Fundamental of Computer

BCA I

COMPUTER DEFINATION:-
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as an input from
the user and processes it under the control of a set of instructions (called
program), produces a result (output), and saves it for future use.

A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores

data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a required
format.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve
highly complicated problems quickly and accurately. A computer as shown in
Fig. Performs basically five major computer operations or functions
irrespective of their size and make. These are
1) It accepts data or instructions by way of input,
2) It stores data,
3) It can process data as required by the user,
4) It gives results in the form of output, and
5) It controls all operations inside a computer.
We discuss below each of these Computer operations
Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer
system. You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other
machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out
processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an
organized manner for processing.
Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as
storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It
is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit is so fast that the data
has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored
in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the
primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality.
It provides space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical

operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data
and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based
on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the
storage unit.

Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must
also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human
readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further
processing.

Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations
are performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are
performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations
inside the computer.

FUNCTIONAL UNITS

In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the
computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer
system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are
1) Arithmetic logical unit
2) Control unit.
3) Central processing unit.
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) Logical Unit
Logical Unit: After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the
primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are
performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the
ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison.
Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the
output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

Control Unit (CU)

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the
supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is
responsible for co ordinating various operations using time signal. The control
unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are
executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory,
interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the
computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several
users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of
computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central
processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just
like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs
different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the
operations.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the
following five functions −
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.

  The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even
the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to
man who will spend many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 The calculations are 100% error free.

 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is
correct.
Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.

 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and
lack of concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.

 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the
very next moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have long lives.

 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the

computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer
memory, then the program and instruction can control the program
execution without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to
reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the
problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it
substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.

 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on
humans.
Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and
suitable.
No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and

knowledge unlike humans.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or

versatility which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.
Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −
  Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance,
making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and
trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier
for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are
widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information
showing −

 Procedure to continue with policies

 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus
Education
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE
(Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a
computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis
is carried out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and

graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the
goal of selling more products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the
use of computerized catalogues that provide access to product information
and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.
They are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It
is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG,
ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the
cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are
prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs
for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels,
expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation
and modification of images. Some of the fields are −
  Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design
of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation,
and improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and
equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns,
designing buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both
2D and 3D drawings.
Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc.
Military also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where
a computer has been used are −

 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that
is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is
meant. Some main areas in this category are −
  E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in
this category are −

 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having

1
Computer) moderately powerful microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to

2 Workstation personal computer however has a more powerful
microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of

3 Mini Computer
supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of

supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.
4 Main Frame
Software technology is different from
minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can

5 Supercomputer execute hundreds of millions of instructions per
second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular
use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems
are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days
high-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and
graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-
Packard, and Dell.
Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),

desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of applications
which require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality
graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large
amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special
type of workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like
PC, workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked
together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-
alone systems.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously.
Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe
executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous
execution of programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number
crunching).
For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics,
fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and
analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

MEMORY AND ITS TYPES

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is
divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a
unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example,
if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up
the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to
hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory
by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer
is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is
switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories
are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed
resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is
slower than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information
permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example,
disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

  These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing
data, program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data
until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is
erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same
amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very
expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or
if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS)
is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size
and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power
is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile
nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors
do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a
regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM
for the same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher.
SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the
data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the
data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory
as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are
composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
 ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only
read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information
is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such
instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to
as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed
set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs,
which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user
buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to
40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path.
For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal
 window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively
erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than
erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

Output Devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device
of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a
rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel
to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be
divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard
character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data
horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear
them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games,
monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −
 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD
(Liquid-Crystal Device).
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed
on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −

 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is
in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7
or 9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used
for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with
very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
  Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the
drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper,
i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is
embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the market are 48 character
set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast
in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A
standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages

 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

  They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to
form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages

 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology.
They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce
high quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of
printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers
can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable
Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer