Unit I

Computer System
Basic Concepts of Computers : Introduction and definition of computer; functional
components of a computer system-(Input unit, CPU, Memory and output unit); Types of
memory and memory hierarchy; Functioning inside a computer; characteristics, advantages
and limitations of a computer; classification of computers;
Essential Components of computer
Hardware: (a) Input devices - keyboard, printing devices, voice speech devices, scanner,
MICR, OMR, Bar code reader, digital camera etc. (b) Output devices - Visual Display Unit,
printers, plotters etc.(c) Storage Devices – Magnetic storage devices, Optical storage devices,
Flash Memory etc.
Software: Introduction; Types of software with examples; Introduction to languages,
compiler, interpreter and assembler.
Operating System: Definition, Functions, Types and Classification, Elements of GUI based
operating system-Windows-Use of menus, tools and commands of windows operating
system.

Introduction
The word computer comes form the word “compute”. Hence computer is usually considered
to be a calculating device that can perform arithmetic operations at a high speed. In fact, the
original objective for inventing a computer was to create a fast calculating machine. However
now a days more than 80% of work done by computers is of non mathematical and non
numerical nature.
More accurately we can define a computer as a device that operates upon data or a device that
transforms data. Data can be anything like bio-data of applicants, or marks obtained by
various students in exam, or details of passengers.
Computer can be defined in terms of its functions as well. It can: i) Accept Data ii) Store
Data, iii) Process data as desired, and iv) Retrieve the stored data as and when required and v)
Print the result in desired format.

Characteristics of a Computer

Major characteristics of computers are

Speed: The speed at which the computer operates cannot be matched with that of human
brain .They posses the ability to perform millions of operations per second.
Storage Capacity: Enormous amounts of data can be stored and retrieved from the memory
of a computer instantly and correctly. One cannot even think of remembering the large
amount of information. For example, Voter ID of each and every adult in this country is
stored on a computer and any time can be recalled instantly.
Accuracy: Computers maintain a very high degree of accuracy. Any complex operations
whether; logical or mathematical will be performed with a great degree of accuracy. They can
calculate to any precision level. Many times errors are encountered. These are human errors
and not made by computer itself.
Versatility: Computers can be used to perform a variety of jobs perfectly. The same
computers can be used to deal with different types of data. We can type letters, watch a

Unit 1 -Computer System Page 1

 movie listen to songs, surf the internet; perform statistical calculations etc using the same
computer.
Diligence: Computer is a machine. So it does not get tired or suffers from boredom. It has an
amazing ability to perform any number of operations without loss of concentration and loss
of accuracy.
Automation: Once stepwise instructions are given, a computer will carry out the task till its
completion. For example: in fee counter fee slip is automatically generated as soon as the fee
for any student is entered.
Security: Data can be kept secure by using passwords etc so that unauthorized people may
not access it.

Limitations of a computer

In spite of many advantages, there is a flip side of the coin as well. Computer has certain
limitations, some of these are:

Zero IQ and no thinking power: The computers have no intelligence of its own and hence
cannot make its own decisions. They need instructions for every step. In times of any
unexpected results, it cannot take any alternative actions.

Dependence on power: It is dependent on electricity or any other source of power.

Applications of Computers
Now a day’s computers can be seen more or less in every field. How ever some of the key
areas where computers are prominently used are listed below

i. Home
ii. Entertainment and Fun
iii. Communication
iv. Education and learning
v. Office automation
vi. E Commerce
vii. Library
viii. Desktop publishing
ix. Engineering and design
x. Banking
xi. Airline/ Railway Reservations
xii. Travel and Tourism
xiii. Defense and Space Technology
xiv. Medicine
xv. Weather Forecasting

Components of a Computer System

A computer is a programmable machine that responds to a specific set of instructions in a
well defined manner .It can execute the list of instructions called program. In fact, basic
components of a computer are its Hardware and Software.
Hardware: The physical components of a Computer that we can see, touch and feel is called
the hardware.
Software: The instruction through which the user communicates with the computer is called
the Software.

Unit 1 -Computer System Page 2

General Input Process Cycle
Any process in real life goes through the Input-Process-Cycle. It does not have to be a
computer process.
For example making Tea
Input-Tea leaves, Water , Milk, Sugar
Process-Boil water add sugar and tea leaves , add milk in the end , strain
Output- Tea

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

In the same way computer uses IPOS Cycle(Input, processing, Output, Storage) .It is how a
computer intakes data, processes the data, output information, and than saves the information.
1) Input- Computer receives the data from any input device.
2) Processing- Computer’s CPU process the data into information.
3) Output- Meaningful information displayed on monitor or printed out.
4) Storage-Saves results to computers hard drive or other types of secondary storage.

