Chem211 Module New

Module in
Chem 211:
Forensic Chemistry
and
Toxicology
Module in
Chem 211:
Forensic Chemistry
and
Toxicology
Mirza V. Lachauna
Emelyn P. Lira
WVSU 2021
Notes to the Students

This module is a part of the series of Modules for flexible learning spearheaded
by the Office of the Director of Instruction and the Center for Teaching Excellence,
West Visayas State University.
This is meant for the course Chem 211 – Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology.
Forensic Chemistry is an important tool of creating opportunities for the you to

learn the application of scientific knowledge in the criminal justice system and to
appreciate the various principles and techniques of chemistry in the examination of
physical evidence within the crime laboratory. It exposes you to real-life values and
stimulates sustained interest in the different scopes of forensic chemistry. Also, this
module introduces to you knowledge in the nature, effects, treatments and detection
of poison as applied to crime investigation. It presents self-contained and
independent activities to encourage positive reception and proficiency at your level.
Perhaps the most challenging part of teaching Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology is
developing your critical and creative potential. The activities in this module will
challenge you to resolve scientifically, issues in the service of Philippine society in
terms of administering justice and protecting the fundamental rights of all,
regardless of social class or economic status, and in defending human life.
There are 16 units in this module. They are listed as follows:
Unit 1: Unit 9:
INTRODUCTION HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBER
Unit 2: Unit 10:

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CRIME CHEMICAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENT
LABORATORY IN THE PHILIPPINES EXAMINATION
Unit 3: Unit 11:
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS AND
FRACTURE
Unit 4: Unit 12:
WITNESS TOOLMARKS
Unit 5: Unit 13:
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS METALLURGY (AS APPLIED TO CRIME
DETECTION)
Unit 6: Unit 14:
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN SOIL (PETROGRAPHY AS APPLIED TO
CRIME DETECTION)
Unit 7: Unit 15:
GUNSHOT RESIDUE DNA ANALYSIS
Unit 8: Unit 16:
EXPLOSIVES AND EXPLOSIONS TOXICOLOGY
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The learning outcomes for Chem 211, specified below are unpacked by the
specific objectives of each lesson. Generally, at the end of this module, you would
have:
1. Understood the concept of forensic chemistry, its scope and stated the
development of scientific crime laboratory in the country.
2. Described and explained different physical evidences and its chemical
application in the administration of justice.
3. Applied knowledge in the study of nature, physiological action, chemical and
physical properties, dosage, treatment and detection of poisons.
You are right now reading the introduction entitled Notes to the Students.
This will be followed by the Table of Contents and a Pre-Test.
Directions are found inside each unit that tell you how you will work with your
self-assessment. All formative activities must be answered. Honesty is a school
policy. Be serious about the learning activities you are working on. It will define who
you are and what you will become in the future. Pre-test and post-test must be
completed as well. At the end of the semester or as instructed otherwise, you are to
submit this module to your professor. Inquiries on some points not fully understood
will be made online via Messenger or Google Classroom on a scheduled encounter.
This module is a self-contained learning kit with instructions that will guide to the
end.
You are ready to begin. Carpe Diem! Make your time count. Enjoy!
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Table of Contents
Note to Students
Pre – Test
Unit 1: INTRODUCTION 1-6

I. Definition of forensic chemistry.
II. Scope
III. Practice of Forensic Chemistry
IV. Role of Forensic chemist in the scientific investigation
V. Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry
VI. Equipments used in the Forensic Examination
 Summary 7
 Self-assessment 8
Unit 2: DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY IN THE

PHILIPPINES 9-11
I. Significant Events that Shaped and Developed Scientific Crime
Laboratory Procedures in the Country.
 Summary 12-13
Unit 3: SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE 15-17

I. Definition of evidence
II. Kinds of Evidence
 Direct
 Circumstantial
 Hearsay
III. Forms of Scientific Evidence
 Real
 Testimonial
 Documentary
 Summary 18
Unit 4: WITNESS 20-21

I. Witness defined.
II. Distinctions between an Ordinary and an Expert Witness
III. Probative Value of Expert Testimony
IV. Qualifications of an Expert Witness
 Summary 22
Summative Test: Unit 1 – Unit 4 24-27
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Unit 5: BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS 28-43

I. Importance of the study of blood
II. Preliminary test for blood
III. Confirmatory test for blood
IV. Preparation of precipitin
V. Theory of blood grouping tests
VI. Forensic application of blood grouping tests
VII. Legal aspects of blood test
VIII. Laboratory Experiment on Blood and Blood Stain.
 Summary 44
 Self-assessment 45-46
Unit 6: SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN 47-54

I. Semen, defined
II. Parts of Semen
III. Semen and Seminal Stains Examination
IV. Collection, Preservation, Packing and Transit of Specimen
V. Elements which may Obstruct Detection of Spermatozoa
VI. Other Stain of Medico-Legal Interest
VII. Laboratory Experiment on semen and seminal stain
 Summary 55-56
Unit 7: GUNSHOT RESIDUE 58-68

I. Gunshot Residue
II. Components of Gunshot Residue
III. Composition of Primer
IV. Composition of Gunpowder
V. Types of Gunpowder
VI. Gunshot Residue Examinations
VII. Detection of Gunshot Residue
VIII. Gunpowder Residue Test on Firearms
IX. Gunshot Range (GSR) Determination
X. Characteristics of Gunshot Wounds
XI. Firearm Examination
XII. Collection, Preservation and Transit of Specimen
XIII. Laboratory Experiment on Gunshot Residue.
 Summary 69-71
Unit 8: EXPLOSIVES AND EXPLOSIONS 73-76

I. Explosive, define
II. Classification of Explosive
III. Laboratory Examinations on Explosives
IV. Explosion, defined
V. Types of Explosion
VI. Factors Affecting the Rate of Explosion or Brisance
VII. Mechanism and Effect of Explosion
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VIII. Explosive Strength
IX. Damage Mechanism
X. Safety Procedures when Responding to an Explosive Incident
XI. Laboratory Activity on Explosive and Explosion
 Summary 77
Unit 9: HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBER 79-96

I. Hair , defined
II. Kinds of Hair
III. Parts of Hair
IV. Comparison Between Human and Animal Hair
V. Variations in the Structure of Human Hair
VI. The Approximate Age of an Individual through Hair Examination
VII. Textile Fiber, Defined
VIII. Classification of Textile Fibers
IX. Test for Fibers
X. Laboratory Experiment on Hair and Textile Fiber
 Summary 97-98
Summative Test: Unit 5 – Unit 9 100-109
MIDTERM EXAMINATION 110-124
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PRE-TEST
Name:______________________________ Score:_____________
Course, Year & Section:________________ Date:_____________
Instruction:
1. Use only blue or black ink.
2. Avoid erasure.
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write on the space
provided before each number. Answers must be written in CAPITAL letter.
____1. All of the following are accurate tests for the presence of alcohol in the
human body except one.
A. Blood test
B. Fecal test
C. Harger breath test
D. Saliva test
____2. The primary reason that the tissues of the human body are frequently
destroyed even by a relative small fire is because of ________.
A. high content of organic gases
B. high carbon content in the body wall
C. high phosphorus content of the body
D. human body is inflammable
____3. The useful method of identifying or comparing certain substances, such as
small glass particles, found in connection with a hit-and-run case, is to
measure the relative velocity of light through the substance. The instrument
used is _____.
A. Microtone
B. Pycnometer
C. Refractometer
D. X-ray diffraction camera
____4. One of the following is the best method of chemical analysis of every minute
of an organic substance is analysis by ________.
A. Fluoroscopy
B. Spectrograph
C. Reagents
D. Electron microscope
____5. A drop of blood which falls from a moving object or person is elongated and
the splashes are found to be concentrated around one end of the stain. As a
general rule, the extension of the drop of blood indicates ___
A. Direction of movement
B. Route
C. Fresh blood
D. Dried stain
____6. A simple test for distinguishing a blood stain from other substances is the __.
A. Benzidine test
B. Diphenylamine test
C. Alphanaphthylamine test
D. hydrochloric acid test
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____7. It is extremely used in reproduction of evidence such as footprints and tire
marks in dirt or mud
A. Moulage
B. Casting
C. Cementing
D. Pickling
____8. A character postmortem symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning is a
A. marked protuberance of the eyeball.
B. pinkish lividity of all or part of the body.
C. waxy texture and appearance of the skin.
D. grotesque oil controlled position of the body.
____9. What is the common test employed in determining intoxication of a motor
vehicle driver?
A. Blood test
B. Urine test
C. Breath test
D. Spinal fluid test
____10. Investigators occasionally encounter retrograde amnesia in persons they
wish to interview or interrogate. Retrograde amnesia is a loss of memory that
A. covers a period of time immediately preceding severs shock
B. Is a form of hysteria in which the memory gradually returns as the victim
calms down.
C. is feigned ( artificial, manmade)
D. begins to affect the mind only after a considerable lapse of time fallowing
a severe shock.
____11. The investigator who collects physical evidence should take it to the
laboratory by himself whenever possible, otherwise, he should obtain a
receipt from each person to whom he gives or receives evidence. This
statement is best applicable to
A. chain of custody of evidence.
B. three tools in criminal investigation
C. cardinal rules in criminal investigation.
D. to establish the belt of the accused.
____12. The science which deals with the study of detection and identification of
poisons.
A. Chemistry
B. Bacteriology
C. Toxicology
D. Carbon Monoxide
____13. The most reliable and delicate test for the determination of the presence of
blood by means of an optical instrument.
A. Precipitin Test
B. Microscopic test
C. Spectroscopic test
D. Florence test
____14. An enzyme used to characterize and locate seminal fluid.
A. Amylase
B. Pepsin
C. lipase
D. Acid Phosphatase
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____15. An examination which is used to determine the general group to which the
fiber belongs.
A. Chemical test
B. Fluorescence test
C. Florence test
D. Burning or ignition test
____16. A rapid and convenient method of determining the density of a small glass
fragments.
A. Density gradient test
B. Immersion method
C. Floatation method
D. Polish properties examination
____17. Shabu tested with Simon’s reagent will yield a visible result of what color?
A. Yellow
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Red
____18.Under microscopic examination, a human semen sample is determined by
the presence of ____.
A. Spermine nitrate
B. Spermatozoa
C. Hemochromagen Crystals
D. choline periodide crystals
____19. What is the positive result when marijuana is tested with hydrochloric acid?
A. Yellow fluorescence
B. Blue specks
C. Effervescence
D. No reaction
____20. Fundamental unit of heredity
A. Sperm cell
B. Egg cell
C. Gene
D. DNA
____21. Which among the foregoing specimen is not usually used in DNA typing?
A. Hair
B. Bones
C. Blood
D. Semen
____22. A very large molecule made by linking together a series of repeating units.
A. Gene
B. polymer
C. nucleotide
D. double helix
____23.The production of amino acid is controlled by a sequence of how many bases
on the DNA molecule?
A. Two
B. Three
C. Four
D. Five
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____24. A man of average built would normally have how many quartz of blood?
A. 6 quartz
B. 7 quartz
C. 8 quartz
D. 9 quartz
____25.What is a straw yellow colored liquid and comprises about 65% of the blood?
A. Platelets
B. Fibrin
C. Leucocytes
D. Plasma
____26. Which of the following is the oxygen carrier of the blood?
A. Plasma
B. Hemoglobin
C. Erythrocytes
D. Fibrin
____27.What is a reliable and easy way to test blood even when it is decomposed
and stained with contaminants?
A. Benzidine test
B. Phenolphthalein test
C. Van Deen's test
D. Precipitin test
____28. What stage of blood examination wherein the actual proof of that specimen
is definitely blood?
A. Preliminary test
B. Precipitin
C. Confirmatory
D. Blood typing and grouping
____29. What test that determines that blood is of human in origin or not?
A. Preliminary test
B. Precipitin
C. Confirmatory
D. Blood typing and grouping
____30. What crystal compound is formed in the chemical examination for semen in
Barberio's test?
A. picric acid
B. Napthol diazonium
C. Spermine picrate
D. Antraquinous chloride
____31. What kind of antidote is coffee, when given to a drunken person?
A. Cathartic
B. Chemical
C. Physiological
D. Demulcent
____32. Restriction enzymes are used to cut out sequence of DNA having different
___________.
A. length
B. width
C. weight
D. height
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____33. How many different bases are associated with the make-up of DNA?
A. two
B. three
C. four
D. five
____34. DNA requires the pairing of A (adenine) to __________.
A. C(cytosine)
B. G(guanine)
C. T(thymine)
D. A(adenine)
____35. G (guanine) is to be paired with ____- in a double helix configuration.
A. C(cytosine)
B. G(guanine)
C. T(thymine)
D. A(adenine)
____36. The base sequence of T-G-C-A can be paired with the base sequence of
_____ to complete a double helix.
A. A-C-G-T
B. C-A-G-T
C. G-T-A-C
D. A-T-G-C
____37. In determining whether the hair is of human or animal origin, what part
should the chemist examined under the microscope?
A. Shaft
B. tip
C. hair
D. root
____38. What fiber which burns rapidly and turns blue litmus paper to red on fumes?
A. cotton
B. silk
C. fiber glass
D. steel wool
____39. What part of the hair which is referred to as the race determinant?
A. cortex
B. cuticle
C. medulla
D. shaft
____40. What test is used to determine whether a fiber is of human or animal origin?
A. Ignition or burning test
B. chemical test
C. Fluorescence test
D. microscopic test
____41. What kind of ink wherein the use of chemical leaches is ineffective?
A. carbon
B. logwood
C. nigrosine
D. gallotannic
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____42. What agent that prevents or remove the absorption of poisons and its
effects?
A. Emetics
B. Antidote
C. Alkaloids
D. Tetanics
____43. Which of the following specimen exhibits bluish fluorescence when exposed
to UV light?
A. Blood
B. Semen
C. Saliva
D. Urine
____44. What is known as the oldest explosive?
A. Black powder
B. Smoke powder
C. Dynamite
D. TNT
____45. It deals with the study and identification of bodily fluids.
A. Immunology
B. Serology
C. Posology
D. Pharmacology
____46. What study which deals with poisons, their origin, physical and chemical
properties, physiological actions, treatment and method of detection?
A. Forensic chemistry
B. Toxicology
C. Posology
D. Pharmacology
____47.What substance which when introduced into the body is absorbed in the
blood stream and acting chemically that is capable of producing noxious
effect?
A. Drug
B. Toxin
C. Poison
D. Antidotes
____48. What poisons which produces inflammation of the mucus membrane and
characterized by vomiting, pain in the abdomen, and purging?
A. Corrosives
B. irritants
C. Narcotics
D. Tetanics
____49. What substance that acts directly upon the spinal cord whereby producing
immobility or stiffness to the parts to which they attached?
A. Corrosives
B. Irritants
C. Narcotics
D. Tetanics
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____50. In criminal investigation, metallurgy plays an important applications in ____.
A. Counterfeit coins
B. Bombs and explosives
C. Theft and robbery
D. Restoration of tampered serial number
____51. What agents which depress or retard the physiological action of an organ?
A. Corrosives
B. Sedatives
C. Tetanics
D. Narcotics
____52. According to methods of isolation, what poison is isolated by means of
distillation?
A. Volatile poison
B. Non volatile poison
C. metallic poison
D. Tetanic
____53. What test is used to positively determine the presence of blood in stained
material?
A. Takayama
B. Phenolphthalein
C. Barberio
D. Florence
____54. According to methods of isolation, volatile poisons may be isolated by
means of what process?
A. Extraction
B. Dilution
C. Distillation
D. Dialysis
____55. Which of the following test is not applicable for the presence of alcohol in
the human body?
A. Saliva
B. Harger Breath
C. Fecal
D. Drug test
____56. What material is used to improve the quality of paper?
A. Sizing material
B. Rosin
C. Gelatin
D. Starch
____57. What sizing material is present when Million's reagent is used with pink
color reaction?
A. Rosin
B. starch
C. Casein
D. Gelatin
____58. What is the oldest ink material known to man?
A. Logwood
B. Nigrosine
C. Carbon
D. Gallotanic
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____59. What type of ink wherein age may be determined?
A. Logwood
B. Nigrosine
C. carbon
D. Gallotanic
____60. What is the process of reproducing physical evidence by plaster moulds?
A. Casting
B. Cementing
C. Moulage
D. Picking
____61. What is the major component of a glass?
A. Lime
B. Silica
C. Soda
D. Lime
____62. What mode of death is characterized by suspended animation due to failure
in the heart action?
A. Corrosives
B. coma
C. syncope
D. asphyxia
____63. What poisons which produce stupor and less feeling?
A. Neurotics
B. Irritants
C. Depressants
D. Narcotics
____64. An organic bacterial poison.
A. Strychnine
B. Ptomaine
C. Brucine
D. Chloroform
____65. The best method in comparative soil analysis
A. Chemical examination
B. Density gradient test
C. ultra-violet light examination
D. microscopic test
____66. A gas with a rotten egg odor usually made by decaying body?
A. chloride
B. ammonia
C. carbon dioxide
D. hydrogen sulfide
____67. What male individual condition wherein there's no spermatozoa in the
seminal fluid?
A. Aspermia
B. Oligospermia
C. sterility
D. rigidity
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____68. What is the earliest material used for writing?
A. leaves
B. paper
C. linen
D. Egyptian papyrus
____69. What agents which produce intestinal evacuations?
A. emetics
B. cathartics
C. antidotes
D. demulcents
____70. What is the product of decomposition found mostly in all soils?
A. sedentary solid
B. clay soil
C. primary mineral
D. organic soil
____71. What rule which states that the radial crack is at right angle at the rear side
of the glass?
A. RFC rule
B. 3R rule
C. flotation
D. immersion
____72. Methyl alcohol is differentiated from ethyl alcohol by the fact that the latter
is absorbed by the body ____
A. slowly
B. easily
C. rapidly
D. none of the above
____73. Poisons are more rapidly absorbed when in ___.
A. gaseous state
B. liquid state
C. solid form
D. mass form
____74. Atopine is a ______.
A. midriatic
B. stimulant
C. depressant
D. convulsant
____75. Food on the stomach causes _________ on the symptoms of poisoning.
A. delay
B. acceleration
C. no effect
D. sickness
____76. Corrosive poisons are more detrimental when __________.
A. concentrated
B. diluted
C. suspended
D. tasted
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____77. Powdered glass is a __________ poison.
A. mechanical
B. electrical
C. powdered
D. chemical
____78. Strychnine is an alkaloid found in ________.
A. nux vomica
B. coffee
C. alcohol
D. soft drink
____79. Volatile poisons can be isolated by _____.
A. steam distillation
B. freezing
C. extraction
D. milking
____80. Emetics are antidote which causes ________.
A. sweating
B. eating
C. vomiting
D. nervousness
____81. Lead and mercury are examples of _____ poisons.
A. irritant
B. chemical
C. corrosive
D. metallic
____82. What poison that produces spasmodic and continuous contraction of
muscles resulting in the stiffness of the part of the body being affected?
A. tetanic
B. asthenic
C. corrosive
D. neurotic
____83. What poison that produces inflammation in the membrane characterized by
vomiting, pain in the abdomen and purging?
A. irritant
B. corrosive
C. sedative
D. chemical
____84. Highly irritant poison which causes local destruction of tissues and causes
nausea.
A. Corrosives
B. Irritants
C. Tetanics
D. Narcotics
____85. Poisons may enter into the body by __________.
A. eyes
B. mouth
C. nose
D. all of them
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____86. Alcohol and chloroform are isolated by distillation and these substances are
called _______.
A. volatile
B. non volatile
C. beverages
D. beer
____87. What substances which neutralize the action of poisons or positively
counteract poisons?
A. antidote
B. dosage
C. Sedatives
D. Asthenics
____88. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous substance when inhaled in great quantity.
It is an example of _____.
A. gaseous poison
B. volatile poison
C. mineral poison
D. chemical poison
____89. Reinsch test is used as preliminary examination for ________.
A. arsenic poisoning
B. acid poisoning
C. bacterial poisoning
D. none of them
____90. Potassium hydroxide is a _________ substance.
A. corrosive alkaline
B. irritant
C. neurotic
D. none of them
____91. What method/test is used in restoration of obliterated numbers in metal?
A. etching solution
B. scratching test
C. diphenylamine test
D. none of them
____92 A witness whose opinion regarding question of science, art, or trade wherein
his skill therein is called?
A. eye witness
B. expert witness
C. ordinary witness
D. master witness
____93. Coal dust from the clothes of a coal miner is an example of a _________.
A. occupational dust
B. foot path
C. industrial dust
D. evidence
____94. Tool marks which are produced by a single application of the tool in one
area of contact are called_____.
A. compression
B. identification mark
C. friction mark
D. all of them
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____95. Both black and smokeless powders contains _______.
A. nitrates
B. sulfur
C. chloride
D. sulfide
____96. Agglutinogens are found in the blood _________.
A. plasma
B. serum
C. cell
D. all of them
____97. The restoration of numbers on metal is based on the difference in _______
A. solubility of the disturbed particle in the etching solution
B. reaction involved on the surface of the metal
C. differences in crystalline structure
D. all of the above
____98. In view of the variations in the compositions of soil, it can be used as ____.
A. corroborative evidence
B. direct evidence
C. real evidence
D. none of them
____99. The difficulty in searching physical evidence in arson is when ________.
A. all evidences ( physical) are burned
B. mostly that fire is accidental
C. mostly there's no eye witness
D. none of them
____100. The only drawback of Plaster of Paris as a casting material is _____.
A. its poor chemical strength
B. it is not plastic when applied
C. it does not harden rapidly
D. it is like a work in a highway of a corrupt engineer
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Module in
CHEM 211
(Forensic Chemistry & Toxicology)
Midterm Coverage
Prof. Mirza V. Lachauna

Prof. Emelyn P. Lira
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Introduction to
1 Forensic Chemistry
`
“ If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of Science.
You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save. You must
bear witness within the limits of Science.”
-Brouardel
Forensic Chemistry is the application of chemistry and its subfield, forensic

toxicology, in legal setting. A forensic chemist can assist in the identification of
unknown materials found at a crime scene. Specialist in this field have a wide array
of methods and instruments to help identify unknown substances
Desired Learning Objectives (DLO):

At the end of the unit, the students must have:
1. Defined Forensic Chemistry.
2. Enumerated the scope of forensic chemistry.
3. Discussed the practice of Forensic Chemistry.
4. Recognized the role of the forensic chemist in the scientific
investigation.
5. Cited the six golden rules in the practice of Forensic
Chemistry.
I. Forensic Chemistry Defined
 Is defined as that branch of Chemistry which deals with application of

chemical principles in the solution of crimes.
 Like the other forensic science, Forensic chemistry plays a very important
part in the speedy investigation and in the administration of justice.
 It is well-settled that this Science has an advantage over extracted
confessions, eyewitnesses and other circumstantial evidence. Thus, it is
regarded as the highest form of uncontestable and conclusive piece of
evidence with the utmost legal significance.
II. Scope
 In the identification of evidence

 Collection, preservation, examination and study of blood, semen and
other body fluids
 Examination of dangerous drugs
 Examination of body fluids to determine the presence of dangerous drugs
 Alcohol (liquor) test
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 Examination of fake products for unfair trade competition
 Arson investigation
 Macro etching investigation
 Bullet trajectory
 Ultraviolet examination
 Tools and other marks
 Gunshot residues (gunpowder nitrates, paraffin test, distance
determination and firearms examination
 Principles and examination of explosives, hair and textile fibers
 Chemical aspects of document and examination
 Problems on glass fragments and glass fracture
 Moulage, metallurgy and petrography as applied to crime investigation
 Study and examination of Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for brevity
III. Practice of Forensic Chemistry

The work of a Forensic Chemist is divided into four stages:
1. Collection or reception of the specimen
The proper collection, preservation, and transportation of specimens

are essential in the investigation of a crime . Hence, whenever possible, the
chemist should personally collect all the specimens necessary for the
examination. This particular stage of Forensic Chemist’s work is essential as
questions regarding the collection, preservation and transportation of the
specimen are raised during the trial.
Factors that must be considered when collecting specimen for

examination:
a. Sufficiency of Samples
As much as possible, the investigator should collect sufficient amount

of specimen for examination. This will make the Chemist confident that in
case of doubtful result, he or she can still have enough samples to repeat or
to proceed to the succeeding examinations.
b. Standard for comparison
When the evidence in question is located in or added with the foreign

substance, a sample of such foreign substance must be submitted for
analysis. For instance, if blood is found on linoleum, a sample of the
unstained linoleum must be submitted together with the stained portion. In
cases of adulteration or unfair trade competition, a genuine sample must be
submitted for comparison. In the examination of hair, textile fiber, soil, etc.,
standard samples must be submitted for comparison.
c. Maintenance of Individuality
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Each piece of evidence must be collected and preserved as a separate

sample. There must be no mixing or intermingling of specimen/s collected
from different locations, as well as those of standard specimen/s.
d. Labeling and Sealing
2. The Actual Examination
 The first step in the examination of an article is to scrutinize it carefully

and write down in the laboratory logbook/ record book a complete
description of the external appearance including the manner in which it is
secured and the particulars of the sealing. If possible take a photograph
of the specimen including the inner wrappings and take note of its
descriptions. A detailed description of the appearance of the contents of
the package should be noted and recorded. All wrappers should be kept
and preserved since questions concerning them may be raised in court
during trial.
 The second step in the examination is to measure or weigh the object and
all measurements and weights should be entered in the laboratory
logbook/ record book. The specimen should then be placed in the proper
container or wrapper and must be kept in the proper evidence room.
 The third step is the laboratory examination which consist s of the

chemical, physical, and confirmatory tests.
3. The Communication of the Results of the Examination
The results of the examination conducted should be communicated

with the requesting party in the form of a written report which must be
include an enumeration of facts on the specimen received for examination
with detailed description of the packaging, sealing, and labeling, date of
receipt, from whom it was received, the purpose of the examination, the
findings and conclusions.
4. Court Appearance
The written report of the forensic chemist is usually supplemented by

testimonial evidence in a later date if the case is brought to court or the
fiscal’s office. Since the testimonial evidence may be given weeks, months, or
even years after the examination and the written report have been made, it is
not only permissible but indispensable that the chemist should refresh his
memory by referring to his laboratory record book before presenting himself
in court.
IV. Roles of Forensic Chemist in the Scientific Investigation
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A Forensic Chemist, as a man of science, performs laboratory examinations

physical evidence submitted to the crime laboratory in order to expedite the
investigation of a crime by the investigating party. He/ she has the following
responsibilities:
1. Conducts qualitative and quantitative determination of abused drugs as well

volatile substances.
2. Conducts chemical examination of explosives and/or explosive ingredients.
3. Conducts examination of paraffin cast and firearms to determine the
presence of gunpowder nitrates.
4. Conducts gunpowder examination on clothing for possible gunshot range.
5. Conducts chemico-toxicological examination of human internal organs, gastric
contents, blood, water, food sample and other substances.
6. Conducts examination of fake products in cases of unfair trade competition.
7. Conducts blood alcohol determinations.
8. Examines urine samples and other body fluids for the presence of abused
drugs.
9. Conducts researches related to cases being examined.
10. Testifies and give expert opinion in court.
11. Gives lectures on Forensic Chemistry and chemical-toxicology to various
schools, universities, police training centers and investigating units.
12. Responds to queries of all investigating units and render expert opinion on
matters related to the application of chemical principles for the purpose of
assisting investigators to develop investigative leads.
V. Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry
1. Go Slowly
Good work cannot be hurried, therefore, take all the time necessary to
make the case complete no matter how urgent it may appear.
2. Be thorough
Make careful and minute examination of everything and do not be

satisfied with a quantitative analysis if a quantitative one is possible. It always
pays to do too much rather than too little and it is difficult to foresee what
will or will not be required in court.
3. Take Notes
Keep a full neat and clean record of everything seen and done.
4. Consult others
Many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not
familiar and when this happens he should consult those who know better.
5. Use Imagination
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An expert with a wide and uncontrollable imagination is considered as

the most dangerous creatures. Though his being imaginative is sometimes
useful, an expert witness does not have to be solely imaginative but has to be
skilled in the field of Forensic Science. He must bear witness within the limits
of science.
6. Avoid Complicated Theories
The simplest explanation is fundamentally the right one.

Interpretation of results is often the most difficult part of the expert’s task
that is why a wide knowledge and scientific experience are the essential
elements to obtain the right forensic examination results.
VI. Equipment Used in the Forensic Examination
1. HPLC (High Powered Liquid

Chromatography) – used for the
qualitative and quantitative
determination of a volatile or non-
volatile compound based on the
chromatographic separation of its
components
2. Ultra-Violet
Spectrophotometer
– used for the qualitative analysis
of organic compounds
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3. EMIT (Enzyme Multiple

Immuno Assay Technique) –
used for screening of abused
urine samples
4. SEM (Scanning Electron

Microscope) – used for the
physical identification of
various questioned specimens
(e.g. hair, fibers, particles,
drugs, metals)
5. FTIR (Fourier Transform

Infrared Spectroscopy) – used for the
identification of pure organic
substances
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Self
Assessment
Name:_____________________________ Score:_____________
I. True-or-False. Write the word True if the statement is correct and

False if otherwise on the space provided before each number.
________1. Forensic chemistry is defined as that branch of Chemistry which deals

with application of chemical principles in the solution of crimes.
________2. Forensic chemistry plays a very important part in the speedy
investigation and in the administration of justice.
________3. Forensic chemistry is regarded as the highest form of contestable and
inconclusive piece of evidence with the utmost legal significance.
________4. Examination of dangerous drugs and examination of body fluids to
determine the presence of dangerous drugs are scopes of forensic
chemistry
________5. Study and examination of Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for brevity is not
inclusive in the scope of forensic chemistry.
________6. When the evidence in question is located in or added with the foreign
substance, a sample of such foreign substance must not be submitted
for analysis.
II. The work of a Forensic Chemist is divided into four stages:

Arrange accordingly the following four phases of the Practice of
Forensic Chemistry (use no. 1,2,3,4). Write your answer on the space
provided before each number.
_____The Actual Examination

_____The Communication of the Results of the Examination
_____Collection or reception of the specimen
_____Court Appearance
III. The following are the Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic
Chemistry. Identify which Golden Rule is described in each of the
following. Choose from the choices below and write the letter of the
correct answer on the space provided before each number.
a. Go Slowly
b. Be thorough
c. Take Notes
d. Consult others
e. Use Imagination
f. Avoid Complicated Theories
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_____1. Good work cannot be hurried, therefore, take all the time necessary to
make the case complete no matter how urgent it may appear.
_____2. Keep a full neat and clean record of everything seen and done.
_____3. Make careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied
with a quantitative analysis if a quantitative one is possible. It always pays
to do too much rather than too little and it is difficult to foresee what will or
will not be required in court.
_____4. The simplest explanation is fundamentally the right one. Interpretation of
results is often the most difficult part of the expert’s task that is why a wide
knowledge and scientific experience are the essential elements to obtain
the right forensic examination results.
_____5. Many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar and
when this happens he should consult those who know better.
_____6. An expert with a wide and uncontrollable imagination is considered as the
most dangerous creatures. Though his being imaginative is sometimes
useful, an expert witness does not have to be solely imaginative but has to
be skilled in the field of Forensic Science.
IV. Matching Type. Letters Only
____1.
a. HPLC (High Powered
Liquid Chromatography
b. Ultra-Violet
Spectrophotometer
c. EMIT (Enzyme Multiple
Immuno Assay
Technique)
_____2. d. SEM (Scanning Electron
Microscope)
e. FTIR (Fourier
Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy)
_____3.
_____4.
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Activity
Name:_____________________________ Score:_____________
Concept Mapping
Instruction: Fill-in the boxes with a short descriptions and information that explains
the following items.
What is Forensic Chemistry?
Scopes of Forensic Chemistry:
Practice of Forensic Roles of Forensic Chemist

Chemistry: in the scientific
investigation:
Six Golden Rules in the

practice of Forensic
Chemistry:
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Development of
2 Scientific Crime
Laboratory in the
Philippines
Crime laboratories offer forensic science services to the criminal justice
system. Forensic science applies scientific testing methods and the latest
technologies to collect, preserve, process, and analyse evidence. Proof of guilt or
innocence is frequently determined by the results of forensic evidence.

1. cited the significant events that shaped and developed
scientific crime laboratory in the country.
The development of scientific crime detection is comparatively recent

although this aspect of police work has long been exploited in fiction, notably by
Conan Doyle’s masterly creation, Sherlock Holmes. Scientific crime detection as such
may well be described as owing its birth to the St. Valentine’s Day massacre which
occurred in Chicago on February 14, 1929. A group of public minded individuals was
responsible for the establishment of a scientific crime laboratory in that city which
today has taken its place in the historical annals of police science.
In the Philippines the first public recognition of the value of science in the
proper administration of justice was made when the position of “Medicos Titulares”
was created in the Philippines by virtue of the Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain dated
March 31, 1876. For every province as Forensic Physician was assigned to perform
public sanitary duties and at the same time medico-legal aids to the administration of
justice. On December 15, 1884, Governor General Jaoquin Javellar created a
committee to study the mineral waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario
as Chermist, Realizing the importance of this work, the government established in
September 13, 1887 the “Labotario Municipal de Manila” under the inspection of the
“Direccion General de Administracion Civil” and the central of the “Gobierno de
Provincia”. The functions of the laboratory were to make analysis, not only of food,
water and others from the standpoint of public health and legal medicine, but also of
specimens for clinical purposes. Anacleto del Rosario was appointed director after a
competitive examination in June 17, 1888.
In 1894 the “Laboratorioi Medico Legal” was created under the dependency
of the judicial branch of the government and the laboratory functioning under the
direction of a physician and assisted by a pharmacist-chemist. Ulpiano Rodriguez was
appointed as one of the first chemists. In 1895 Antonio Luna arrived and established
a clinical laboratory where some original works in chemistry were done.
Unfortunately all prospects for the advancement of the scientific laboratories were
paralyzed as a result of the revolution of 1896. After the revolution and as soon as
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Manila was taken in 1899, the first scientific laboratory was established in a small
building on the banks of Pasig river with Lt. R.P. Strong of the U.S. Army in charge.
Actual scientific work began under the initiative of Dean C. Worcester in
1901. By virtue of Act No. 156 approved by the Civil Commission on July 1, 1901, the
Bureau of Government Laboratories was created for the purpose of performing
biological and chemical examinations as well as for the production of vaccines and
sera. Dr. Paul C. Freer, professor of chemistry in the University of Michigan, was
appointed as first director in June 21, 1901 and he arrived in Manila on September
21, 1901 to assume the post. In his first annual report (1902-1903) , he recommend
the creation of a position of analytical chemist in the bureau. In his second report
(1903-1905) he mentioned several accomplishments of his bureau. Among them are
the analysis of suspected counterfeit silver coins for the custom house and treasure,
toxicology analysis and the corresponding court appearances and the analysis of
stains for the detection of blood in two cases. The different biological and chemical
laboratories of the bureau were later consolidated into what is known as the Bureau
of Science ( now the Institute of Science and Technology) by virtue of Act No. 1407
which also provided for the merging of the Bureau of Mines with the Bureau of
Government Laboratories.
On March 11, 1915 the Department of Legal Medicines in the University of
the Philippines was created pursuant to the resolution of the Board of Regent.
Originally the department took charge of the courses of legal medicine and its
branches in the College of Medicine and Laws. Dr. Sixto delos Angeles was appointed
head of this department and was conferred the authority to collect materials in the
interest of medic-legal questions in the islands.
On October 14, 1924, through the passage of Act No. 3043 by the Philippine
Legislature, the same department of Legal Medicine became a branch of the
Department of Justice in the city of Manila including those services rendered to the
Manila Police Department, assists in the administration of justice in the provinces
including those services rendered to the Philippine Chemical Toxicological; analysis
originally performed in the Bureau of Science were later transferred to the School of
Hygiene and then to the College opf Pharmacy, University of the Philippines.
Realizing the need for a scientific laboratory organized in relation to crime
detection under the auspices of a police organization and for a more systematic
scientific crime detection, the Division of Investigation was created on December 1,
1937 by Commonwealth Act No. 181. With the Medico-Legal officers and a chemist,
the Medico-Legal Section of the Division of Investigation started the definite
movement towards the creation of a scientific crime detection laboratory national in
scope. When the Department of legal Medicine was abolished on March 31, 1938,
the activities of this office were turned over to the Medico-Legal Section.
Criminal investigation in the Philippines are not consolidated under one office.
The Manila Police Department, Philippines Constabulary and the Division of
Investigation (now NBI) are all engaged in this task. The Philippine Constabulary
organized its own Medico-Legal office with a chemical laboratory on October 1939 for
the purpose of assisting in the investigation of crimes within their jurisdiction. With
the Japanese occupation of Manila and the subsequent recognition of the
government, the Manila Police Department created its own Medico_legal Section July
4, 1942 with the appointment of Dr. Pablo Anzures as medico-legal officer and later
head of the office when it expanded to include a chemical laboratory. Even before
the organization of the Medico-Legal Section, the Manila Police Department has
already acquired the services of a chemist when the former Miss Marcelina Villanes
was appointed detective-chemist on August 1`4, 1937 and detailed to work in the
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Department of Legal Medicine. She was performing laboratory examinations for the
Manila Police Department and the Department of Justice under the supervision of the
Department of Legal Medicine of the University of the Philippines. When the Division
of Investigation was organized in 1938 she was transferred to the Secret Service
Division of the Manila Police working under Mr. Arcadio Laperal.
On July 1, 1944 pursuant to the executive order of President Jose P. Laurel of
the Japanese sponsored Republic of the Philippines all the different Law enforcing
agent engaged in the investigation of crimes were consolidated into one office and
the Bureau of Investigation was formally organized on July 8, 1944. All scientific
activities in relation to crime detection were centralized in the chemical laboratory of
the Division of Legal Medicine.
For a time after the liberation of Manila in 1945 the American took charge of
the activities of the scientific crime laboratory. When the Office of the Provost
Marshall was abolished and their activities turned over to the City of Manila, the City
Medical Examiner’s Office was organized to handle medico-legal cases and the
Criminbal Investigation Laboratory to take charge of all forensic chemical analyses
for the city of Manila.
To cope with the increasing number of crimes in the provinces, the Medico-
Legal Section of the Division of Investigation was reactivated on June 28, 1945 with
the appointed of a skeleton force by order of the Secretary of Justice. By September
of the same year, the whole staff was placed on the saddle and the activities of the
Medico-Section was extended again all over the archipelago. With the approval of
Republic Act No. 157, the National Bureau of Investigation was organized with the
Division of Investigation as the nucleus. The chemical laboratory of the Medico-Legal
Section was expanded into a Forensic Chemistry Division.
There are presently three Philippine laboratories which have the capability to
do forensic DNA work involving kinship analysis, criminal investigation, and disaster
victim identification (DVI), namely:
1. DNA Analysis Laboratory at the Natural Sciences Research Institute,
University of the Philippines Diliman (UPD-NSRI);
2. Philippine National Police (PNP) Crime Laboratory;
3. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) Crime Laboratory.
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Self
Assessment
Name:___________________________ Score:________
Course, Year & Section:______________ Date:________
I. Multiple Choice. Letters only
_____1. A massacre occurred in Chicago. Then a group of public-minded individuals

was responsible for the establishment of a scientific crime laboratory in that
city which today has marked its place in the historical annals of police
science.
a. February 14, 1829 c. December 15, 1884
b. March 31, 1876 d. September 13, 1887
_____2. Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study the mineral
waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist.
_____3. The creation of “Medicos Titulares” by virtue of Royal Decree No. 188 of
Spain. For every province, a Forensic Physician was assigned to perform
public sanitary duties and at the same time provide medico-legal aids to the
administration of justice.
_____4. “Laboratorio Madico- Legal” was created under the dependency of the
judicial branch of the government and the laboratory functioning under the
direction of a physician and assisted by a pharmacist-chemist.
a. 1894 c. 1893
b. 1895 d. 1892
_____5. Antonio Luna established a clinical laboratory where some original works in
chemistry were done. Unfortunately, all prospects of the advancement of
the scientific laboratories were paralyzed as a result of the revolution in
1896.
a. 1894 c. 1893
b. 1895 d. 1892
_____6. The actual scientific work begun under the initiative of Dean C. Worcester
by virtue of Act No. 156 approved by the Civil Commission.
a. 1901 c. 1903
b. 1902 d. 1904
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_____7. The Department of Legal Medicine was created pursuant to the resolution
of the Board of Regents. The department took charge of the courses of
legal medicines and its branches in the College of Medicine and Law.
a. March 11, 1915 c. October 14, 1924
b. December 01, 1937 d. September 1, 1945
_____8. Through the passage of Act No. 3043 by the Philippine Legislature, the
same Department of Legal Medicine became a branch of the Department of Justice
and at the same time an integral part of the University of the Philippines.
a. March 11, 1915 c. October 14, 1924
_____9. The “Division of Investigation” was created under Commonwealth Act No.
181 with two medico-legal officers and a chemist. The Medico-Legal Section of the
Division of Investigation started the definite movement towards the creation of
scientific crime detection laboratory.
a. March 11, 1915 c. October 14, 1924
_____10. The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) was organized with the Division
of Investigation as the nucleus. The chemical laboratory of the Medico-Legal Section
was expanded into a Forensic Chemistry Division.
a. March 1915 c. October 1924
b. December 1937 d. September 1945
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Activity
Name:___________________________ Score:________
Timeline
Instruction: Create a timeline depicts the chronological
development of scientific crime laboratory in the Philippines. You
can Tabulate your answer or use an infographic style.
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Scientific Evidence
3
Scientific evidence has proven extremely useful in criminal cases for both
defense lawyer and prosecutors. However, it is important to keep in mind that errors
can be made with any type of evidence. For instance, DNA evidence may be
contaminated or compromised due to improper collection or handling. With every
type of evidence whether forensic or circumstantial, there can be issues that leave
questions in the mind of jurors. Even in criminal law cases, nothing is foolproof.

1. Defined the term evidence.
2. Enumerate the different kinds of evidence and discussed each.
3. Identified each of the forms of scientific evidence.
I. Definition of Terms:
 Evidence is a proof of allegation, it is a means sanctioned by law of

ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact ( Sec
Rule 128, Revised Rules On Evidence).
 Scientific Evidence – defined as the means sanctioned by law, of

ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact,
wherein scientific knowledge is necessary.
II. Evidence may be :
a. Direct evidence is that which the senses perceive.Any fact to which a

witness testifies based on what he saw, heard, smelled, touched or tasted, is
direct.
Crimes are done secretly. Usually the perpetrator seeks darkness and
remoteness in order to cover his misdeeds and in most cases, no witness is
present at the scene of the crime, or even if there is/are witness/es, he/they
are not willing to testify. The necessity of resorting to other means of proof is
essential. Hence, it is necessary to use all other available modes of procuring
evidence in order to establish and prove a case in court.
b. Circumstantial evidence is a kind of evidence which seeks to establish a

conclusion by inferences from the facts proven.
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Illustrative case:
While a policeman was patrolling, he heard a scream from a house.

He immediately proceeded to the house and then and there, he saw a man
coming out of the house carrying a bloody knife. The policeman arrested the man
and subsequently entered the house. There he saw a female cadaver lying on the
floor with a stab wound on the breast.
In this case, the only direct evidence to which the policeman can
testify would be to the fact that he saw the man with a bloody knife coming out
of the house where the scream came from. The prosecutor may establish a
conclusion that the man with a bloody knife is the criminal by inference from the
facts testified to by the policeman.
Under the present law, circumstantial evidence is sufficient for conviction if:
(a) There is more than one circumstances;

(b) The facts from which the inferences are derived are proven; and
(c) The combination of all the circumstances is such as to produce conviction
beyond reasonable doubt.
c. Hearsay evidence is a statement made by a witness on the authority of

another and not from his own personal knowledge or observation. Hearsay
evidence is inadmissible except on the following:
1. Dying declaration
2. Res gestae
3. Declaration against interest
4. Act or declaration about pedigree
5. Family reputation or tradition regarding pedigree
6. Common reputation
7. Part of res gestae
8. Entries in the course of business
9. entries in official records
10. learned treaties, and
11. testimony or deposition at a former proceeding
III. Forms of Scientific Evidence
1. Real or Autoptic evidence – is that evidence which is addressed to the

senses of the court. It is not limited to that which can be known by the sense
of vision but extends to those which are perceived by the senses of hearing,
taste, smell, or touch.
2. Testimonial Evidence – An expert may be called on the witness stand to

answer all questions propounded by both parties in the case.
3. Documentary evidence – any written evidence presented by an expert in

court which is relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded by
the Rules of Court. Formal written report, expert opinion, certificates and
disposition are included in this group.
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The investigator is a fact finder. It is basic that he must know the laws
concerning the nature of his investigation. He should procure evidence in such a way
that the findings can be admitted in court and remain impregnable against any
attack by the opposing counsel. He should be in constant contact with various
investigative and enforcement agencies.
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Self
Assessment
Name:____________________________ Score:________
Course, Year & Section:_______________ Date:________
I. Identify the following.
________ 1. It is a proof of allegation, it is a means sanctioned by law of

ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of
fact.
_________2. It is defined as the means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a
judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact, wherein
scientific knowledge is necessary.
_________3. It is that which the senses perceive. Any fact to which a witness
testifies based on what he saw, heard, smelled, touched or tasted, is
direct.
_________4. It is a kind of evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by
inferences from the facts proven.
_________5. It is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and
not from his own personal knowledge or observation.
_________6. It is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court.
_________7. It is an expert may be called on the witness stand to answer all
questions propounded by both parties in the case.
_________8. It is any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is
relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded by the
Rules of Court.
II. Essay. When can you say that an evidence is a scientific evidence? (7 points)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Activity
Name:____________________________ Score:________
Course, Year & Section:_______________ Date:________
I. Compare and Contrast

Complete the table with the correct information that that differentiates to each of
the terms.
Type of Evidence Description Illustrative Case
Direct
Circumstantial
Hearsay
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4 Witness
You may be called as a witness in a criminal case or civil case. The general
rule is that everyone is competent and can be forced to be a witness.

1. Defined witness.
2. Differentiated an ordinary witness from expert witness.
3. Explained the probative value of expert witness.
I. Witness Defined:
A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.
Under the law, an ordinary witness must have the following qualifications:
1. He must have the organ and power to perceive.
2. Perceiving can make known his perception to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for by law, 123 Rules of
Court.
RULE 123
Procedure in the Municipal Trial Courts
Section 1.Uniform Procedure. — The procedure to be observed in the
Metropolitan Trial Courts, Municipal Trial Courts and Municipal Circuit
Trial Courts shall be the same as in the Regional Trial Courts, except
where a particular provision applies only to either of said courts and in
criminal cases governed by the Revised Rule on Summary Procedure. (1a)
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II. Distinctions between an Ordinary and an Expert Witness
ORDINARY WITNESS EXPERT WITNESS

1. Can only state what is senses 1. State what he has perceived and also
have perceived give his opinion, deductions or
conclusions to his perception.
2. May not be skilled on the line 2. Must be skilled in the art, science or
he is testifying trade he is testifying.
3. Cannot testify on things or 3. Testify on things which he has not
fact he has not perceived seen by giving his opinions,
except those provided by the deductions or conclusions on the
law. statements of facts.
III. Probative value of Expert Testimony
Whether courts are or are not bound by the testimony of an expert depends
upon the nature of the subject of inquiry. If the subject of inquiry comes within the
general knowledge of the judge, the latter will not be bound by the conclusion of the
expert. For instance, when the subject of inquiry is genuineness of a handwriting as
compared to a standard. (Paras vs. Narciso, 35 Phil. 224; Dolor v. Diancin, 55 Phil.
479)
However, when the subject of inquiry is of such a nature that a layman can
have no knowledge thereof, as for instance, the determination of parentage through
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid )test, the court must depend on the result of the
examination of an expert.
Qualification of an Expert Witness

a. The degree of learning of the witness;
b. The basis and logic of his conclusion; and
c. The other proof of case. (U.S. v. Tiono 3 Phil. 213; Samson v. Corrales Tan
Quintin, 44 Phil. 573)
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Self
Assessment
I. Essay
1. What is a witness in court?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Discuss the probative value of an expert witness in court.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Activity
Name:__________________________ Score:_______
Course, Year & Section:_____________ Date:________
I. Compare and Contrast

Fill-out the table with the correct answer by writing the distinction between the
ordinary and expert witness.
Kind of Witness Distinction
Ordinary
Expert
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Blood And
5 Blood Stains
Since blood evidence associated with a crime can provide information that
may solve the case, it is essential to correctly document, collect, and preserve this
type of evidence. Improperly handled blood evidence can be weaken or destroy a
potential source of facts in a case. Perhaps the most powerful application of blood
evidence is the ability to absolutely eliminate a person as a potential suspect in a
crime.
At the end of the lesson, the students must have:
1. Discuss the importance of the study of blood
2. Identify the different preliminary test for blood
3. Describe the various kinds of confirmatory test for blood
4. Identify the reagents use in the preparation of precipitin
5. Explain the importance of theory of blood grouping
6. Identify the several examples of forensic applications of blood
grouping tests
7. Discuss legal aspects of blood test
8. Performed Laboratory experiment on blood and blood stain.
The testing of blood is largely chemical, more likely since the antisera require
for the biochemical test need no longer prepared by the expert but maybe purchased
ready for use and there is no doubt the chemist, by reason of his training and
experience in manipulation and his skill in testing and in general laboratory practice,
is well qualified to undertake this work than in an ordinary medical practitioner.
Blood testing in legal cases, however, should only be under taken by those having
considerable experience in such work since issues of life and death may be involved.
I. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD:
1. AS CIRCUMSTANCE OR CORROBORATIVE EVIDENCE AGAINST OR IN

FAVOR OF THE PERPETRATOR OF THE CRIME.
Example 1: (Against the suspect) “A” was seen coming of a house with a bloody
knife on a hand. Inside the house a woman “B” was found dead with a stab wound
at the back. Examination of the knife showed that the stain is of human blood and of
the same group as that of “B” .With the foregoing result, there is a strong
presumption that “A” stabbed “B”.
Example 2: (In favor of the suspect) “A” was accused for serious physical injuries.
The evidence presented by the complainant is a blood stained cloth allegedly worn
by him when he was stabbed. Examination of the stain showed that it is not human
blood. The evidence was planted.
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2. AS EVIDENCE IN CASE OF DISPUTED PARENTAGE.
Example: Spouses “A” and “B” filed a habeas corpus proceedings to seek custody of
a child “C” who was claimed as legitimate child of spouses “D” and “E”. Examination
of the blood of the parties showed the following results:
Blood Group
“A” O
“B” O
“C” B
“D” O
“E” B
3. AS EVIDENCE IN THE DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSE OF DEATH AND

THE LENGTH OF TIME THE VICTIM SURVIVED THE ATTACK.
The amount of blood or blood stains in the scene of crime or found on the
clothing of the victim or inside the body of the deceased outside the blood vessels
may imply that the cause of death is severe hemorrhage. Sometimes the amount of
blood in the clothing of the deceased may also indicate which of the several wounds,
if there are multiple wounds, was inflicted first.
When a person is dead, the blood pressure falls to zero and bleeding ceases so
that dead bodies do not bleed. Therefore , the amount of blood present around a
dead body may give considerable indication as to how long life existed after the
assault. The only exception to this is where there is a large wound in such a position
on the body that there will be drainage due to gravity. This seepage is a mixture of
blood, serum and frequently other materials. It is generally quite dark in color and
may accumulate in considerable quantity if the wound is large and ragged. If a body
is found in which there has been a large pool of blood which collected from
comparatively small wounds, it indicates that the person lived for a considerable
length of time after the attack and in many cases the actual cause of death is simply
loose of blood.
In cases where death follows immediately from such sudden cause as a gunshot
through the heart, there is usually very little blood on or around the body.
4. DETERMINATION OF THE DIRECTION OF ESCAPE OF THE VICTIM OR

