2
By using
𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ↔ 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑚
−𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 1 1
𝑒 ↔ 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t ↔ 𝛿 𝑓− 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚
2 2
𝐴𝑚
M(f) = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 similarly
2
𝐴𝑐
𝐶(f) = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
𝐴 𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 (f) = + 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚
4
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚
4
Spectrum of
Message signal 𝑚 𝑡 ↔

Spectrum of
Carrier signal c 𝑡 ↔

Spectrum of
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 signal
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 ↔
 Power of DSBSC signal/wave
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑆𝐵
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 (1)
2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝐴𝑀
but , = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑅 2
Then
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 2
2 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚 𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑚
𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 =𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = = due to normalized power R=1𝛺
2𝑅 8𝑅 8
From equ(1)
𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = + =
8𝑅 8𝑅 4𝑅

Efficiency of DSBSC signal/wave

𝐴2 2
𝐶 𝐴𝑚
𝑃𝑆𝐵 4𝑅
𝜂= = 𝐴2 2 =1 =100%
𝑃𝑡 𝐶 𝐴𝑚
4𝑅
 Multitone DSBSC/ modulation
Assume 𝑚 𝑡 =𝐴𝑚1 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 t +𝐴𝑚2 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 t (1)
c 𝑡 =𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (2)
Then
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 . c 𝑡
= 𝐴𝑚1 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 t +𝐴𝑚2 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 t 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t

=𝐴𝑚1 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚1 t𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝐴𝑚2 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚2 t𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t

1 1
By Using cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 + 𝑏
2 2
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚1 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚1
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚1 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚1
2 2
+ USB1 LSB1
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚2 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚2
cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚2 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚2
2 2
USB2 LSB2
Then The Fourier transform of 𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 or the
spectrum of 𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 becomes
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚1
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑓 =+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚1 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚1
4
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚1
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚1 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚1
4
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚2
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚2 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚2
4
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚2
+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚2 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚2
4
Assume
𝑓𝑚2 > 𝑓𝑚1 and 𝐴𝑚1 > 𝐴𝑚2
Spectrum of
Message signal

𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 ↔

BW= 2𝑥ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑓𝑚2

 Power of DSBSC signal/wave for multitone modulation
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑆𝐵1 + 𝑃𝑆𝐵2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵1 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵2 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵1 +𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵2 (1)
2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑀
but , 𝑅
= 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2
Then
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚1 2
2 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚1 𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑚1
𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵1 =𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵1 = = =
2𝑅 8𝑅 8
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚2 2
2 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚2 𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑚22
𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵2 =𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵2 = 2𝑅
= 8𝑅
= 8
due to normalized power R=1𝛺
From equ(1)
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵1 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵2 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵1 +𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵2 =
𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚1 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚1 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚2 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚2 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚1 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚2 𝐴2𝐶
+ + + = + = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝐴2𝑚1 + 𝐴2𝑚2
8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 4𝑅 4𝑅 4𝑅

Efficiency of DSBSC signal/wave

𝐴2
𝑃𝑆𝐵 4𝑅
𝐶 𝐴2𝑚1 +𝐴2𝑚2
𝜂= 𝑃𝑡 𝐴2𝐶
=1 =100%
𝐴2𝑚1 +𝐴2𝑚2
4𝑅
 Generation of DSBSC
There are two methods of generation of DSBSC
(1) Balanced Modulator
(2) Ring Modulator
Balanced Modulator
Two AM modulator are arranged in a balanced
configuration to suppress the carrier
Assume two modulators are identical except for sign
reversal of 𝑚 𝑡
From the figure
𝑆𝐴𝑀1 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
𝑆𝐴𝑀2 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 1 − 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑆𝐴𝑀1 (𝑡) - 𝑆𝐴𝑀2 (𝑡)
= 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t +𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐
- 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t − 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐
=2𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 , let 2𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 = 𝐴𝑐 ′ then
2𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ′ 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 which is standard
DSBSC signal
2𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) =2𝑘𝑎 c(𝑡) 𝑚(𝑡)
 Ring Modulator (Mixer)
 In this 4 diodes are conducted in the form of a ring to
generate DSBSC signal. Assume diodes are ideal and
transformers are center tapped.
 The diodes are controlled by a square-wave carrier c(t) of
frequency 𝑓𝑐 , which is applied longitudinally by means of
two center-tapped transformers.
 The operation of the circuit.
Assuming that the diodes have a constant forward
resistance 𝒓𝒇 when switched on and a constant backward
resistance 𝒓𝒃 when switched off. And they switch as the
carrier wave c(t) goes through zero.
On one half-cycle of the carrier wave, the outer diodes are
switched to their forward resistance 𝒓𝒇 and the inner
diodes are switched to their backward resistance 𝒓𝒃 . On
other half-cycle of the carrier wave, the diodes operate the
half in the opposite condition.
 Case(i)
If c(𝑡) is +ve i.e. c(𝑡) >0
 Top(D1) & Bottom(D2) diodes conduct i.e.
• D1 &D2 are switch case
• D3 &D4 are open case
• With c(𝑡) > 0, 𝑆0 (𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡)
 Case(ii)
If c(𝑡) is −ve i.e. c(𝑡) < 0
 D3 & Bottom D4 diodes conduct i.e.
• D1 &D2 are open case
• D3 &D4 are switch case
• With c(𝑡) <0, 𝑆0 (𝑡) = −𝑚(𝑡)
The output voltage has the same magnitude as the output
voltage, but they have opposite polarity.
Square-wave carrier c(t) can be represented by a Fourier
series:

