EE 6002 – POWER SYSTEM TRANSIENTS

UNIT V – TRANSIENTS IN INTEGRATED POWER SYSTEMS

1. Short line fault (SLF) or Kilometric Fault (T1)
 Short circuit faults occurring on a transmission line length between 0.5 to 5 km are termed as
short line fault
 A fault of this type imposes a highly heavy duty on the circuit breaker. There by affecting its
interrupting ability.

 The basic phenomena are the double frequency being impressed on the circuit breaker and the
difference of the TRV.
 On the supply side of the circuit breaker, the voltage will oscillate at the supply frequency
ultimately approaching the open circuit voltage.
 On the line side of the circuit breaker, the trapped charges after interruption initiate travelling
waves on the transmission line.
 These waves impose a saw tooth waveform at the circuit interruption.
 There is no driving voltage on the driving side; the voltage ultimately becomes zero because of
the line losses.
 The magnitude of the voltage oscillation is considerably lower than that of the system voltage,
the frequency is very high.
 This means that the rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV) across the circuit breaker can be
much higher than terminal short circuit case.
 Very high RRRV of upto 10 kv/micro sec have been encountered during the short line fault.
Illustration of short line fault (or) kilometric fault
Let ‘V’ be the initial peak voltage on transmission line.
‘T’ be the time for a wave to travel from the circuit breaker to fault location.
There is fast rate of rise of recovery voltage during fault that prejudices the successful operation of
circuit breaker.
 VS= voltage at sending end of transmission
IS = current at sending end of transmission
IR and VR= voltage and current at the receiving end
1 1
2 2
V s =V R coshjω ( LC ) + I R Z 0 sinhjω ( LC )

( )
1 1
2
VR
I s=I R coshjω ( LC ) + sinhjω ( LC ) 2
Z0
The sending end impedance, Zs = Vs/Is
1
VR
+ Z 0 tanhjω ( LC ) 2
IR
Z S=

( )
1
VR
1+ tanhjω ( LC )2
I R Z0
V
Z R= R
IR
Z S=Z 0 ¿
At the time of short circuit fault
a) Determining source impedance (ZS)
If the line has a short circuit at the receiving end, then ZR =0, ZS at short circuit is derived as
1

|Z s|sc =Z 0 tanhjω ( LC ) 2

1
2
s= jω∧T s= ( LC )
Z ( s )=Z 0 tanhjT s
sinh T s ε T −ε −TS S

tanhj T s= =
cosh T s ε T + ε−TS S

−2 T
1−ε S

tanhj T s= −2 T
1+ε S

Take ε −2 T =α
S

1−α −1
tanhj T s= =( 1−α ) ( 1+ α )
1+α
¿ ( 1−α ) ( 1−α +α −α + α −… . )
2 3 4

Z ( s )=Z 0 ( 1−2 α+2 α 2−2 α 3 + α 4 −… . )

−2 T −4 T −6T
Z ( s )=Z 0 (1−2 ε S
+2 ε S
−2 ε … ..) S

a) Determining source impedance (ZS)

 To determine the recovery voltage when interrupting a short line fault.
 The current is injected into the circuit at the circuit breaker terminals.
−E
Fault current I = t
L+ L1
−E 1
After transforms i ( s )=
L+ L1 s 2
V R=i ( s ) z ( s )
−E 1 −2 T −4T −6 T
i ( s ) z ( s )= Z (1−2 ε S
+2 ε −2 ε S
…..) S

L+ L1 s2 0
2. Voltage transients on closing and reclosing lines (T1)
When closing a switch on transmission line simple source.
When a switch closes, that voltage across it is destroyed at the instants of closing, only to appear
again immediately impressed across the impedance on either side of the switch.
One side will be a transmission line and the other side will be source or generating station.

The transmission line or cable can be represented by resistor equal to its surge impedance for a
wave to travel to the remote end of the line back again to source

Voltage impressed on the line will be

While considering the source side inductance

Thus the travelling wave can be described by

When closing a switch on transmission line with more complicated source.

 This source would be remain valid until the first wave returned from one of the parallel lines.
At this instant, treat the source as a termination for that particular line and the returning wave
would reject reflected and refracted waves which superimposed on the effects of initial event.