Parts of a Computer
1) Input Unit
2) CPU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit, Control Unit, Primary memory)
3) Output Unit
4) Auxiliary Storage /Secondary Storage devices –used to store data and instructions
permanently.

Input Unit
Any information or data given to the computers is called input. The device by using which
input is taken is called input device. The input unit of a computer consists of one or more
input devices attached to a computer. Some of the input devices are keyboard, mouse,
Magnetic Ink character reader, optical character reader, joystick etc. An input device takes
input, converts it to binary form and than passes it to CPU for processing. This is because all
digital computers can understand only binary data.

CPU
The CPU is the core of the computer system where all processing is done . It is divided in to
primary memory, arithmetic and logical unit, and control unit.
Primary Memory- The primary memory is also called main memory. The CPU directly
stores and retrieves information form this primary memory. RAM and Cache memory are
classical types of primary memory. These are volatile in nature, which means if the power is
turned off the contents stored in these memories gets deleted.

Arithmetic and Logical Unit- As the name indicates, the ALU is responsible for doing all
the arithmetic calculations and logical comparisons. The data and instructions are sent from
the input area of memory to the ALU. The processing takes place here and the result are sent
back to the memory again.
The CPU uses operators like +,-,*,/ for arithmetic operations and gives numeric results.
Logical comparisons always result in a true or false value. Comparisons are done using
relational operators like <, <=, >, >=, =, < >.

Unit 1 -Computer System Page 3

Control Unit: The Control Unit acts like a traffic police. Its main function is to control and
coordinate the flow of data and instructions between all the other parts. Neither does it holds,
nor processes any thing. Normally the first program instruction is moved in to the control unit
from the primary memory. This is intercepted and appropriate signals are sent out to execute
the instruction. This is done with each instruction till the end. Thus this is a sort of manager
of all operations.
It manages the four basic operations:
Fetch- gets the next program instruction from the computers memory.
Decode- Decodes the program instructions.
Execute- Performs the appropriate action
Write-Back- Write the result back into memory. These steps are called as machine cycle.

Output Unit

Any information or data sent out as result from the computer is called output. The device
using which computer sends output is called an output device. The output unit in a computer
can consist of one or more output devices attached to a computer. The output devices
normally seen along with computers are the visual display unit and the printer. There are the
output devices like plotters used for specialized tasks.

Auxiliary or Secondary Storage: Secondary storage devices includes hard drives, magnetic
tapes, ROM, etc. The data storage in these drives is permanent and do not get deleted if the
power is switched off.

History of Computers

History of computer could be traced back to the effort of man to count large numbers. This
process of counting of large numbers generated various systems of numeration like
Babylonian system of numeration, Greek system of numeration, Roman system of
numeration and Indian system of numeration. Out of these the Indian system of numeration
has been accepted universally. It is the basis of modern decimal system of numeration (0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).

Calculating Machines

It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting large
numbers. The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by the Egyptian and
Chinese people.
The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal positions on
which were inserted sets of pebbles. It has a number of horizontal bars each having ten beads.
Horizontal bars represent units, tens, hundreds, etc.
Napier’s bones
English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of
multiplication in 1617 A D. The device was known as Napier’s bones.
Slide Rule
English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could perform
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely used in
Europe in 16th century.
Pascal's Adding and Subtractory Machine

Unit 1 -Computer System Page 4

Blaise Pascal developed a machine that could add and subtract. The machine consisted of
wheels, gears and cylinders.
Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine
The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a
mechanical device that could both multiply and divide.
Babbage’s Analytical Engine
It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical
machine to do complex mathematical calculations. It was called difference engine. Later he
developed a general-purpose calculating machine called analytical engine. Because of his
active contribution in the field of computers- Charles Babbage is known as the father of
computer.

Mechanical and Electrical Calculator

In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to perform all sorts
of mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s it was widely used. Later the rotating part of
mechanical calculator was replaced by electric motor. So it was called the electrical
calculator.

Modern Electronic Calculator

The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron tubes, which was quite bulky.
Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of calculators became too small.
The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical computations and
mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data permanently. Some calculators
have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations.

Computer Generations

The evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that we see
today. The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during the last
fifty years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided
into five distinct phases known as Generations of Computers. Each phase is distinguished
from others on the basis of the type of switching circuits used.

First Generation Computers

First generation computers used Thermion valves. These computers were large in size and
writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers of this generation were:

ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania,
USA by John Eckert and John Mauchy. It was named Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC). The ENIAC was 30×50 feet long, weighed 30 tons, contained 18,000
vacuum tubes, 70,000 registers, 10,000 capacitors and required 150,000 watts of electricity.
Today our favorite computer is many times as powerful as ENIAC, still size is very small.
EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and was developed
in 1950. The concept of storing data and instructions inside the computer was introduced
here. This allowed much faster operation since the computer had rapid access to both data
and instructions. The other advantages of storing instruction were that computer could do
logical decision internally.