The ring modulator output is therefore

It is sometimes referred to as a double-balanced modulator,

because it is balanced with respect to both the baseband
signal and the square-wave carrier.
 Detection of DSBSC
Coherent /Synchronous Detection
 It is assumed that the local oscillator signal is exactly
coherent or synchronized, in both frequency and phase,
with carrier wave c(t) used in the product modulator to
generate s(t). This method of demodulation is known as
coherent detection or synchronous demodulation.
 case(i)
Assume Lo O/p 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t is in perfect synchronization with
transmitted carriers
O/p Multiplier = 𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 . 𝐿𝑜
= 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡.𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
= 𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 (1)
1
By using 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 equ (1) becomes
2
𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 . 𝐿𝑜 = 1 + cos4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
2
𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
= + cos4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
2 2
Hence LPF allows only message BW& reject others
𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
The O/p of 𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 . 𝐿𝑜 =
2
 case(ii)
Assuming Lo o/p having only frequency synchronization but
not phase synchronization i.e.
Lo O/p =𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝜙)
O/p Multiplier = 𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 . 𝐿𝑜
= 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡.𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝜙)
= 𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡.cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝜙) (1)
1 1
By using cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 + 𝑏
2 2
equ (1) becomes
𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝜙 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 (2)
2 2
but cos(−𝜙) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
The o/p of equ(2) becomes
𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t + 𝜙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
2 2
due to LPF
𝐴2𝑐 𝑚(𝑡)
The O/p of 𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 . 𝐿𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
2
Advantage of DSBSC
 Transmitter power will be saved i.e.𝜂 =100%
 Used for long distance communication
Disadvantage of DSBSC
 Demodulation is complex
 Needs high transmission bandwidth
Application
 Uses in Quadrature carrier multiplexing and optical fiber
systems
 Single –sideband Suppressed Carrier(SSBSC)
 The advantage of SSBSC over AM & DSBSC is that
both transmitter power(power efficient) & transmission
bandwidth(bandwidth conservation)
 In DSBSC, the two sidebands carry redundant
information thus we can eliminate one side-band to get
SSB-SC usually referred to as SSB.
 SSB with carrier is called SSB-AM
 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 ↔

or
 BW of SSBSC =W=BW of message signal
 In SSB ,compared to DSBSC , 50% of BW & 50% of
transmission power will be saved
Single tone SSBSC Modulation
Assuming 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t (1)
𝑆𝐴𝑀1 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (2)
but 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 =𝜇 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢 2 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑆𝐴𝑀1 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
But we know that ,
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos[2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 −
2 2
So.
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 for USB or
2
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 for LSB
2
Then The Fourier transform of 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 or the spectrum
of 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 becomes
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚
4
for USB or
𝐴 𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑓 =+ 𝛿 𝑓 −𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 +𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚
4
for LSB
Spectrum of
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 signal
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 ↔
For USB
or
Spectrum of
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 signal
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 ↔
For LSB
 Power of SSBSC signal/wave
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 =𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵
2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝐴𝑀
but , = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑅 2
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 2
2 𝐴2𝐶 𝐴2𝑚 𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑚
Then 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 =𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = = due to
2𝑅 8𝑅 8
normalized power R=1𝛺
Efficiency of DSBSC signal/wave
𝐴2 2
𝐶 𝐴𝑚
𝑃𝑆𝐵 8𝑅
𝜂= = 𝐴2 2 =1 =100%
𝑃𝑡 𝐶 𝐴𝑚
8𝑅
General expression for SSBSC
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 (1)
2
i.e. +for USB or – for LSB
By using cos 𝑎 ± 𝑏 =cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 ∓ sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏
equ(1) becomes
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 tcos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t∓ sin2𝜋𝑓𝑐 tsin
2 2
2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t i.e. here - for USB & +for LSB
We know 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t ,
90° 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)=𝑚(t)= 𝐴𝑚 sin2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t
Where 𝑚(t) is Hilbert transform of 𝑚(𝑡) there fore
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑡)cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t∓ 𝑚(t) sin2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 2
 Percentage of power saved in DSBSC &SSBSC as compared to
Am
(i) %Power saved in DSBSC as compared to AM
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐
= = = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑀 𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑡 𝑃 1+𝜇2
𝑐 2
1 2
= 𝜇2 = 2
1+ 2+𝜇
2
%Power saved in SSBSC as compared to AM
𝜇2 𝜇2
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 𝑜𝑟𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 4+ 𝑃𝑐 1+ 4
= = 𝜇2
= 𝜇2
=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑀 𝑃𝑡 𝑃𝑐 1+ 𝑃𝑐 1+
2 2
𝜇2
1+ 4 4+𝜇2
% saved power= 𝜇2
=
1+ 2 2 2+𝜇2
 Generation of SSBSC
There are two methods of generation of SSBSC
(1) Frequency(Filter) discrimination method
(2) Phase discrimination method
Frequency(Filter) discrimination method
In this method ,DSBSC signal is passed through BPF to
generate SSBSC