Reclosing of switches on transmission lines:

 If a source is rigid or solid, a high percentage of the source voltage is impressed across the line
at the time of circuit breaker close to energize a transmission line.
 If the line is open at other end or line without load, an unloaded transformer has high surge
impedance, the wave will essentially double at the remote end can put severe stress on
equipment on the location.
 Conditions can be more critical if an open circuit line is deenergized and is quickly re-
energized to have charge trapped on it at the opposite polarity to the source.
 High switching surges of this kind is overcome by introducing the closing resistors which are
pre-inserted at the time of line energization.

The voltage impressed on the line is reduced by a factor

The switch S2 is closed a short time later, after the surges on the line have dropped or settled.
In a optional situation, R=400 ohm is typical.
So as to make the disturbances precipitated by closing S1 and S2 equal.

3. Distribution of Voltages in a Power System: (T1)

 The generated voltage is divided and distributed on either side of the circuit breaker in
proportion to the impedance of the source and the transmission line.
 when the circuit breaker opens or interrupt, the current flow is zero and the generated voltage
will be near its peak value.
 The transmission line is now disengaged from the system, momentarily has on it a charge
distribution which is maximum at the circuit breaker and declines linearly to zero at the fault.
 “an unbound distribution of charge on a line will not remains static but will travel in both
direction along the transmission line”.

 When the travelling wave interrupt on any transmission line discontinuity, a new reflected
wave is initiated immediately.
 The new wave proceeds to interfere with the existing travelling charge system.
 The travelling wave distribution initially have a peak amplitude of
1 L1
¿ E
2 L+ L1
Where L = source inductance
L1 = line inductance
E = instantaneous value of the emf driving the fault current
 When a circuit breaker opens, the wave travelling to the left will immediately encounter
with the some amplitude and sign.
  The identical waves starting to the right will at once encounter the short circuits and reflect
with sin reversed.
 Voltage variation following the clearing of short line fault is depicted.

4. Line Dropping: (T1)

 In General, on transmission lines the voltage simply decreases as one moves from the substation
out forward the end of a distribution feeder. This change in voltage is known as the line drop.
 The line drop is described by ohm’s law, V=IZ.
 Ohm’s law also shows us that the line drop depends on the connected load. Since a greater power
demand implies a greater current.
 Recognizing that it is physically impossible to maintain perfectly flat profile, operating
guidelines generally prescribe a tolerance of±5% of nominal voltage.
 Controlling voltage drop: the two methods for controlling or supporting voltage in the
transmission and distribution system are transformer taps and reactive power injection usually
capacitance.
 Transformer taps provide for a variable turns ratio and thus a variable amount of voltage change.
 The tap simply where the conductor connects to the transformer coil.
 By moving the tap up or down, the effective number of that transformer winding is changed.
This mechanism is called load tap changer(LTP).
 The same basic devices, when installed midway on an individual feeder rather than at the
substation transformer is called as voltage regulator.
 Their turns ratio is adjusted to boost the voltage just enough to compensate for line drop.
 Reactive power affects voltage in a very different manner. It is provided by capacitors, static
VAR compensators or synchronous condenser, which are simply synchronous generators
operating at zero real power output.
5. Load Rejection: (T1)
 In a real world, load rejection is when there is a fault on the transmission line which is sensed by
the protection system and trip the circuit breaker.
 During that time, the load connected with the feeder and the lines are suddenly droppe, load
throw off or load rejection occurs.
 Sudden load rejection on integrated power system causes the over speeding up of prime mover of
generators.
 The speed governor and automatic voltage regulator will intervene to restore the normal
conditions.
F '
V = E 1−
F0 [( ) ]
F Xs
F0 Xc
Where, F0 = the normal frequency
F = the instantaneous increased frequency
E’ =voltage generated before over speeding and load rejection
Xs = reactance of source or generator
Xc = capacitive reactance of line at open.