THE ASSAILANT
The shape of the blood or blood stains will give the investigator an idea of the
direction of the source of the blood. When the blood strikes a smooth surface, it will
often leave a large blot with one or two smaller ones trailing off in a straight line.
This condition is caused by the blood coming from the direction of the large to the
small blots. In other words the largest blot is made first and then the smaller ones
afterwards.
If a person was stabbed in the neck he may stagger away leaving a trail of blood
on the ground in the form of large drops. On the other hand, the deceased may
collapse at the place where he was stabbed and shed a large pool of blood around
him.
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If a small artery is cut, the blood will spurt in such a way that may form definite
patterns. If the drops strike at right angles, irregularly circular stains with serrated
edges is produced; if it strikes obliquely, the stains will assume a shape similar to a
bowling pin with the head of the pin in the direction of the flight of the drops. Drops
of spattered blood will form similar figures. In many instances it is possible to locate
the source of these flying drops by the patterns which they form on surfaces.
If a person has been bleeding profusely and a struggle has taken place, stains
and smears of blood will be present over the floor, walls, and furniture.
5. DETERMINATION OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FLOW OF BLOOD
If a crime of violence has been committed and a suspect is apprehended with a

blood stains on his body or clothing, he will often try to explain the presence of blood
by telling a tale about the blood originated from the nose, or from a wound caused
by accident or in case the suspect is a woman, from her menstruation. If blood
grouping will not give results, it is important to verify such a tale. It may be verified
if the form and position of the stains correspond with the tale. It will be difficult to
believe that blood stains on the rear of the coat or under an apron come from the
nose. Likewise blood from the vagina or rectal region will usually stain the neither
garments.
A microscopic examination of the stain or of the blood, if still fresh, may

sometimes disclose the origin of the blood due to the presence of foreign particles.
The presence of foreign particles in blood may lead to a definite conclusion about the
origin of the blood, but their absence will not prove conclusively that the blood did
not come from the part of the body from which it was alleged to have come.
6. AS EVIDENCE IN THE DETERMINATION OF THE APPROXIMATE TIME

THE CRIME WAS COMMITTED.
If the amount of blood is very small it dries very rapidly and the different
changes are not easy to distinguish, but, if there is enough of it to make a small
paddle, then after three to five minutes, the blood will begin to clot and, after the
clot is formed, it becomes a solid to such an extent that a stick or pencil drawn
through it will have a definite mark in it. This period of drying will usually take from
12 to 36 hours depending upon the size of the cloth and external conditions. as it
continues to dry, the stain becomes darker in color, until at the time it is completely
dried, it will have a dark brown appearance. At this stage of the color changes the
stain is about 10 to 12 days old. Beyond that the color will not change very much.
Attention is, however, called to the fact that the above basis for the estimation of
the age of blood is far from being accurate. The clotting time, for example, is altered
by many circumstances or influences.
- Cold retards it and heat accelerates it.
- It is more rapid on a rough surface and slower on a smooth one.
- Oily substances may not only increase the clotting time, but may alter the
appearance of the blood.
- Exposure to sunlight and chemical fumes.
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II. THE CONSTITUTION OF BLOOD
BLOOD
Has been called the
circulating tissue of the body.
It is referred to as a highly
complex mixture of cells,
enzymes, proteins, and
inorganic substances. It is the
red fluid of the blood vessels.
Blood is opaque. On the
treatment with either, water
or other reagents becomes
transparent like color. It is
finally alkaline. Normally pH is 7.35 – 7.45. There are about 6 quarts of blood in a
man of average size.
III. COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
1. (45%) formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells namely:
 Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES) around 4 – 5 millions of red

cell per cc. of blood
 White Blood Cells or WBC

(LEUKOCYTES)
 Blood Platelets
(THROMBOCYTES)
2. (55%) PLASMA – The fluid or

liquid portion of blood where the
cells are suspended. It is
principally composed of:
 Water ---- 90%
 Solid ----- 10% ( largely
protein in nature and consist
of albumen, several globulin’s
and fibrinogen)
In the forensic aspect of

blood identification, that is blood
grouping, our discussion will
concentrate on the RBC and blood
serum. Serum is pale yellowish
liquid just like the plasma.
PLASMA
The yellowish fluid of blood in
which numerous blood corpuscles
are suspended. A straw-yellow liquid
formed when blood to which oxalate
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has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to strand.
SERUM
A straw – yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for
some time and the clot contracts.
IV. PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD:
A. WHERE HAS TO BE SEARCHED FOR?
When searching for blood stains attention should be directed not only to
clothing and weapons, but also the finger nails, linings of the pockets, seams and
folds of the garments of the suspect. Blood is often found in places which are not
directly visible as for example under the edges of a table where the criminal may
have wiped his hands; in the water trap of a sink where the criminal may have
washed his hands and where there still may be blood remaining in the water; on
pieces of paper thrown into waste-paper baskets, stoves or toilet. On clothing that
have been recently washed the seams should be cut open to ascertain if any blood
may be there. Even on well rinsed clothing it may be possible to detect blood. An
absolutely white handkerchief may still contain blood although not visible to the
naked eye but will readily be seen when viewed under an ultra violet light.
In cases of stabbing, the blade of the knife, while being withdrawn, is wiped
by the edges of the wound and after drying, only thin film of a faint brown,
oftentimes with dull luster, may remain. Sometimes the criminal wipes or washes the
blood from the knife in which case the search must be directed to the junction of the
blade and handle as blood my run down where the tang fits into the handle, a point
normally overlooked by criminals when cleaning the weapon after the crime. Also
wooden handles of weapons may have split or surface cracks which absorb blood
and no amount of cleaning even with the use of sandpaper will thoroughly remove
the stain. Same is also true with metal or bone handles where blood maybe found in
the crevices and grooves of the handle. It has been the experience in the chemical
laboratory of the National Bureau of Investigation to find traces of blood in the metal
lining of the inside surface of a knife where the blade, outside surface of the handle
and the junction between the blade and handle were found negative for blood.
B. COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, PACKING AND TRANSPORTATION OF

SPECIMEN SUSPECTED TO CONTAIN BLOOD.
Blood offers little resistance to decomposition. It undergoes a rapid charge in

its character with the passage of time as process of clotting and drying commences
almost immediately on exposure to air. Sodium fluoride maybe added to blood to
preserve it for a week at room temperature or indefinitely in a refrigerator. Between
40 – 50 degrees centigrade is the ideal preserving temperature for blood and other
perishable specimens. Collection of blood stains should be done as soon as possible,
mere washing of garments/clotting removes the blood.
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 FLUID BLOOD:
Collect from:
1. Victims of crimes of violence

In crime of violence where blood grouping tests are very important, it is
advisable, whenever possible, to obtain a liquid sample of the victim’s blood for
comparison. The liquid blood sample must be placed in a sterile container and
the stopper sealed with adhesive tape. The container is wrapped with cotton for
insulation against breakage and then placed in a cylindrical cardboard mailing
tube or any rigid box of appropriate size. Refrigeration is not necessary during
the transit of the specimen.
It often happens that in the initial stages of the investigation of crimes of

violence, the necessity for blood examination is not apparent since no evidence
necessitating blood examination has been found. It is advisable to obtain a
blood sample of the victim at the time of the autopsy. The victim’s blood group
can be determined and make a matter of record for possible future use.
2. Parent and child in case of disputed parentage.
 DRIED BLOOD OR BLOOD STAINS:

Collect from:
1. Smooth surface like walls, finished floors, table tops
It is suggested that the blood be scrapped off with a clean knife or

razor blade, care being taken not to include scrapings of the surface. The
scrapings are placed in a pill box and sealed with tape. Envelopes or paper
packets may be used as containers provided precaution is taken to avoid less
of contents as a result of sifting through and unsealed corners. The use of
exterior and interior envelopes will minimize danger of loss by sifting.
2. Hard surface like axe, hammer, knives, stones, crowbars
A protective cover is necessary before packing the specimen to

prevent scraping of the stain by friction in the event that the whole object is
shipped to the laboratory.
3. Glazed surface like glass, tiles, automobiles
Blood stains may be removed by moistening a small one inch square

of white cotton fabric with distilled water or physiological saline solution
(0.9% solution of NaCl)) and rubbing the stain off on to this. The fabric
should not be soaked and must be allowed to dry at room temperature
before packing.
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4. Bulky objects like blackboard, linoleum sheets, doors, window
frames
It may be necessary to cut out the blood stained area, but where this
is done, photographs should be made of the stains prior to the collection.
The stained portion is placed in clean cardboard box or wrapped in a clean
paper.
5. Clothing
All clothing suspected to contain blood must be dried thoroughly

before packing. Exposure to the open air for a couple of hours will be
sufficient to dry the specimen. Hastening the drying process by exposure to
heat or sunlight should be avoided since heat and sunlight may cause
chemical changes in the blood which might prevent a complete analysis of
the stain. Exposure of the clothing to a fan for the purpose of expediting the
drying is also undesirable. Some of the blood adhering to the surface of the
fabric may be blown away by the air stream. After the blood stains on the
clothing have been properly dried, they will remain in a condition satisfactory
for analysis for a long period of time. Each article of clothing must be packed
separately to avoid possible contamination. In packing, one should take
special care never to place newspaper directly in contact with the stain.
6. Blood absorbed by the soil
Blood that has been absorbed by the soil at the scene of the crime
may be dug up and placed in a glass or enamelled containers. Another
procedure that is recommended is to press down an open tin can into the soil
over the blood, cleaning the soil around the tin and inserting a metal plate of
sufficient diameter below it. The whole can then is lifted and contained soil
sample firmly secured to the metal plate by strips of adhesive tape.
C. DOES THE STAIN CONTAIN BLOOD OR ANOTHER SUBSTANCE?

There are two (2) different methods of determining the character of the
stain. The preliminary test and confirmatory test,
I. PRELIMINARY TEST
The preliminary is carried out at the scene of crime and may be made
by the policeman, detective or investigating agent in cases of emergency
provided there is enough blood left for a later expert examination.
 BENZIDINE TEST
An extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain. For

many years the most commonly used preliminary test for blood. The
Benzidine test never fails to detect blood even when very old, decomposed
stain with all sorts of contamination is examined. The positive result is only
indicative that the blood maybe present.
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REAGENT: Benzidine solution ( small
amount of powdered benzidine dissolved in
glacial acetic acid) and 3% solution of
hydrogen peroxide.
PROCEDURE: Place a small
fragment/portion of the stained material on a
filter paper. Add a drop of benzidine solution
and then drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Intense blue color
produced immediately
LIMITATION: Benzidine test is not a
specific test for blood. Positive results may be
obtained from substances as sputum, pus,
nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay,
gun. The reaction is weaker and produces
faint coloration.
 PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
An alternative test to benzidine test. It

can detect blood in a dilution of 1:80,000,000
parts. A positive results with this test is
highly indicative of blood. The negative result
is, therefore, valuable and is conclusive as to
the absence of blood.
REAGENTS: Phenolphthalein solution (1 – 2
grams phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25%
KOH in water added with one gram zinc
powder heated until colorless) and 3%
solution of hydrogen peroxide.
fragment/portion of the stained material on a
filter paper. Add a drop of phenolphthalein
solution and then a drop of hydrogen
peroxide solution.
POSITIVE RESULT: Rose color develops or
deep pink color or permanganate color.
LIMITATION: Test is also given by copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.
 GUAIACUM TEST
A fairly delicate test showing
the presence of fresh blood in a
solution of 1:50,000 dilutions. It
may not react to very old stains.
REAGENTS: Fresh tincture of
guaiac resin (Few lumps of this to
95% alcohol, then filter) and 3%
of hydrogen peroxide or few drops
of turpentine.
PROCEDURE: Place a small piece
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of the stained fabric on porcelain dish. Soak with fresh tincture of guaiac. Add
a few drops of hydrogen peroxide.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Beautiful blue color that appears immediately.
LIMITATION: The test also reacts with salvia, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron
salts, cheese, gluten, potatoes, perspiration and other oxidizing substances.
 LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST:

Not as sensitive as the benzidine test
REAGENT: Leucomalachite Green
solution ( 1 gram leucomalachite
green dissolved in 48 ml. glacial
acetic acid and diluted to 250ml.
water) and 3% hydrogen peroxide.
PROCEDURE: A small piece of the
stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a
drop of leucomalachite green
solution and after a few seconds add
drop of 3% hydrogen peroxide.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Malachite
green or bluish green
 LUMINOUS TEST
An important
presumptive
identification test for
blood. The reaction of
luminol with
blood results in
the production
of light rather
than color. By
spraying luminol
reagent onto a
suspect item,
large areas can be quickly screened for the presence of
bloodstains. The sprayed object must be located in a darkened area while
being viewed for the emission of light. (LUMINESCENCE).. It is capable of
detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000X. Luminol is known to destroy
many important blood factors necessary for the forensic characterization
of blood, so its use should be limited only to seeking out blood invisible to
the naked eye.
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II. CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD
The actual proof that stain is blood consists of

establishing the presence of the characteristic of the red
blood cells of the blood.
 MICROSCOPIC TEST
Useful for the demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles for making
the distinction between mammalian, avian, piscine, and reptilian blood and for the
investigation of menstrual, lochial and nasal charges. In short it differentiates
mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood.
 MAMMALIAN RED BLOOD CELLS
Circular, biconcave disc without nucleus birds, fish and reptiles red blood
cells larger, oval and nucleated Amphibians-animal living on land breeding in
water. Red blood cells are larger than mammals, oval and nucleated.
 MICROCHEMICAL TEST OR MOCROCRYSTALLINE TEST:
 TEICHMANN HEMIN REACTION/TEICHMAN TEST/HAEMIN

CRYSTAL TEST
This test is of academic interest but not of practical value. If the stain is
old, is washed or is changed by chemical agents, the crystals are not
formed. The addition of too much salt or presence of moisture in the acid
or over heating of the slide may result in failure.
REAGENT: Small crystal of NaCl and 2 to 3 drops of glacial acetic acid.
PROCEDURE: Add the reagents on a minute fragment of the stain on a
glass slide. In case of stained fabric, a piece of fiber is sufficient for the
test. A cover slip is applied and the acid is evaporated by gently heating
over a small flame. It is allowed to cool and examined under the high
power of the microscope.
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POSITIVE RESULTS: Dark brown rhombic crystal of haemin or haematin
chloride, arranged singly or in cluster are seen if blood is present.
 HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OR TAKAYAMA TEST
One of the two popular microchemical test. A delicate test for the
presence of hemoglobin.
REAGENT: Takayama reagent (3 cc. of 10% NaOH, 33 cc. pyridine, 3 cc.

of saturated glucose solution and diluted with 7 ml. of water.
piece of suspected material on a
glass slide. Add 2 – 3 drops of
Takayama reagent. Cover with
glass slip.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Large
rhombic crystals of a salmon
pink color arranged in clusters,
sheaves and other forms that
appear within to 6 minutes
when viewed under the low
power objectives. To hasten
result heat maybe applied.
 ACETONE-HAEMIN TEST
REAGENT: Acetone, diluted acetic acid or
oxalic acid
PROCEDURE: A particle of dried stain or
fiber of the stained fiber is placed on a glass
slide and covered with a cover slip with a
needle interposed to prevent direct contact of
the cover slip with the slide. A drop of
acetone is run under the cover slip so that the
material is surrounded and a drop of diluted
oxalic or acetic acid or oxalic acid is then added. Examine under high power
microscope.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Small dark, dichroic acicular crystals of acetone-
haemin are seen.
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 SPECTROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
The almost delicate and reliable test for the determination of the
presence of blood in both old recent stains. This is performed by means of
an optical instrument known as SPECTROSCOPE.
D. IF THE STAIN IS THAT OF BLOOD, IS IT HUMAN OR ANIMAL?
 PRECIPITIN TEST
Determines whether blood is a human or non-human origin, and if non-
human, the specific animal family from which it originated.
Is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of
human or animal origin (precipitin)
REAGENT: Precipitin/antiserum
PROCEDURE: Scrape off blood stain if on
hard material. Powder the scrapings and
exact with saline solution. if the stain is
cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small
portion and then place in a test tube and
add extract with saline solution. allow
mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to
clean the solution. Dilute with saline
solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain
on top of the human antiserum/precipitin in
a capillary tube.
POSITIVE RESULT: A white cloudy line or ring or band at the contact points
of the fluid that appears immediately or within one or two minutes.
LIMITATION OF PRECIPITIN TEST; The precipitin reacts not only with
blood proteins but also with other body proteins as those as saliva, semen,
mucus and other body fluids.
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E. IF THE STAIN IS OF HUMAN BLOOD, DID IT COME FROM THE VICTIM,
THE ACCUSED OR FROM OTHER PERSON?
BLOOD GROUPING TEST

Determines the blood group of human
BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD (Direct Technique Method)

USING THE A-B-O SYSTEM
THE FOUR BLOOD GROUPS:

1. Group “O”
2. Group “A”
3. Group “B”
4. Group “AB”
 AGGLUTINOGEN OR ANTIGEN
These are characteristic chemical structures or “principles” that the found
on the surface of each red blood cells which stimulates the production of
agglutinins or antibodies. There are two different agglutinogens or antigens
classified as AGGLUTINOGEN A OR ANTIGEN A AND AGGLUTINOGEN B OR
ANTIGEN B.
 ANTIBODY OR AGGLUTININ
These are properties or “principles” contained in the serum which cause
agglutination or clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxic
substances within the body which reacts when confronted with a specific antigen
to protect the system. There are two different agglutinins classified as Anti-A and
Anti-B. Agglutinins are demonstrable in about 50% of newly born infants.
We have the four groups because of the presence of absence of two
antigens A and B in the RBC and two agglutinins Anti-A and Anti-B in the serum.
BLOOD GROUP ANTIGEN/AGGLUTINO ANTIBODIES/AGGLUTI