We know that 𝑆𝐷𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t

O/p of BPF = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡
O/p of BPF
for USB
&
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 ↔

O/p of BPF
for LSB
&
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 ↔
 Phase discrimination method
Phase discrimination method

 Hilbert transform: is nothing more

−𝜋
than a filter that shifts the 𝜙 of
all the frequency components by
2
−𝜋
 i.e. Hilbert transform of x(t) is a phase shifted
2
 Therefore
We know 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t ,
90° 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)=𝑚(t)= 𝐴𝑚 sin2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t
Where 𝑚(t) is Hilbert transform of 𝑚(𝑡) there fore
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑡)cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t∓ 𝑚(t) sin2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 2
 Drawbacks of Frequency/Filter discriminator
 BPF is not ideal practically , the resulting SSB will
contain undesired frequencies & so the message signal
cannot be reconstructed perfectly.
 Because of this SSB is limited only to voice transmission
and fails for audio/radio signal(Band-gap)
Drawbacks of phase discriminator
 This method is available/suitable only for generation of
single tone SSBSC
 For multi-tone SSBSC , frequency discriminator is
available
 Demodulation of SSBSC

Coherent /Synchronous Detection

𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
We know 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑡)cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t∓ 𝑚(t) sin2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 2
Case(i)
 Considering Lo o/p in perfect synchronization with the
transmitter carrier
 O/p Multiplier = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 𝑥 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
= 𝑚(𝑡)cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t ∓ 𝑚(t) sin2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 2
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐
= 𝑚(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t ∓ 𝑚(t)sin2𝜋𝑓𝑐 tcos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t (1)
2 2
2 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
By using 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 =
2 2
equ (1)becomes
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐
𝑚(𝑡) 1 + cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t ∓ 𝑚(t)sin4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
4 4
Due to LPF we reject carrier frequency component
𝐴2𝑐
O/p LPF = 𝑚(𝑡)
4
 Case(ii)
Considering Lo o/p in having no phase synchronization with the
transmitter carrier
O/p Multiplier = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 𝑥 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+𝜙)
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
= 𝑚(𝑡)cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t ∓ 𝑚(t) sin2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+𝜙)
2 2
𝐴2𝑐
= 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 tcos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+𝜙) +
2
𝐴2𝑐
𝑚(t) sin2𝜋𝑓𝑐 tcos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+𝜙) (1)
2
By using
1 1
cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 + 𝑏
2 2
1 1
sin 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = sin 𝑎 − 𝑏 + sin 𝑎 + 𝑏
2 2
Then equ(1) becomes
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐
= 𝑚(𝑡) cos𝜙+cos(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+𝜙 ∓ 𝑚(𝑡)
4 4
sin𝜙+sin(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+𝜙
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐
= 𝑚(𝑡)cos𝜙+ 𝑚(𝑡)cos(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+𝜙
4 4
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐
∓ 𝑚(𝑡)sin𝜙 + 𝑚(𝑡) sin(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+𝜙
4 4
Due to LPF we reject carrier frequency component
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐
O/p LPF = 𝑚(𝑡)cos𝜙 ∓ 𝑚(𝑡)sin𝜙
4 4
𝐴2𝑐
If 𝜙 =0, O/p LPF = 𝑚(𝑡)
4
𝐴2𝑐
If 𝜙 =90°, O/p LPF = ∓ 𝑚(𝑡)
4
 Advantages of SSBSC
 Transmitter power is saved(𝜂=100%)
 Transmitter BW is saved
Drawbacks of SSBSC
 Demodulation is complex
 Limited only to voice signal transmission
Application of SSBSC
 Preferred for voice signal
 Two way radio communications
 Frequency division multiplexing
 Up conversion in numerous telecommunication systems
 Vestigial sideband (VSB)
 VSB is similar to SSB but it retains a small portion (a
vestige) of the unneeded sideband. This reduces DC
distortion.
 VSB signals are generated using standard AM or DSB-SC
modulation, then passing modulated signal through a
sideband shaping filter.
 VSB modulation with envelope detection are used to
modulate image in analog TV signals. (The audio signal is
modulated using FM.)
 VSB is derived by filtering DSBSC such that one SB is
passed completely say(USB) while only a vestige remains
of the other SB (LSB) this small portion is called Vestige
& known as VSB.
 VSB Spectrum

 In vestigial sideband, part of the lower sideband is retained.