6. EMTP for Transient Computation

Dommel’s work is the replacement of inductors and capacitors by a resistor and current source
in parallel and their integration into a nodal conductance matrix and injected currents vector,
respectively, to find a solution for the complete system.
Resistance

v k ( t )−v m ( t )=R k,m ( t ) −−−−−−−−−−( 1 )

( R1 )( v ( t )−v ( t ) )−−−−−−−−( 2)
i k,m ( t )= k m

Inductance
The differential equation for the inductor is,
d ikm
vl =v k −v m =L −−−−−−−−−−( 3 )
dt
which must be integrated from a known state at t-Δt to the unknown one at t, i.e,
t
1
i km ( t )=i km (t −∆ t ) + ∫ ( v k −v m ) dt−−−−−−−−−−( 4)
L t −∆ t
Applying Trapezoidal rule, on equ(4),
∆t
i km ( t )=i km (t −∆ t ) + ( ( v −v ) + ( v k −v m ) (t−∆ t ))
2L k m t
∆t ∆t
¿ i km (t −∆ t ) +
2L
( v k (t − Δt )−v m(t −Δt ) ) +
2L
¿ (t) –vm(t))-------------(5)
This equation can be rewritten as
1
i km ( t )=I history ( t−∆ t ) + ( v −v −v )−−−−−−−−−( 6 )
Reff k (t ) k (t ) m (t )
∆t
2 L ( k (t −∆ t ) m (t− ∆ t ))
I history (t −∆ t )=i km (t −∆ t ) + v −v
2L
Reff =
∆t
Capacitance

dv km d ( v k −v m )
i km =C =C −−−−−−−−−−−−( 7 )
dt dt
Rearranging it as an integral:
t
1
v km (t )=( v k (t )−v m (t ) ) =( v k ( t−∆ t )−v m (t −∆ t ) ) + ∫ i km dt −−−−−−−( 8 )
c t−∆ t
Applying Trapezoidal integration,
 ∆t
v km (t )=( v k (t )−v m (t ) ) =( v k ( t−∆ t )−v m (t −∆ t ) ) + (i + i ) −−−−−−( 9 )
2C km (t ) km (t −∆ t )
Hence the current in the Capacitor is given by,
2C 2C
i km ( t )=
∆t ( v k ( t )−v m ( t )) −i km (t −∆ t )−
∆ t ( k (t −∆ t ) m (t −∆ t ) )
v −v
1
¿ ( v −v ) + I −−−−−−−−−−−−−( 10 )
R eff k (t ) m (t ) history
Switching Surges on an Integrated System
The disturbance produced by the switching operation as modified by the system spreads through the
system. Setting up waves that travel out along the connected lines and reflect to and fro as discontinuities are
encountered.

In the equivalent circuit, the lines are represented by the resistors R 1 and R2
The source circuit can be replaced with very little error by a parallel RL circuit in which L=L 1 + L2+L3 and
R=R1
Switching Surges on an Integrated System
The disturbance produced by the switching operation as modified by the system spreads through the
system. Setting up waves that travel out along the connected lines and reflect to and fro as discontinuities are
encountered.
Refering to a single phase diagram, if one of the 345kV circuit breakers is opened to clear a fault on its
line, suppose that the fault is short distance down the line. The switching operation will evoke a response from
both the line and the system.
 In the equivalent circuit, the lines are represented by the resistors R 1 and R2. The various components of
the system is represented with legends. It is an accurate representation of a line under transient conditions until it
is modified by reflection from points down the line.
The source circuit can be replaced with very little error by a parallel RL circuit in which
L = L1 + L2 + L3
R =R1
The response of a parallel RL circuit to a ramp of current I 0 t is readily shown to be
R I0
V ( s )= −−−−−−−−−−( 1 )
[ ]
s s+
R
L
Equ (1) can be rewritten as,
( −LR )t
V ( t ) =L I 0 [1−ε ]−−−−−−−(2)
The slope I0 will be
Vp
I 0= −−−−−−−−−−−( 3)
L
Where Vp is the peak system voltage
Sub equ(3) in (2),

V ( t ) =V [ 1−ε
( ) ] −−−−−−−( 4 )
−R
L
t
p

¿ V p ( 1−ε−αt )
V ( t ) =V p ( 1−ε ) −−−−−−−−(5)
−αt