GEN PRESENT IN THE NIES PRESENT IN THE
RBC SERUM
A A ANTI-B
B B ANTI-A
AB A&B NO A & NO B or NONE
NO A & NO B or NONE ANTI-A & ANTI-B
(+) Means agglutination or clumping of RBC

(−) Means absence of agglutination or no clumping of RB
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 THE BLOOD TYPING (M-N
SYSTEM) OF BLOOD
There are agglutinogens in
human red cells which defines three
types of blood. Namely: Type M,
Type N, and Type MN, thus:
 THE THREE BLOOD TYPES ARE:
1. Type M
2. Type N
3. Type MN
(+) Means agglutination

(−) Means absence of agglutination
V. IMPORTANT APPLICATION OF BLOOD GROUP DATA

Questions of illegitimacy and relationships in may cause maybe solved by
means of the blood groups as determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M, and N.
1. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of

wedlock could or could not be its parent.
2. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could
not have been fathered by her legal spouse.
3. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set
of parents in the case of accidental interchange of infants in a hospital.
Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered
after a long interval could or could not belong to a given set of parents.
The following are the importance of the study of blood:

1. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator
of the crime.
2. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of time
the victim survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant.
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood.
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was
committed.
Blood has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is referred to as a
highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic substances.
Blood is compose of (45%) formed elements or the solid materials consisting
chiefly of cells namely: Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES), White Blood Cells
or WBC (LEUKOCYTES) and Blood Platelets (THROMBOCYTES), and (55%) Plasma
– principally make up of: Water (90%) and Solid (10%).
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Problems in the study of blood are the following:
1. Where has to be searched for?
2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to
contain blood.
3. Does the stain contain blood or another substance?
a. Preliminary test
 Benzidine test
 Phenolphthalein test
 Guaiacum test
 Leucomalachite green test
 Luminous test
b. Confirmatory test for blood
 Microscopic test
 Microchemical test or mocrocrystalline test:
 Teichmann hemin reaction/teichman test/haemin crystal test
 Haemochromogen crystal test or takayama test
 Acetone-haemin test
c. Spectroscopic examination
4. If the stain is that of blood, is it human or animal?
 Precipitin test
5. If the stain is of human blood, did it come from the victim, the accused or
from other person?
 Blood grouping test:
 Group “O”
 Group “A”
 Group “B”
 Group “AB”
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Self
Assessment
Name:__________________________ Score:__________
Course, Year & Section:_____________ Date:___________
I. Essay. The following are the importance of the Study of Blood, discuss each of
its relevance as evidence in crime detection. (in your own words)
1. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of

the crime.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of time the
victim survived the attack.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was
committed.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Activity
Name:__________________________ Score:__________
Course, Year & Section:_____________ Date:___________
As an expert, what will you do to solve or answer the following problems

encountered in the study of blood. (in your own words)
1. Where has to be searched for?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to
contain blood.
 If Fluid blood
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 Dried blood or blood stains
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Does the stain contain blood or another substance?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. If the stain is that of blood, is it human or animal?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. If the stain is of human blood, did it come from the victim, the accused or from
other person?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
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Semen and
6 Seminal Stains
Semen body fluid identification remains a critical aspect of the forensic
investigation of alleged sexual assaults. Over the years, as advancements have been
made in the area of forensic science, several different methods for semen
identification have been utilized.

1. Defined semen or seminal fluid.
2. Identified the parts of semen.
3. Described the examination on semen and seminal stains.
4. Discussed the collection, preservation, packing and transit
of specimen.
5. Stated the elements that obstruct the detection of
spermatozoa.
6. Described the other stain of medico-legal interest.
7. Performed laboratory experiment on semen and seminal
stain.
I. SEMEN AND SEMINAL FLUID DEFINED
 Is a human body fluid present in human males.
 It is a viscid mucilaginous fluid with faint yellow color and characteristic

odor called seminal odor.
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II. WHAT CONSIST A SEMEN
An average male ejaculate measures around 3.5 milliliters. Each milliliter can
contain between 10 and 50 million sperm cells
1. Spermatozoa (10%)
2. Seminal Plasma (90%)
3. Epithelial Cell (< 1%)
The total length of spermatozoa is about

50 Microns. It consist of head and tail. The head
is flat, oval shaped - 4.6 X 2.6 X 1.6 Microns in
length, width, thickness. The nucleus, which
occupies major portion of the head. The tail
portion is responsible for the movement of
sperm.
For detection of sperm and semen are
the most reliable marker for the investigation in
cases of rape, sodomy, Bestiality, sexual murder
etc. detection of sperm is an important factor in
confirming sexual assaults. This provides a brief
review and knowhow of the need for detection
of sperms and semen and various methods
applied for the detection with special emphasis
on the current chemical tests with accurate
procedures for performing these tests.
III. FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEFICIENT SPERM PRODUCTION
 Age
 Medical conditions (oligospermia- an
abnormally low sperm count;
aspermia – the affected male
produces no sperm)
 Genetic background
 Diet
 Habits (e.g. smoking, illicit drugs)
 Radiation
 Environmental toxins
 Undescended testis
 Varicocele
 Trauma
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IV. MEDICO-LEGAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DETECTION 0F SPERM AND SEMEN
Most reliable marker for the investigation in cases of:
1. Rape
2. Sodomy
3. Bestiality
4. Sexual murder (e.g. Crime of passion)
V. WHERE TO LOOK FOR SEMINAL STAINS

1. Clothes : Underwear, Bed sheet,
Carpet, Towel, Pillow cover.
2. Body :Perineum, thigh, Vagina & pubic
hair.
3. Seen of crime : On the floor or grass
etc.
VI. METHOD OF COLLECTION

 Handling of articles bearing stains should be done very carefully to avoid
damage to spermatozoa.
 Vaginal / anal / penile swabs should be sent along with their smears on
slides. Swabs should be taken on sterile gauze / cloth and their smears
prepared on sterile slides. These should be dried in air at room temperature
(37 degrees Celsius) and swabs dispatched in sterile test tube and slides in
clean wrappers.
 The seizures of wearing apparel that has relations to sex offenses must be
made as soon as possible because it often happened that an important
trace has been destroyed by the washing of clothes . The pacing of wearing
apparel or objects carrying seminal stain must be made in such a manner
there is no friction or whatsoever against the stain, caused friction may
also cause the break of spermatozoa. Transferring a semen should not be
rolled Caused it really important. Smaller objects lied hair should be put on a
test tube for transfer.
 If fluid semen is found it should be placed on a test tube. In cases where the
specimen is nearly dry it is for preferable to let it dry for transfer.
VII. SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS EXAMINATION

There are four examination for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form of
stains namely:
A. Physical Examination
B. Chemical Examination
Florence Test
Barberio’s Test
Acid-phosphatase Test
LDH Isoenzyme Method
Acid Phosphatase Isoenzyme Test
C. Microscopic Examination
D. Biological Examination
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A. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Include Visual Examination. To naked eye seminal stains generally
appear translucent or opaque spots, at times with yellowish tint and darker
border depending on color and thickness of substrata, which, if absorbent,
also acquire stiffness due to dried semen. On good substrata seminal stains
may appear to be fluorescent under ultraviolet light.
B. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
pH = 7.4 Alkaline
The tests used to detect Seminal Stains are:

 Florence Test
 Barberio Test
 Acid Phosphatase Test
 LDH Isoenzyme Method
 Acid Phosphatase Isoenzyme Test
 FLORENCE TEST
BASIS: Choline is detected in this method.

PROCEDURE: A few drops of watery solution of the stain is extracted and
taken on a slide and a drop of Florence reagent (8%) W/V solution of Iodine in
water containing 5% W/V of Potassium Iodide) is poured & allowed to mix
slowly under a cover slip. Dark brown crystals of choline periodide, generally
needle shaped, formed with a few minutes. Non-specifics & false negative
results are common.
 BARBERIO’S TEST
BASIS: Detection of Spermine

PROCEDURE: A few drops of Barberio’s reagent when added to spermatic
fluid produces crystals of sperm in picrate (needle shaped, rhombic & of yellow
color).bFor various valid reasons, like non-specificity and lack of reproducibility,
the Florence and Barberio’s tests have not been accepted universally.
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 ACID PHOSPHATASE SPOT TEST
MODIFIED FISHMAN AND LERNER’S METHOD. The fluid obtained after

thorough maceration of a small cloth piece (about 4mm2 ) is placed in a cavity
on a porcelain tile land two drops each of citrate buffer (Ph 4.9) and 1% W/V
aqueous solution of disodium Phenyl phosphate are added. After 10 minutes
the phenol is detected by the addition of 2 drops of phenol reagent & 2 drops
of 20% W/V solution of sodium carbonate. Blue color developed which
indicates the presence of acid phosphatase.
 LDH ISOENZYME METHOD
DETECTION OF SPERMATOZOA
PROCEDURE: Seminal stains are extracted with 1 ml of water. 0.25 ml of
clear extract is mixed with 0.25 ml of 40% W/V of sucrose. 0.1 ml of this
mixture is subjected to vertical polyacryl amide gel electrophoresis.
Electrophoresis is carried out in refrigerators for 150 minutes using a current of
5 m A Isoenzyme bands are revealed by staining. This method gives a specific
biochemical detection of spermatozoa in semen in the presence of vaginal fluid,
blood, nasal secretion, saliva and urine.
 ACID PHOSPHATASE ISOENZYME METHOD
PROCEDURE: Seminal stains are extracted with water and is used in

polyacrylmile gel Electrphoretic method followed by staining with methyl
belliferyl. Phosphate reagent enable the seminal acid phosphatase to be
distinguished from that of other substance like vaginal secretions. The method
is sufficiently specific & applicable to semen derived from normal, oligospermic
azoospermic & vasectemized individuals.
Advantages:
1. LDH isoenzyme is stable in stains for over 4 week.
2. Isoenzyme pattern of human is different from that of animal.
3. Positive results are obtain in large number of cases.
4. Can differentiate from vaginal secretions on pattern of bands.
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C. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
The Microscopic detection of the Seminal stains is based in morphology of
spermatozoa.
MICROSCOPIC DETECTION OF SPERMATOZOA: Cloth pieces from different

stains are taken in 0.5 ml of 0.01 N HCL in small test tubes placed in a beaker
containing water. After sonication for 5 minutes the extracts and the cloth pieces
are transferred to separate micro scope slides and cloth pieces delicately teased
with a needle. Threads are removed and the residual liquid is gently evaporated
to dryness. Residue obtained is stained haematoxylin and eosin.
D. BIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
The spermato-precipitins are of value in the identification of seminal fluid in

certain cases liked , for example bestiality where it might be desirable to
differentiate between the human seminal fluid from that of the animal. This test
was originally proposed by FARNUM in 1901 .
This test has some limitations. The bacterial action will produced
disintegration of spermatozoa in seminal stains is equally effective in
decomposing or digesting the protein constituents of semen which, acting as the
antigen, produced antibodies.
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VIII. CONFIRMATORY TESTS FOR SEMEN
 THE CHRISTMAS TREE STAIN
The most reliable

confirmation for the
presence of semen is the
positive visual
identification of sperm
cells (or spermatozoa)
using the Christmas tree
stain.
Two main reagents

are used consecutively to
produce this distinctive
stain:
Picroindigocarmine
stains the neck and tail
portions of the sperm in
green and blue, while
Nuclear Fast Red (also
known as Kernechtrot)
gives the sperm heads a
red color and the tips of
the heads, an area
known as acrosomal cap,
a pink color. Although
this color pattern seems
quite unique and may render sperm cells easily distinguishable under a
microscope, sperm cells tend to deteriorate quickly after ejaculation.
The sperm tails are most susceptible to damage and will break down
first. Therefore, the analyst must be trained to make visual distinctions
between sperm heads and other types of cells in the mix, particularly
mucosal or epithelial cells whose nuclei will also stain red. Once ejected
from the body, sperm survival will depend on the surrounding environment
and type of surface. It has been shown that intact sperm (sperm that
retains the cap and tail sections) can be recovered from a vaginal cavity for
a period of time following intercourse. That time will depend on many
physiologic factors. Intact sperm can also be recovered from surfaces and
fabrics if the semen dried up quickly before natural breakdown occurs.
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 RSID – SEMEN STRIP TEST
The RSID-Semen test

provides sensitivity as well as
specificity to human semen.
Similar in format to a
pregnancy test strip, the
RSID-semen test identifies
the presence of the seminal
vesicle-specific antigen, or
semenogelin. Developmental
Validation Studies of RSID-
Semen A Lateral Flow
Immunochromatographic
Strip Test for the Forensic
Detection of Seminal Fluid.
This antigen is unique to
semen, and therefore, there
is no cross reactivity with
other bodily fluids in males
and females or with semen
from other mammals. This
test can also identify semen even if the stain was stored under less
favorable conditions which have been shown to affect other tests such as
the Acid Phosphatase test.
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Self
Assessment
Name:__________________________ Score:________
Essay. Answer each of the following questions. (in your own words)
1. The validity of the result in the examination of a given specimen depends on how
it was seized. Discuss the proper collection of seminal fluid or seminal stain that
is found in the crime scene.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. In what crime of violence the biological examination of semen is vital?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. The “Christmas Tree Stain” test is the reliable confirmatory test for the presence
of semen. Why it is called the ‘Christmas Tree Stain’ test?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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Activity
Name:__________________________ Score:________
All about semen!!!

The Microscopic detection of the Seminal stains is based in morphology of
spermatozoa.
Illustrate the sperm cell anatomy by drawing it inside the box given below.
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GUNSHOT
7 RESIDUE
Basically, gunshot residue comes from the powder component of bullet,
elements from cartridge cases and gun barrel where the bullet passes. When these
components are burned, certain products of combustion are formed which include
partially burned and unburned particles. These particles are deposited on the target
as definite pattern depending upon the distance between the muzzle of the gun and
the target at the time of discharge.
Upon discharge of firearm, gunpowder residues (nitrate) may be deposited

on a person at close proximity, so the interpretations as to who discharged the
firearm should be made with caution.(Thornton, 1986) Hand or body part close to
the fired weapon may have gunpowder residues consistent with having discharged
the weapon. However, absence of gunpowder residues on the person’s hands or
body parts does not mean that he/she did not discharge a firearm.

1. Discussed gunshot residue and its components.
2. Listed the composition of primer and gunpowder.
3. Enumerated types of gunpowder.
4. Discussed the various gunshot residues examinations.
5. Identified the methods in the detection of gunshot residue.
6. Identified gunpowder residues test on firearms.
7. Discussed the factors that affect in Gunshot Range
Determination.
8. Distinguished the characteristics of gunshot wounds.
9. Enumerated the different types of firearm examinations.
10. Discussed the proper collection, preservation and transit on
crimes related to gunshots.
11. Performed experiment on gunshot residue.
Gunpowder residue may be found on the skin or clothing of the person who
discharged the gun, on the entrance bullet hole of garment or wound of the victim,
or on other target materials at the scene.
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I. COMPONENTS OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE
1. primer or lead residue

2. gunpowder residue
3. elemental component from
cartridge cases residues
 Composition of Primer
Primer elements may be easier to
detect in residues because they do not
get hot as that of powder.(Tassa et.al.
1982b)
1. Major primer elemental composition:

Lead (Pb), Barium (Ba), or Antimony
(Sb)
2. Trace elements: Aluminum (Al), sulfur (S), tin (Sn), Calcium (Ca),
Potassium (K), chlorine (Cl), or silicon (Si)
3. Inorganic compound: mercury fulminates (present in most ammunition
manufactured in Eastern Europe and used in Middle East)
In addition, these residues gradually adhere to the discharged bullets.