Other Important Computers of First Generation

Unit 1 -Computer System Page 5

EDSAC: It stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer and was developed by
M.V. Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949.
UNIVAC-1: Ecker and Mauchly produced it in 1951 by Universal Accounting Computer
setup.
Limitations of First Generation Computer
Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.
1. The operating speed was quite slow.
2. Power consumption was very high.
3. It required large space for installation.
4. The programming capability was quite low.

Second Generation Computers

Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first
generation computer. Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and have higher operating
speed. They have no filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was also very low.
Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory,
programming language and input and output units were developed. The programming
languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this period. Some of the
computers of the Second Generation were
IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and mostly used
for scientific purpose.
IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.

Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used Integrated Circuits
(ICs). These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many transistors, registers
and capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. So it is quite obvious that the size of the
computer got further reduced. Some of the computers developed during this period were
IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC
(Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this period.
Computers of this generation were small in size, low cost, large memory and processing
speed is very high.

Fourth Generation Computers

The present day computers that we see today are the fourth generation computers that started
around 1975. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip
called microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place
computer’s central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called
microcomputers. Later very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.

Fifth Generation Computer

The computers of 1990s are said to be Fifth Generation computers. The speed is extremely
high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can perform parallel processing. The
concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the computer to take its own
decision.

Types of Computers

Unit 1 -Computer System Page 6

 Now let us discuss the varieties of computers that we see today. Although they belong to the
fifth generation they can be divided into different categories depending upon the size,
efficiency, memory and number of users. Broadly they can be divided it to the following
categories.

1. Microcomputer: Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of

speed and storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The first microcomputers were built
of 8-bit microprocessor chips. The most common application of personal computers (PC) is
in this category. The PC supports a number of input and output devices. An improvement of
8-bit chip is 16-bit and 32-bit chips. Examples of microcomputer are IBM PC, PC-AT.
2. Mini Computer: This is designed to support more than one user at a time. It possesses
large storage capacity and operates at a higher speed. The mini computer is used in multi-user
system in which various users can work at the same time. This type of computer is generally
used for processing large volume of data in an organization. They are also used as servers in
Local Area Networks (LAN).
3. Mainframes: These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. They
operate at very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the work load of
many users. They are generally used in centralized databases. They are also used as
controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN). Example of mainframes are DEC, ICL
and IBM 3000 series.
4. Supercomputer: They are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have high
processing speed compared to other computers. They have also multiprocessing technique.
One of the ways in which supercomputers are built is by interconnecting hundreds of
microprocessors. Supercomputers are mainly being used for whether forecasting, biomedical
research, remote sensing, aircraft design and other areas of science and technology. Examples
of supercomputers are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP and PARAM from
India.

Broad categories of Computers

Digital computer:

These are any of a class of devices capable of solving problems by processing information in
discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that are
expressed in binary form—i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1. By counting, comparing,
and manipulating these digits or their combinations according to a set of instructions held in
its memory, a digital computer can perform such tasks as to control industrial processes and
regulate the operations of machines; analyze and organize vast amounts of business data; and
simulate the behaviour of dynamic systems (e.g., global weather patterns and chemical
reactions.

Analog computer:

These are any of a class of devices in which continuously variable physical quantities such as
electrical potential, fluid pressure, or mechanical motion are represented in a way analogous
to the corresponding quantities in the problem to be solved. The analog system is set up
according to initial conditions and then allowed to change freely. Answers to the problem are
obtained by measuring the variables in the analog model. The earliest analog computers were
special-purpose machines, as for example the tide predictor developed in 1873 by William
Thomson (later known as Lord Kelvin).

Unit 1 -Computer System Page 7

Hybrid Computers

'Hybrid' computer is a intermediate computer between digital and analog, where an analog
output is converted into digits. The information then can be sent into a standard digital
computer for further computation. Hybrid computers are used to obtain a very accurate but
not very mathematically precise 'seed' value, using an analog computer front-end, which
value is then fed into a digital computer, using an iterative process to achieve the final desired
degree of precision. With a three or four digit precision, highly-accurate numerical seed, the
total computation time necessary to reach the desired precision is dramatically reduced, since
many fewer digital iterations are required (and the analog computer reaches its result almost
instantaneously). Or, for example, the analog computer might be used to solve a non-analytic
differential equation problem for use at some stage of an overall computation (where
precision is not very important). In any case, the hybrid computer is usually substantially
faster than a digital computer, but can supply a far more precise computation than an analog
computer. It is useful for real-time applications requiring such a combination (e.g., a high
frequency phased-array radar or a weather system computation

Unit 1 -Computer System Page 8