 A non ideal band pass filter is used to cut off the lower
sideband gradually.
 The special design of BPF (sideband shaping filter)
distinguishes VSB from SSBSC USB
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
We know 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑡)cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t∓ 𝑚(t) sin2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
2 2
LSB
 To generate a VSB AM signal we begin by generating a
DSB-SC AM signal and passing it through a sideband filter
with frequency response H( f ) as shown in
 In the time domain the VSB signal may be expressed as
𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t ℎ 𝑡
where h(t) is the impulse response of the VSB filter.
In the frequency domain, the corresponding expression is
𝐴𝑐
𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑓 = 𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 H(f)
2
 To determine the frequency-response characteristics of the
filter, let us consider the demodulation of the VSB signal
𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 (t). We multiply 𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 (t) by the carrier component
𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t and pass the result through an ideal low pass
filter as shown in fig below and the product signal is
O/p LPF =V(t) = 𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t
= 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t 𝐴𝑐 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t ℎ 𝑡
𝐴𝑐
V(f)
= 𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 (𝑓) 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑓 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 H(f)
2
then we obtain
 𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐
V(f)= 𝑀 𝑓 − 2𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑓 H(𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 ) +
4 4
𝑀 𝑓 + 𝑀 𝑓 + 2𝑓𝑐 H(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )
The low pass filter rejects the double-frequency terms
and passes only the components in the frequency range |
f | ≤ W. Hence, the signal spectrum at the output of the
ideal is
𝐴2𝑐
V(f) = = 𝑀 𝑓 H(𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 ) + H(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )
4
 We require that the message signal at the output of the low
pass filter be undistorted. Hence, the VSB filter
characteristic must satisfy the condition.
H(𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 ) + H(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 ) =constant, | f | ≤ W
 This condition is satisfied by a filter that has the
frequency-response characteristic as shown below. We
note that H( f ) selects the upper sideband and a vestige of
the lower sideband.
 It has odd symmetry about the carrier frequency fc, in the
frequency range 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑟 < f < 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑟 , where fr is a
conveniently selected frequency (vestige frequency.) that
is some small fraction of W, i.e., 𝑓𝑟 ≪W.
 The response of the filter should be symmetric about 𝑓𝑐
 BW =DSBSC>VSB >SSBSC
 Power=AM>DSBSC>VSB &SSBSC
 The practical difficulty is in building a filter 𝑓𝑐 to isolate
the SB completely
 VSB is a compromise b/n DSBSC & SSBSC
 In VSB, instead of rejecting one sideband completely as
in SSB, a gradual cutoff of one sideband is accepted.
 All of the one sideband is transmitted and a small amount
(vestige) of the other sideband is transmitted as well.

𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑡 ↔

𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐵 𝑡 ↔
 BW =w+ 𝑓𝑟
Where ,w is message bandwidth & 𝑓𝑟 is vestige frequency
Application of VSB
 Frequency spectrum of VSB modulated signal for
practical Tv transmitter
 Frequency Conversion
• The basic operation involved in single-sideband modulation is in
fact a form of frequency/conversion translation.
• SSB modulation is sometimes referred to as frequency changing,
mixing, or heterodyning.
• The mixer consists a product modulator followed by a band-pass
filter.
• Band-pass filter bandwidth: equal to that of the modulated signal
𝑆1 (t) used as input
• Due to frequency translation performed by the mixer : We may set
𝑓2= 𝑓1 + 𝑓𝑙
assume 𝑓2 >𝑓1 Translated upward
𝑓𝑙= 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
Or
𝑓2= 𝑓1 − 𝑓𝑙
assume 𝑓1 >𝑓2 Translated downward
𝑓𝑙= 𝑓1 − 𝑓2
𝑆1 (t)𝑥 𝐴𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑙 𝑡 (1)
but 𝑆1 (t)=𝑚(𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 Then equ(1) becomes
𝑚(𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 𝑥 𝐴𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑙 𝑡 (2)
1 1
by using cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 + 𝑏 equ(2) becomes
2 2
𝐴
= 𝑙 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 𝑓1 + 𝑓𝑙 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 𝑓1 − 𝑓𝑙 𝑡
2
 The band-pass filter rejects the unwanted frequency and keeps the
desired
 Mixing is a linear operation