Thus, primer residue can be found in targets or wounds at considerable
distance from the muzzle up to 200 meters.
 Composition of Gun Powder

1. Contains up to 23 organic compounds (FBI study)
2. Nitrocellulose is virtually always present along with nitrate and
nitrogen containing compound such as Diphenylamine or DPA
(stabilizer in the powder)
 Types of Gun Powder

1. Single based – when the basic ingredient is nitrocellulose
2. Double based – nitrocellulose + 1 to 40% nitroglycerine
3. Triple based – nitrocellulose + nitroglycerine + nitro guanidine
 Composition of cartridge case, bullet coating and metal jacket

1. Cartridge and primer cases; Brass (7:3 Copper-Zinc)
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2. Bullet cores: Lead , antimony
and few iron alloy
3.Bullet jackets: Brass (9:1 Copper

zinc), some are iron or aluminum
alloy. Some contain nickel.
II. GUNSHOT RESIDUE EXAMINATION
Gunshot residue examination are performed to help the investigators in

determining, whether a person has discharged a firearm or not; whether a firearm
was discharged or not; and the possible gunshot range or the distance of the shooter
to the victim. Both hands of the suspect as well as those of the victim, the firearms
and clothing of the victim must be examined to determine the presence of
gunpowder nitrates.
 Types of Gunpowder used in the ammunition of small firearms
1. Black powder – this consists

of a mixture of 15% carbon
(charcoal), 10% sulfur and
75% potassium nitrate.
Aluminum is added to enhance
the burning property.
2. Smokeless Powder
– mixture consists of Cellulose or
glycerol nitrate combined with some
stabilizers (nitrobenzene or graphite
nitrates, dichromate and oxalates).
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III. DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE

The following are common methods used by most crime laboratories to
detect gunshot residue:
1. Paraffin Test
2. Lead Residue (detection limit: up to 30 feet and always present on the
opposite sides of the penetrated target) Reported from intermediate glass
target present (Messler and Armstrong, 1978)
3. Gunpowder residue examination (detection limit: highly variable up to 20cm,
and up to 21 inches is common)
4. Other methods: (Modern Methods)
 NAA – Neutron Activation Analysis
 AAS – Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry
 SEM-EDA – Scanning Electron Microscopy w/ Energy Dispersive Analysis
 ICP-MS – Inductively Coupled Plasma w/ Mass Spectrophotometry
IV. HISTORY OF PARAFFIN TEST/ DERMAL NITRATE OR DIPHENYLAMINE

TEST
Paraffin Test was originated from Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used
paraffin for collecting gunpowder residues from discharged firearms. In 1933,
Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal Identification Laboratory, Mexico City introduced the
test in the United States. In this test, the hands were coated with a layer of melted
paraffin. After cooling, the casts were removed and treated with Diphenylamine (5%
DPA in 60% sulfuric)
V. METHODS OF EXAMINATION
 Paraffin Test
To determine whether a person has
discharged a firearm, the Paraffin-
Diphenylamine Test is used. The basis of
this test is the presence of nitrates in the
gunpowder residue. When a warm
paraffin wax is applied on the hands of
the alleged, it will cause the pores of the
skin to open and exude the particles of
gunpowder residue. These particles of
gunpowder residue are being extracted by
the paraffin cast ( with the use of melted
paraffin wax) and will appear as blue
specks , when diphenylamine reagent
(DPA for brevity) is added on the cast. It
must be noted that the specks are
generally located on the area of the
thumb and forefingers.
Note:
The blue color that appears indicates the reaction of nitrates with
diphenylamine reagent. Thus, nitrate from other sources like fertilizers will
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give the same reaction. Other substance similar to nitrate known as
oxidizers will also react with the reagent in the same way.
However, it must also be noted that the blue specks have the
characteristic of “tailing” when positive for the presence of gunpowder
nitrates.
 What is the principle behind the paraffin test?
While the burned and partially burned particles (gunpowder residue) is

deposited on the target and in the barrel of the gun, some of these burned and
partially burned particles may escape around the breech of the gun and some
may be embedded on the exposed surface of the hand/s of the person
discharging the firearm.
Thus, the presence of these residues can be detected by way of paraffin

examination.
As a rule, in the paraffin examination, the Forensic Chemist/ Chemical

officer should personally conduct the paraffin casting on the alleged shooter.
However, a competent laboratory technician under the supervision of the
examiner-on-case may also perform the paraffin casting. But it is Forensic
Chemist/ Chemical officer who should examine the paraffin casts taken from
both hands of the alleged shooter to determine the presence of gunpowder
nitrates.
Paraffin casting of the alleged shooter shall only be done within

seventy-two (72) hours from the time of the alleged shooting incident. No
person shall be subjected to paraffin casting after the lapse of the specified
period.
Embalmed cadaver who allegedly discharged a firearm shall no longer

be subjected to paraffin examination because of the impossibility of extracting
the gunpowder nitrates from the former’s hand.
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 What should be noted in the interpretation of results?
 Number and characteristics of blue and minute specks
 The location and character of the blue specks
 Distribution and location
 Different names of the Test:

 Lunge’s Test
 Diphenylamine Test
 Dermal nitrate test
 Gonzales Test – named after the one who improved the test
 Question:
Is there any means of removing these nitrates from the hands? How long
will they stay in the pores?
 Answer:
None, Ordinary washing will not remove the nitrates from the pores of the
skin. Usually, gunpowder nitrates that are embedded on the skin stay for
72 hours. That is why paraffin casting should be conducted within the
specified period.
VI. SUBSTANCES GIVING FALSE POSITIVE RESULT
 Fertilizers
 Explosives
 Tobacco
 Urine
 Certain cosmetics
 Food samples
 Cigarette
 Question
Will these substances not give positive result for paraffin test?
 Answer
If the hands of the subject person are contaminated with nitrates other
than from gunpowder, one will expect to find smudges or just a smear of
blue color or a conglomeration of blue specks. But nitrates from gunpowder
appear as blue speck with tailings, because these particles were embedded
into the hands with force.
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 Question
Is paraffin test result a conclusive evidence? Why?
 Answer
No, it is just a corroborative evidence which intends to support the

testimony of eyewitness/es. There are instances wherein a person who
actually discharged a firearm would still give a negative result to the
paraffin test because of several factors.
 Question
What are these factors?
 Answer
 Types of caliber of ammunition

 Use of gloves
 Length of the barrel
 Age of the gun/ efficiency of mechanism
 Direction of firing
 Wind direction and velocity
 Humidity/ percentage moisture in air
 When 72 hours had already lapsed (3 days)
Failure to find traces of nitrates on the hand of the person does not prove
that he did not fire a gun. But it is submitted that the paraffin test has some value
due to the psychological effect on the persons whose hands were found positive.
Also, the finding of actual traces of gunpowder nitrates on the hand/s of the person
does not conclusively determine or establish that he has discharged a gun. It is
possible that the GPR particle may have been blown on the hand directly from the
barrel of the gun being discharged by another person.
VII. GUNPOWDER RESIDUE TEST ON FIREARMS
The Diphenylamine reagent is also applied to

cotton swabbing of the barrel and chambers of the
gun to determine if the firearm was discharged. A
deep blue color resulting from the reaction of
nitrates with the reagent indicates presence of
gunpowder residue.
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 Established Forensic Rules:
a. The Forensic Chemist on case shall conduct the gunpowder residue

examination (GPR) without delay.
b. After the examination is done, the firearm shall be returned to the
representative of the requesting unit if the request is solely for
gunpowder residue (GPR) examination, or submitted to the FAID if
ballistic examination is required.
VIII. GUNSHOT RANGE (GSR) DETERMINATION (ALSO KNOWN GUNSHOT

DISTANCE DETERMINATION)
 Importance of Distance Determination
1. In connection to self defense

2. In the distinction between murder and suicide
 In ascertaining the Gunshot range (GSR) the examiner should note

and observe the following:
 Entrance and exit holes
Entrance hole contains powder residue (bullet wipe residue) and it is

slightly burned. The diameter of entrance hole is smaller than the exit
hole.
The exit hole is frayed outward while entrance hole is inward.
 Powder residue pattern
Burning(direct), singeing(1-2inches), smudging(2-8inches),

tattooing(8-18inches)
 The Distance of the muzzle of the gun to the target is classified into
three (3):
1. Direct contact
2. 2 inches to 36 inches away
3. 36 inches away or more
 Characteristics of Gunshot wounds
a. Direct/ Contact wounds
The following observations may be

noted:
1. Gaping hole where fabric is badly

torn
2. Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole
3. The presence of partially burned powder residues around the entrance
hole
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b. Wounds inflicted at a distance from 2-36 inches
Two types of discoloration will be observed around the hole of the

entrance namely:
1. Smudging –
produced when the
gun is held from 2
inches to the
maximum of 8
inches. The smoke
and soot from the
burned pores are
deposited around the
hole of the entrance
producing a dirty appearance.
2. Powder tattooing –
produces black
peppered pattern.
Individual specks of
tattooing around the
hole are visible by the
naked eye.
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c. Wounds inflicted at a distance of more than 36 inches
- Powder tattooing is seldom present

- Nitrates found will not be sufficient for GSR
 Bullet Comparison – a type of examination using a microscope which is

commonly used in comparison of an empty
shell containing characteristic marks from
groves of the gun barrel and firing pin of
specific firearm used.
IX. FIREARM EXAMINATION
Methods used to determine the probable time the firearm has been discharged:
 Lucas Test - a characteristics smell that decrease in intensity with lapse of

time is present immediately after firing but even after several weeks some
slight smell remains
 Odor (hydrogen sulfide) – this is another product resulting from

combustion of gunpowder which is present in the gaseous state. This
compound can be detected by means of lead acetate paper test.If the
breech of the gun is kept closed, this persists between 2-3hours.
Sulfide – the greater part disappears in about 4-5 hours but frequently a
trace remains for a longer time, the longest period being 10 hours.
 Odor of the Barrel (rusting)

As a rule, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of a firearm if such
firearm has not been discharged. But if the firearm has been discharged,
iron salts are formed and can be detected inside the barrel. These iron salts
are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust. The formation of the
rust is affected by humidity of the air so that in the interpretation of the
result, this factor must always be considered.
 Presence of Nitrates (by cotton swabbing method)

Nitrates diminish after a lapse of time. Nitrates can be detected by swabbing
a portion of residue in a barrel and mixing the residue with Diphenylamine
solution (DPA).
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 Dermal Nitrate Test – the test is designed to determine the presence of
gunpowder nitrates on the hands of the alleged shooter.
 Other Methods of examination(same with GPR)
1. ASS – Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

2. NAA – Neutron Activation Analysis
3. SEM-EDX – Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray
Analysis
4. ICP-MS – Inductively cooled plasma with mass Spectrophotometer
X. COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND TRANSIT OF SPECIMEN
1. Clothing removed from the victim should be cautiously and carefully handled
to prevent powder residues from becoming dislodged.
2. Do not wad the specimen or pack it loosely for shipment.
3. Secure the area to be tested between two layers of heavy cardboard fastened
together tightly to prevent the specimen from becoming postlude about in the
transit.
4. Each specimen should be wrapped tightly and marked.
5. Clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried thoroughly before
packing.
6. Gun recovered from the scene of the crime and ammunition available should
be preserved.
7. Person suspected to have discharged a firearm should be subjected to a
paraffin test. (Cover his hands with paper bags to avoid contamination).
Examination must be performed immediately and in no case should it be
postponed 72 hours after the shooting.
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Self
Assessment
Name:______________________________ Score:________
Course, Year & Section:________________ Date:________
_____1. The following are components of gunshot residue, except

a. primer or lead residue
b. gunpowder residue
c. elemental component from cartridge cases residues
d. trace element
_____2. Primer elements may be easier to detect in residues because they do not
get hot as that of powder (Tassa et.al. 1982b). The composition of primer
are as follows, excluding
a. Major primer elemental composition
b. Trace elements
c. Inorganic compound
d. lead residue
_____3. Primer residue can be found in targets or wounds at considerable distance
from the muzzle up to _____ meters.
a. 200
b. 300
c. 400
d. 500
_____4. Gunshot residue examination are performed to help the investigators in
determining;
a. whether a person has discharged a firearm or not
b. whether a firearm was discharged or not
c. the possible gunshot range or the distance of the shooter to the victim
d. the time of shooting
_________5. Two Types of Gunpowder used in the ammunition of small firearms:
_________6.
_____5. Which of the following common methods is not used by most crime
laboratories to detect gunshot residue?
a. Paraffin Test
b. GSR method
c. Lead Residue
d. Gunpowder residue examination
_____6. NAA means
a. Neutron Activation Analysis
b. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry
c. Scanning Electron Microscopy w/ Energy Dispersive Analysis
d. Inductively Coupled Plasma w/ Mass Spectrophotometry
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_____5. To determine whether a person has discharged a firearm, the ____is used.
a. Paraffin-Diphenylamine Test
b. takayama test
c. benzidine test
d. no correct answer given
_____6. The basis of Paraffin test is the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder
residue. The ____ color that appears indicates the reaction of nitrates with
diphenylamine reagent.
a. red
b. blue
c. yellow
d. green
_____7. Embalmed cadaver who allegedly discharged a firearm shall no longer be
subjected to paraffin examination because of the impossibility of extracting
the gunpowder nitrates from the former’s hand.
a. True
b. False
c. sometimes
d. uncertain
_____8. There are instances wherein a person who actually discharged a firearm
would still give a negative result to the paraffin test because of these several
factors
a. Length of the barrel
b. Age of the gun/ efficiency of mechanism
c. Direction of firing
d. all of the above
_____9. The ____is also applied to cotton swabbing of the barrel and chambers of
the gun to determine if the firearm was discharged.
a. Diphenylamine reagent
b. nitrate compound
c. hydrochloric acid
d. hydroxides
_____10. The following are the characteristics of Gunshot wounds in determining the
GSR, except
a. Direct/ Contact wounds
b. Wounds inflicted at a distance from 2-36 inches
c. Wounds inflicted at a distance of more than 36 inches
d. wounds inflicted at a distance of one meter
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Activity
Name:______________________________ Score:________
Course, Year & Section:________________ Date:________
Answer the following.
1. In the investigation of crime involving the use of firearm, the following problem
might be a subject of controversy, why?
 Problem to determine whether or not a person fired a gun with bare hands
within pertinent period of time.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. A. What do you think are the possibilities that a person may be found negative for
nitrates even if he actually fired a gun?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
B. What do you think are the possibilities that a person may be found positive for
nitrates even if he did not actually fired a gun?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. How would you determine the probable gunshot range (GSR)?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Is it possible that if a gun has not fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the
barrel of the gun? Why or Why not?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Discuss the principle of Paraffin Testing.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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EXPLOSIVES AND
8 EXPLOSION
The scientific advances which man has made during the past few
years after World war II have included a widespread use of materials which are
commonly classified as explosives. Ordinarily, the word explosive carries with it an
unpleasant connotation of destructive forces inimical to human welfare. This,
however, is not always true. It is of common knowledge that mining operation,
quarrying and even construction of roads are now dependent on the use of
explosives. With such widespread use of explosives, it is not surprising to find lawless
elements of society utilizing these forces of concentrated energy for criminal
purposes. Nowadays fishing by use of explosive is very rampant. Specimens of
explosives have been received by the Forensic Chemistry Division of the NBI from as
far as places as Jolo and the Batanes Islands.

1. Defined explosive.
2. Enumerated the different classifications of explosives.
3. Discussed the various methods in the laboratory examinations
on explosives.
4. Defined explosion.
5. Stated the factors that affect the rate of explosion or brisance.
6. Identified the several mechanisms and effects of explosion.
7. Explained the concept of explosive strength.
8. Discussed the principle of damage mechanism.
9. Listed the safety procedures when responding to an explosion
incident.
10. Performed activity on explosive and explosion.
I. DEFINITION OF SOME TERMS CONNECTED WITH EXPLOSIVES
Explosion is defined as the act of explosion; a rapid combustion.

Detonation is a violent explosion; one resulting from the practically
instantaneous decomposition or combustion of unstable compounds such as
nitroglycerine, TNT or mercury fulminate.
Explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden
decomposition or combustion. A material either a pure single substance or mixture of
substances which is capable of producing an explosion by its own energy.
Bomb is poorly defined as a hollow projectile of iron generally spherical,
containing an explosive material which is fired by concussion or by a time fuse.
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II. CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVE WITH RESPECT TO FUNCTIONING
CHARACTERISTICS
1. PROPELLANT OR LOW EXPLOSIVES
Are combustible materials

containing within themselves all oxygen
needed for their combustion that burn but
do not explode and function by producing
gas that produces explosion.
Examples: Black powder, smokeless

powder, firecrackers, and pyrotechnics
2. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE OR INITIATORS
Explode or donate when they are

heated or subjected to shock. They do
not burn. Sometimes they do not even
contain the elements necessary for
combustion. The materials themselves
explode and the explosion results
whether they are confined or not.
Examples: Mercury fulminate, lead azide
3. HIGH EXPLOSIVES
Explode under the influence of the shock

of the explosion of primary explosive. They do
not function by burning, in fact not all of them
can be ignited by a flame and in small amount
generally burn tranquilly and can be
extinguished easily. If heated to a high
temperature by external heat or by their own
combustion, they sometimes explode.
Examples: Ammonium nitrate, TNT, dynamite,

nitroglycerine, picric acid, plastic explosives.
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o Question:
Why do Law Enforcers need to know about explosives?
o Answers:
1. They often encounter explosives which are found at the construction sites
or those buried underground.
2. Law enforcers encounter explosives at the crime.
3. Law enforcers should know some lands may contain toxic chemicals and
explosive ordinance.
o Question:
Can there be an explosion without an explosive?
o Answer:
Yes, there can be an explosion without an explosion, because explosion may
be caused by sudden breaking apart, shattering or bursting into pieces by
internal pressure, such as those caused by expansion of gas producing high
pressure beyond the capacity of the container.
III. SAFETY PROCEDURES WHEN RESPONDING TO AN EXPLOSIVE

INCIDENT
a. Do not use two-way radios, radar, or television transmitting device within

500 feet. This includes Mobile Data Terminals and cellular phones.
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) given off by these devices cab detonate the
item.
b. Notify proper authorities. (BFP, Police Department, EOD, etc.)
c. Clear and control the area. The size and type of explosive, terrain, shielding
and other factors will determine the area to be controlled.
d. Stage emergency service (EMS), Fire and Police units outside the control
point.
e. Do not proceed to the suspected explosive. It may have motion sensitive or
acoustic fuses that function with disturbed or senses target. Use binoculars
to observe the area.
f. Reduce potential effect of blast and flying shrapnel by opening doors and
windows and by placing emergency vehicles in the path of the blast wave to
acts as shield.
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE EXPLOSIVES

1. Physical Examination
Where this is a liquid, it should be handled with care and utmost
caution. Nitroglycerine and ether nitric esters should not come in contact with
the skin. Absorption through the intact skin is quite rapid and the resulting
effects of lowered blood pressure, headache, and nausea are very unpleasant
and in some cases may prove dangerous. In handling liquid or soil explosives
the expert should use rubber gloves. The volume and weight of the liquid
should be recorded as well as odor, if any. The activity, refractive index, and
dispersion coefficient may also be calculated in order to provide a clue to its
identity. The sensitiveness of the liquid to shock may be determined by
permitting 2 or 3 small drops to fall on a filter paper; this is then placed upon
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on anvil and struck with a hammer. If the liquid is sensitive, a slight explosion
will occur.
Where the suspected explosive is a solid substance, its weight, color,
consistency (whether solid, dry and crumbly or sticky) should be recorded. If
in the form of sticks, the length, diameter and weight of each stick should be
noted; the type of crimp in the paper wrapping at each end of the stick
should be observed. The type of crimp affords information as to whether the
stick of “powder” were machine-leaded or hand-leaded if the crimping is 6-
fold, it is by machine; (if 4-fold, it is hand crimp). The stick or sticks may then
be carefully unwrapped and the wrappings saved for further identification.
The explosive contents should be stored in a clean dry, and tightly stoppered
wide-mouth bottle.
2. Chemical Analysis of Explosives

As a rule all that is necessary in the chemical analysis of explosives is
a qualitative testing to ascertain the nature of the material. Quantitative
analysis may be required only when it is necessary to identify an explosive
used or intended for criminal purpose with some other explosives which is
possibly the source from which the quantity used has been obtained or when
the origin of the explosive is to be established. Since there are so many
varieties of explosives, individual methods of analysis will not be given.
V. COMMON EXPLOSIVE ENCOUNTERED IN THE PHILIPPINES

The problem of illegal use of explosives in the Philippines is not very
serious . it is usually encountered in dynamite fishing where TNT, picric acid,
the explosives recovered from Japanese ammunitions and dinitric compounds
are used. Cases of this nature have been received in the NBI and we have not
met any difficulty in the identification of these explosives.
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Self
Assessment
Name:__________________________ Score:________
Classify the following as to Low, Primary or High explosives. Write your answer
on the space provided before each number.
_______________1. TNT
_______________2. Nitroglycerine
_______________3. Mercury fulminate
_______________4. Lead salts
_______________5. Smokeless powder
_______________6. Dynamite
_______________7. Picric acid
_______________8. Lead oxide
_______________9. Black powder
_____________10. Grenade
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Activity
Name:__________________________ Score:________
Part 1. Complete the table.
CLASSIFICATION OF CHARACTERISTIC USES

EXPLOSIVE
Low Explosive
(give 2 Examples )
Primary Explosive
(give 2 Examples)
High Explosive
(give 2 Examples)
Part 2
Essay. Answer the following in your own understanding.
What procedure does an expert performs in the investigation of explosions and
explosives?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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9 HAIR AND TEXTILE

FIBERS
The examination of hair and textile fibers is an important phase in criminal
investigation. Almost all crimes of violence include the possibility of physical contact
between the criminal and the victim. During this short bodily contact, it is quite
possible that there may be a transfer of head or body hairs or of textile fibers into
each other’s clothing. In other types of cases, fibers from clothing may become
caught by protruding portion of entrances used to gain access to a building or caught
on rugged edges of torn automobiles or jeepney fenders in a hit-in-run cases. On
one case of robbery, the hair of the burglar was caught by the safe door and this
tiny bit of evidence was mainly responsible for his identification. The successful
investigation of crimes of violence such as rape, murder, assault, kidnapping, etc. are
frequently materially by the assault of the examination of hairs and fibers.
The examination of hairs may prove of value in identifying both the living and
the dead. It tends to identify the perpetrator of a crime by placing him at the scene
of crime or with the victim. The work of Glaister Hausman, and others has made
relatively simple and quite positive the identification of hair as to species. In the
negative sense, human hair may often be definitely shown not to have come a
particular individual. The obvious difference in color, length and texture can
distinguish one hair from another and serve to eliminate a suspect. The use of hair
as a means of positive identification is more uncertain, and indeed, no expert in his
right sense will venture to give a definite statement as to individual origin of hair.
There is an old superstition that hair grows after the death of an individual.
This is not true, but the hair, especially the beard, may appear longer due to the
shrinkage of the skin. Hairs are very resistant to decomposition and putrefaction,
thus they often remain as a means of identification long after others such as facial
features and fingerprints have been destroyed.
1. Defined hair.
2. Enumerated the different kinds of hair.
3. Illustrated the parts of hair.
4. Explained the comparison between human and animal hair..
5. Discussed the different variations in the structure of hair.
6. identified the approximate age of an individual through hair examination
7. Defined textile fiber.
8. Described the various classifications of Textile fibers.
9. Named the different tests on fibers.
10. Performed laboratory experiment on Hair and Textile fibers.
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I. HAIR DEFINED
 Hair is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere

on the human body except on the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet.
II. TWO KINDS OF HAIR
(AMONG MAMMALS INCLUDING HUMAN BEING)

 Real hair ( generally long and stiff)
 Fuzz hair ( generally short, fine at times curly and wooly)
III. PARTS OF HAIR
 Roots ( portion embedded in the skin)

 Shaft ( portion above the surface of the skin.
– The most DISTINCTIVE part of the hair.
 Tip ( sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair.)
 PARTS OF SHAFT
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1. Cuticle
 Is the outside covering of hair
 Gives hair resistance to chemical composition & stability (retaining
features over a long period of time
 Formed by overlapping scales that always point toward the tip end
 Scale pattern is useful in species identification but not a useful
characteristic for individualizing human hair
 Variety of patterns formed by animal hair makes it an important
feature for species identification
Deer
Dog
Human
Rabbit Cat
Horse
2. Cortex
 Main body of hair shaft
 The interior of the hair
 It is embedded with pigment granules that give hair its color
 Color, shape, distribution of the granules provide important points of
comparison
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3. Medulla
 Group of cells having

appearance of a central
canal running through a
hair
 Sometimes it is the
predominant feature,
occupying more than ½
the diameter (varies by
species)
 Medullary index is the
diameter of medulla
relative to diameter of
hair shaft
Humans is less than
1/3
Other animals, value
is ½ or greater
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IV. COMPARING STRANDS
 The comparison microscope is an indispensable tool for comparing the

morphological Characteristics of hair.
 When comparing strands of human hair, the criminalist is particularly
interested in matching the color, length, and diameter.
 A careful microscopic examination of hair will reveal morphological features
that can distinguish human hair from the hair of animals.
 Scale structure, medullary index, and medullary shape are particularly
important in animal hair identification.
 Other important features for comparing human hair are:
- the presence or absence of a medulla
- the distribution, shape, and color intensity of the pigment granules
present in the cortex
 The most common request is to determine whether or not hair recovered at
the crime scene compares to hair removed from the suspect.
 However, microscopic hair examinations tend to be subjective and highly
dependent on the skills and integrity of the analyst.
V. HAIR GROWTH
 Regions of the body that are primarily used in forensic comparisons are the
head & pubic areas
 As hairs undergo cyclical growth ( anagen) & resting phase (telogen), the
visible microscopic characteristics are sufficient to determine the phase of
growth of the hair
1. Anagen phase
 Hair actively growing
 Materials are deposited in hair shaft by cells found in follicle
 Metabolically active & dividing cells above & around the dermal papilla
of the follicle grow upward during this phase to form – medulla,
cortex, cuticle, & root sheath
 80-90% of hairs
2. Telogen phase
 Follicle is dormant or resting
 10-18%
3. Catagen phase
 Transition period between anagen & telogen
 2%
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 Hairs routinely lost during telogen phase & become a primary source of
evidentiary material
 Hairs can also become dislodged from the body while they are in an actively
growing state (anagen)
 Microscope appearance of root area will allow for the determination of growth
phase
 When pulled from the root, some anagen hairs will have a follicular tag
 Is a translucent piece of tissue surrounding the hair’s shaft near the root
VI. HAIR MICROSCOPY
 Done with light microscopy

 Is a 2 step process
 Identification of questioned
hairs
 Comparison of questioned
& known hairs
 Purpose
 To ascertain whether 2 or
more individuals could have
come into contact w/an
object
 Particularly useful in crimes
of violence (homicide,
sexual assault, &
aggravated assault) where
physical contact may have
occurred
 Value of hair evidence
 Related to the variability of
hair characteristics between
individuals in the population
 Factors that impact the
reliability of a hair
association
- Experience
- Training
- Suitability of known hair standards
- Adequacy of equipment
VII. HAIR AND DNA
 Recent major breakthroughs in DNA profiling have extended this technology

to the individualization of human hair.
 The probability of detecting DNA in hair roots is more likely for hair being
examined in its anagen or early growth phase as opposed to its catagen
(middle) or telogen (final) phases.
 Often, when hair is forcibly removed a follicular tag, a translucent piece of
tissue surrounding the hair’s shaft near the root may be present.
 This has proven to be a rich source of nuclear DNA associated with hair.
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VIII.COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION
 As a general rule, forensic hair comparisons involve either head hair or pubic
hair.
 The collection of 50 full-length hairs from all areas of the scalp will normally
ensure a representative sampling of head hair.
 A minimum collection of two dozen full-length pubic hairs should cover the
range of characteristics present in pubic hair.
 Hair samples are also collected from the victims of suspicious deaths during
an autopsy.
IX. STEPS IN HAIR EXAMINATION PROCESS
 Determine if hair in question is from animal or human

 If from animal
 Identify the type of animal (species, not specific animal)
Animal Hairs Human Hairs
 Hairs can vary greatly in color & length  An individual sheds approximately
on different areas of the body; 100 head hairs each day
therefore, you should collect reference
samples from each area
 Samples should contain:  Body area determination

- Full length hairs - Characteristics used
- Combings & plucking o Length, shape, size,
- If animal isn’t available for color, stiffness, curliness,
collection, a brush or comb used microscopic appearance,
on that animal may be pigmentation, medullar
substituted appearance
- Hairs that exhibit
microscopic characteristics
shared by different
anatomical areas are called
body hairs
o Include hair on upper
legs, lower abdomen, and
back
 Animal hairs found at scene or on

clothing may have come from a fur
coat or pelt
 Since these are usually artificially dyed
& don’t have a root, it’s preferred that
entire garment be obtained for suitable
samples
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X. VARIATIONS IN HAIR EXAMINATION
 BODY AREA HAIRS
 HEAD HAIRS
 Longest hairs on human body

 Have uniform diameter and,
often, a cut tip
 Are subject to more alteration
than hairs from other body
areas
 Alterations to natural
appearance include
- Dyes, rinses, permanents,
frosts
 Environmental alterations
- Excessive sunlight, wind,
dryness
 Because of potential for
alteration, it is recommended
that head hair samples be
obtained as soon as possible
from suspects & victims of
crime
 Samples obtained years after
a crime are generally not
suitable for meaningful
comparison purposes
 Known samples
- Need a random sampling
of hair from different areas of scalp
- # of hairs required vary
- General rule is to obtain at least 25 full-length hairs, which includes
both plucked & combed, packaged separately
 PUBIC HAIRS
 Not subject to as much change as head hairs

over time
 Therefore, a sample taken a year or more after
a crime may still be suitable for a meaningful
comparison
 It’s recommended that known samples be
collected ASAP
 Samples should contain at least 25 full-length
hairs taken from different areas of the pubic
region
 Characteristics
 Course & wiry in appearance
 Considerable diameter variation or buckling (twisting of hair shaft)
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 Often have a continuous to discontinuous medulla
 Tapered tips are common, but these hairs may also be abraded or cut
 FACIAL HAIRS
 More commonly called beard or mustache hairs

 Characteristics
 Coarse in appearance
 Have a triangular cross section
 Heavy shouldering or troughs are observed under magnification
 Wide medulla
 Razor cut tip
 Significance of association of facial hairs may not be as great as head &
pubic hair associations
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 LIMB HAIRS
 Hairs from legs & arms

 Characteristics
 Shorter in length, arc-
like shape, often
abraded or tapered at
tips, pigment is
generally granular in
appearance, medulla is
trace to discontinuous
 Not routinely compared in
forensic lab
 There are differences b/t
individuals, but they’re not considered
sufficient to allow limb hairs to be of value
for meaningful comparison
 FRINGE HAIRS
 Hair originating from areas of

the body outside those
specifically designated as head
or pubic
 Not suitable for significant
comparison purposes
 Examples
– Neck, sideburns, abdomen,
upper leg & back
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 OTHER BODY AREA HAIRS
 Not routinely compared

 Presence may help corroborate
information obtained during an
investigation (just like limb &
fringe hairs)
 Examples
– Axillary (underarm), chest,
eye, nose
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 RACIAL DETERMINATION
 Head hairs are best for determining race

 Head hair from infants can be difficult to analyze
 Also, hairs from individuals of mixed racial ancestry may possess microscopic
characteristic attributed to more than one racial group
 CAUCASOID (EUROPEAN)
 Fine to medium coarseness
 Generally straight or wavy in appearance
 Colors range from blonde to brown to black
 Hair shafts vary from round to oval in cross section
 Have fine to medium sized, evenly distributed pigment granules
 MONGOLOID (ASIAN)
 Regularly coarse
 straight
 circular in x-section
 Wider diameter than
other racial groups
 Cuticle is usually
significantly thicker
than that of Negroid
or Caucasian hairs
 Medulla is continuous
& wide
 Cortex contains
pigment granules that
are generally larger in
size compared to Caucasian hairs
 Have characteristic red appearance
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 NEGROID (AFRICAN)
 Regularly curly or kinky

 Flattened x-section
 Can appear as curly, wavy or coiled
 Pigment granules are larger than those in Mongoloid & Caucasian
 Pigments are grouped in clumps of different shapes & sizes
 Density of pigment in cortex may be so great as to make hair opaque
 Shaft has variation or apparent variation in diameter
 Buckling can be present
 Hair shaft frequently splits along the length
o Albino - a human being who is congenitally deficient in pigment and

usually has a milky or translucent skin, white or colorless hair, and
eyes with pink or blue iris and deep-red pupil
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 AGE & SEX
 Age of individual cannot be
determined definitively by microscopic
examination of hair
 However, appearance of certain hairs,
such as those of infants & elderly
individuals, may provide a general
age
 How?
– Infant hair is generally finer & less distinctive
in appearance
– As one ages, hair can undergo pigment loss &
changes in configuration of hair shaft to
become much finer & more viable in diameter
 Sex of individual is difficult to determine
– However, longer treated hairs are more
frequently encountered in females
 If hair is forcibly remove, sex can be determined using
follicular tag
 TREATMENT & REMOVAL
 Head hairs grow at the rate of

1cm/month
– Approximate time of
treatment can be
determined by measuring
the length of untreated area
– Direct, side-by-side
comparison of color of
question & known artificially
treated hairs is typically
conducted by hair examiner
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 BIOLOGICAL OR ENVIRONMENTAL ALTERATIONS
 When hairs originated from a body in a state of decomposition, a dark band

may appear near the root of the hair
– Called postmortem
root band
 CAN DNA INDIVIDUALIZE A HUMAN HAIR?
Hair comparisons are not a basis for absolute personal identification. It should
be noted, however, that because it is unusual to find hairs from 2 different
individuals that exhibit the same microscopic characteristics, a microscopic
association or match is the basis for a strong association
XI. TEXTILE FIBERS
It can be spun into a yarn or made into a fabric by various methods

including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, and twisting.
XII. IMPORTANCE OF FIBER MATCHED TO A CRIME SCENE
 When fibers are matched with specific source, a value is placed on that
association
 Value is dependent on:
– type of fiber
– Location of fibers at crime scene or on victim
– # of different fibers at crime scene
– # of different fibers on the victim that match clothing of suspect
XIII. TEXTILE FIBERS AS APPLIED TO CRIME INVESTIGATION
 FIBER EVIDENCE
 Fiber – smallest unit of textile

 Length much greater than diameter
 Can be naturally occurring or synthetic
 Can be spun w/other fibers to form a yarn that can be woven or
knitted to form a fabric
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 The quality of the fiber evidence depends on the ability of the criminalist to
identify the origin of the fiber or at least be able to narrow the possibilities
to a limited number of sources.
 Obviously, if the examiner is presented with fabrics that can be exactly
fitted together at their torn edges, it is a virtual certainty that the fabrics
were of common origin.
 Microscopic comparisons between questioned and standard/reference
fibers are initially undertaken for color and diameter characteristics, using
a comparison microscope.
 Other morphological features that could be important in comparing fibers
are:
 Lengthwise striations on the surface of the fiber
 The presence of delustering particles that reduce shine
 The cross-sectional shape of the fiber
 Compositional differences may exist in the dyes that were applied to the
fibers during the manufacturing process.
 TRANSFER OF FIBER
 Can be transferred from

 Clothing
 Carpets
 Bed
 Furniture
 Can be transferred directly (primary) or indirectly (secondary)
 primary occurs when a fiber is transferred from a fabric directly onto a
victim’s clothing
 Secondary occurs when already transferred fibers on clothing of suspect
transfer to clothing of a victim
 COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION
 The investigator’s task of looking for minute strands of fibers often

becomes one of identifying and preserving potential “carriers” of fiber
evidence.
 Relevant articles of clothing should be packaged carefully in separate
paper bags.
 If it is necessary to remove a fiber from an object, the investigator must
use clean forceps, place it in a small sheet of paper, fold and label the
paper, and place the paper packet inside another container.
 TYPES OF FIBERS
 Natural fibers are derived in whole from animal or plant sources.

– Examples: wool, mohair, cashmere, furs, and cotton.
 Man-made fibers are manufactured.
– Regenerated fibers are manufactured from natural raw materials and
include rayon, acetate, and triacetate.
– Synthetic fibers are produced solely from synthetic chemicals and
include nylons, polyesters, and acrylics.
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 TWO DIVISIONS OF NATURAL FIBERS:
 Originate from plants or animals
 Common plant fibers
– Cotton, flax (linen), ramie,
rayon, sisal, jute, hemp,
kapok (silky-cotton like
substance), & coir (coconut
fibers)
Cotton Fibers
 Common animal Fibers

– Wool (usually from sheep),
camel, alpaca, cashmere,
mohair
– End use of sheep’s wool
dictates fineness or coarseness
of fibers
o Finer fibers used in
clothing
o Coarser fibers found in
carpet
Wool Fibers
– Fiber diameter & degree of scale
protrusion are important characteristics
 SYNTHETIC FIBERS
 More than ½ of all fibers used in

production of textile materials are
synthetic
– Polyester, nylon, acrylics,
acetates
 Some originate from natural
materials such as cotton or wood
 Amount of production of
particular synthetic fiber & its use
influence the degree of rarity of a
given fiber
 Shape of synthetic fiber can determine the value placed on the fiber
TWO KINDS OF SYNTHETIC FIBERS
1. organic fiber
– Cellulosic ( example rayon)
– Non-cellulosic ( examples nylon, casein fiber, resin fiber
2. Inorganic fiber
– mineral fiber ( examples glass fiber wool, glass rock, and slag
wools)
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– metallic fiber ( examples fine wire filament, steel wool, tinsel
threads)
 FIBER COLOR
 Influences value given to a particular fiber identification
 Often several dyes are used to give a fiber a desired color
 Individual fibers can be colored prior to being spun into yarn
 Yarns can be dyed , & fabrics made from them can be dyed
 Color can be applied to surface of fabric – as in printed fabrics
 How color is applied & absorbed along length of fiber are important
comparison characteristics
 Color-fading & discoloration can also lend increased value to a fiber
association
 FIBER NUMBER & LOCATION
 Number of fibers on clothing of a victim identified as matching clothing of

suspect is important in determining actual contact
– Greater the number of fibers, the more likely that contact actually
occurred
 Location of fibers on different areas of body or on specific items at scene
influences the significance of the fiber association
 FABRIC TYPE
 How fabric is constructed affects the # & types of fibers that may be
transferred during contact
– Tightly woven or knitted fabrics shed less than loosely knit or
woven fabrics
– Fabrics composed of filament yarns shed less than fabrics
composed of spun yarns.
 Age of fabric affects degree of transfer
– Newer fabrics may shed more readily because of an abundance
of loosely adhering fibers on surface
– Worn fabrics may have damaged areas that easily shed fibers
– Damage to fabric caused during physical contact greatly
increases the likelihood of fiber transfer
 FABRIC SOURCE DETERMINATION

 It is not possible to say positively that a fiber originated from a particular
fabric
 inability to positively associate a fiber w/a source in no way diminishes
the significance of a fiber association
 It is not possible to say positively that a fiber originated from a particular
fabric
 inability to positively associate a fiber w/a source in no way diminishes
the significance of a fiber association
 Once a particular fiber of a certain type, shape, & color is produced &
becomes part of a fabric, it occupies an extremely small portion of the
fiber/fabric composition
 Exception – white cotton & blue cotton fibers (blue jeans)
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 FIBER TRANSFER & PERSISTENCE
 Depends on type of fabric, & nature & duration of contact

 Transferred fibers are usually lost quickly – depends on type of fabric &
movement after contact
 Clothing of homicide victim would tend to retain transferred fiber for a
longer period because victim is not moving
 medical examiners & investigators must handle victim’s clothing carefully
to minimize fiber loss
 Fibers will be lost is if victim/suspect moves about, brush the clothing or
wash it
 Nature of contact
– Can determine the number of fibers transferred & value placed on
their discovery
– Violent physical contact of an extended duration will very often
result in numerous fiber transfers
 Multiple fiber associations
– Multiple fiber types found on different items of clothing or fabric
from suspect, victim, or scene greatly increase the likelihood that
contact occurred between those individuals & the scene
– Each associated fiber is considered to be an independent event
– Multiple associations undermine a coincidence defense
 FIBER EVIDENCE: ASSIGNING SIGNIFICANCE
 Matching dyed synthetic fibers or dyed natural fibers can be very

meaningful
 Whereas, matching of common fibers, such as white cotton or blue denim
cotton would be less significant
 Discovery of cross transfers & multiple fiber transfers between suspect’s
clothing & victim’s clothing dramatically increases the likelihood that these
2 individuals had physical contact
 When a fiber examiner matches a questions fiber to a know item of
clothing, there are only two possible explanations
– Fiber actually originated from the item of clothing
– Fiber did not originate from the item of clothing
 In order to say that the fiber originated from the item of clothing
– the clothing either had to be the only fabric of its type ever
produced or still remaining on earth
– Or the transfer of fibers was directly observed
 Only way to say that a fiber did not originate from a particular item of
clothing is to know the actual history of the garment or to have actually
observed the fiber transfer from another garment
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XIV. TEST FOR FIBERS
 BURNING OR IGNITION TEST
A simple preliminary macroscopic examination. A test that determines

whether fiber is mineral, animal or vegetable. A single fiber is applied with
flame at one end and the following are noted:
 manner of burning
 odor of fumes
 appearance of burnt end
 color of ash
 action of fumes on moistened red and blue litmus paper
 effect of fumes on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate
 FLUORESCENCE TEST
A frequently used to determine the general group to which a fiber

belongs. It is not reliable for positive identification of fiber.
 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
The fiber is placed on a slide teased and covered. In general it is the

most reliable and best means of identifying fibers.
 CHEMICAL TEST
1. Staining Test – the fiber is stained with picric acid, Millon’s reagent,
stannic chloride or iodine solution.
 Picric acid + silk ---------- dyed
 Picric acid + wool -------- dyed
 Picric acid ) cellulosic fiber ---------------- unchanged
 Silk + millon’s reagent --------------------- brown
 Wool + millon’s reagent ------------------- brown
 Cellulosic fiber + million’s reagent -------- no reaction
 Stannic chloride + cellulose ---------------- black
2. Dissolution Test – if the fiber is white or light colored it is treated with

the following chemicals. If dyed, the fiber is first decolorized by boiling in
either 1% hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or dilute potassium hydroxide.
The fiber is then treated with the following and reaction observed.
 10% NaOH
 5% oxalic acid
 Half saturated oxalic acid
 Concentrated sulfuric acid
 Concentrated and dilute ammonium hydroxide
 Concentrate nitric acid
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Self
Assessment
Name:___________________________ Score:________
I. Give what is ask in each of the following
_____________1. Refers to a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur

everywhere on the human body except on the palm of the hands
and the sole of the feet.
_____________2.
_____________3. Parts of Hair
_____________4.
_____________5.
_____________6. Parts of Shaft
_____________7.
_____________8. The comparison ______ is an indispensable tool for comparing the

morphological characteristics of hair and when comparing strands
of human hair, the criminalist is particularly interested in matching
the color, length, and diameter.
_____________9. Regions of the body that are primarily used in forensic

_____________10. comparisons are the (9) & (10) areas
_____________11. It can be spun into a yarn or made into a fabric by various

methods including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, and
twisting.
_____________12. The quality of the fiber evidence depends on the ability of the
criminalist to identify the ____ of the fiber or at least be able to
narrow the possibilities to a limited number of sources.
_____________13. TEST FOR FIBERS

_____________14.
_____________15. It is where the fiber is placed on a slide teased and covered. In

general it is the most reliable and best means of identifying
fibers.
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Activity
Name:___________________________ Score:__________
Course, Year & Section:______________ Date:___________
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WEST VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Lambunao Campus
Lambunao, Iloilo
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
Chem 211
Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
Midterm Examination
Name:_____________________________ Score__________
Course, Year & Section:________________ Date:__________
Instructions:
1. Write your answer on the space provided before each number.
2. Use black or blue ink.
3. Avoid erasure.
Test 1. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your
answer in CAPITAL LETTER.
____1. It is defined as that branch of Chemistry which deals with application of

chemical principles in the solution of crimes.
A. Forensic science
B. Forensic chemistry
C. Forensic toxicology
D. Crime investigation
____2. Which is the scope of Forensic Chemistry?
A. Identification of evidence
B. Collection, preservation, examination and study of blood, semen and
other body fluids
C. Macro etching investigation
D. All of the above
____3. The following are works of a Forensic Chemist, except
A. Collection or reception of the specimen
B. Responsible in verdict conferring
C. The Actual Examination
D. Court Appearance
____4. These are factors that must be considered when collecting specimen for
examination, except
A. Sufficiency of Samples
B. Maintenance of Individuality
C. Labeling and Sealing
D. All of the above
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_____5. Which of the following statement is TRUE pertaining to the roles of Forensic
Chemist in the crime investigation.
A. Conducts qualitative and quantitative determination of abused drugs as
well volatile substances.
B. Conducts chemical examination of explosives and/or explosive
ingredients.
C. Gives lectures on Forensic Chemistry and chemical-toxicology to various
schools, universities, police training centers and investigating units.
D. Does not responds to queries of all investigating units and render expert
opinion on matters related to the application of chemical principles for the
purpose of assisting investigators to develop investigative leads.
____6. Which six golden rules in the practice of forensic chemistry is being depicted
on the following statement?
 An expert with a wide and uncontrollable imagination is considered as the
most dangerous creatures. Though his being imaginative is sometimes
useful, an expert witness does not have to be solely imaginative but has to
be skilled in the field of Forensic Science. He must bear witness within the
limits of science.
A. Go Slowly
B. Be thorough
C. Use Imagination
D. Avoid Complicated Theories
____7. It is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of a volatile or
non-volatile compound based on the chromatographic separation of its
components.
A. High Powered Liquid Chromatography
B. Ultra-Violet Spectrophotometer
C. Enzyme Multiple Immuno Assay Technique
D. Scanning Electron Microscope
____8. Creation of “Medicos Titulares” by virtue of Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain.
For every province, a Forensic Physician was assigned to perform public
sanitary duties and at the same time provide medico-legal aids to the
administration of justice.
A. March 31, 1876
B. December 15, 1884
C. September 13, 1887
D. July 01, 1901
____9. Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study the mineral
waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist.
A. March 31, 1876
D. July 01, 1901
____10. Establishment of “Laboratorio Municipal de Manila” under the inspection of
the “Direction General de Administration Civil” and the control of the
“Gobierno de Provincias”.
A. March 31, 1876
D. July 01, 1901
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____11. “Laboratorio Madico- Legal” was created under the dependency of the
judicial branch of the government and the laboratory functioning under the
direction of a physician and assisted by a pharmacist-chemist.
A. 1893
B. 1894
C. 1895
D. 1896
____12. The Bureau of Government laboratories was created for the purpose of
performing biological and chemical examinations as well as for the production
of vaccines and sera.
A. July 01, 1901
B. July 02, 1901
C. July 03, 1901
D. July 04, 1901
____13. The Department of Legal Medicine was created pursuant to the resolution
of the Board of Regents. The department took charge of the courses of legal
medicines and its branches in the College of Medicine and Law.
A. March 10, 1915
B. March 11, 1915
C. March 12, 1915
D. March 13, 1915
____14.– the “Division of Investigation” was created under Commonwealth Act No.
181 with two medico-legal officers and a chemist. The Medico-Legal Section
of the Division of Investigation started the definite movement towards the
creation of scientific crime detection laboratory.
A. December 01, 1936
C. December 02, 1936
D. December 02, 1937
____15. The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) was
organized with the Division of Investigation as the nucleus. The chemical
laboratory of the Medico-Legal Section was expanded into a Forensic
Chemistry Division.
A. August 1945
B. September 1945
C. October 1945
D. November 1945
____16. These are presently three Philippine laboratories which have the capability
to do forensic DNA work involving kinship analysis, criminal investigation, and
disaster victim identification (DVI), except
A. DNA Analysis Laboratory at the Natural Sciences Research Institute
University of the Philippines Diliman (UPD-NSRI)
B. Philippine National Police (PNP) Crime Laboratory
C. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) Crime Laboratory
D. Philippine Constabulary Crime Laboratory
____17. It is defined as the means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a
judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact, wherein scientific
knowledge is necessary.
A. Physical Evidence
B. Scientific Evidence
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C. Specimens
D. Samples
____18. Any fact to which a witness testifies based on what he saw, heard, smelled,
touched or tasted, is___.
A. Direct evidence
B. Indirect evidence
C. Hearsay
D. Circumstantial evidence
____19. It is a kind of evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by inferences
from the
facts proven.
A. Direct evidence
C. Hearsay
____20. While a policeman was patrolling, he heard a scream from a house. He
immediately proceeded to the house and then and there, he saw a man
coming out of the house carrying a bloody knife. The policeman
arrested the man and subsequently entered the house. There he saw a
female cadaver lying on the floor with a stab wound on the breast.
What kind of evidence is depicted on the given illustrated case.
A. Direct evidence
C. Hearsay
____21. Under the present law, circumstantial evidence is sufficient for conviction if:
A. There is more than one circumstances;
B. The facts from which the inferences are derived are proven; and
C. The combination of all the circumstances is such as to produce
conviction beyond reasonable doubt.
D. All of the above
____22. It is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not
from his own personal knowledge or observation.
A. Direct evidence
C. Hearsay evidence
____23. Hearsay evidence is inadmissible except on the following:
A. Dying declaration
B. Declaration against interest
C. Family reputation or tradition regarding pedigree
D. No correct answer given
____24. The following are forms of scientific evidence, aside from
A. Real or Autoptic evidence
B. Circumstantial evidence
C. Testimonial Evidence
D. Documentary evidence
____25. It is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court. It is not
limited to that which can be known by the sense of vision but extends to
those which are perceived by the senses of hearing, taste, smell, or touch.
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____26. An expert may be called on the witness stand to answer all questions
propounded by both parties in the case.
____27. Refers to any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is
relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded by the Rules of
Court. Formal written report, expert opinion, certificates and disposition are
included in this group.
____28. A ____in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.
A. Witness
B. Fact finder
C. Investigator
D. Law enforcer
____29. Under the law, an ordinary witness must have the following qualifications
A. He must have the organ and power to perceive.
B. Perceiving can make known his perception to others.
C. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for by law, 123 Rules
of Court.
D. All of the above
____30. Which of the following is not an important element in the study of blood?
A. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the
perpetrator of the crime.
B. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
C. as evidence in the determination of the exact time the crime was
committed.
D. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant
____31. Identify what importance of the study of blood is presented from the
illustrative case given below?
 Spouses “A” and “B” filed a habeas corpus proceedings to seek custody
of a child “C” who was claimed as legitimate child of spouses “D” and
“E”. Examination of the blood of the parties showed the following
results:
Blood Group
“A” O
“B” O
“C” B
“D” O
“E” B
A. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the
perpetrator of the crime.
B. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
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C. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of
time the victim survived the attack.
____32. Which is TRUE on the importance of blood as evidence in the

determination of the cause of death and the length of time the victim
survived the attack?
A. the amount of blood in the clothing of the deceased may also indicate
which of the several wounds, if there are multiple wounds, was inflicted
first.
B. When a person is dead, the blood pressure falls to zero and bleeding
ceases so that dead bodies do not bleed.
C. If a body is found in which there has been a large pool of blood which
collected from comparatively small wounds, it indicates that the person
lived for a considerable length of time after the attack and in many
cases the actual cause of death is simply loose of blood.
D. In cases where death follows immediately from such sudden cause as a
gunshot through the heart, there is usually very large amount of blood
on or around the body.
____33. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant, the
___ of the blood or blood stains will give the investigator an idea of the
direction of the source of the blood.
A. Amount
B. Size
C. Shape
D. Color
____34. When the blood strikes a smooth surface, it will often leave a large blot
with one or two smaller ones trailing off in a straight line. This condition is
caused by the blood coming from the direction of the large to the small
blots. In other words the largest blot is made first and then the smaller
ones afterwards.
A. Smaller, largest
B. Largest, smaller
C. Smallest, larger
D. Larger, smallest
____35. If a person was stabbed in the neck he may stagger away leaving a trail of
blood on the ground in the form of large drops. On the other hand, the
deceased may collapse at the place where he was stabbed and shed a
large pool of blood around him.
A. Small
B. Medium
C. Large
D. Wider
____36. A ____examination of the stain or of the blood, if still fresh, may sometimes
disclose the origin of the blood due to the presence of foreign particles.
The presence of foreign particles in blood may lead to a definite conclusion
about the origin of the blood, but their absence will not prove conclusively
that the blood did not come from the part of the body from which it was
alleged to have come.
A. Microscopic
B. Chemical microscopic
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C. Physical
D. chemical
____37. If the amount of blood is very small it dries very rapidly and the different
changes are not easy to distinguish, but, if there is enough of it to make a
small paddle, then after three to five minutes, the blood will begin to clot
and, after the clot is formed, it becomes a solid to such an extent that a stick
or pencil drawn through it will have a definite mark in it. This period of
drying will usually take from ______ depending upon the size of the cloth and
external conditions.
A. 12 to 36 minutes
B. 12 to 36 hours
C. 12 to 36 days
D. 12 to 36 weeks
____38. Has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is referred to as a
highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic substances.
A. Blood
B. Semen
C. Urine
D. Epithelial tissues
____39. There are about ___ of blood in a man of average size.
A. 5 quarts
B. 6 quarts
C. 7 quarts
D. 8 quarts
____40. The following are formed elements or the solid materials of blood, except
A. Red Blood Cells or RBC
B. White Blood Cells or WBC
C. Blood Platelets
D. Serum
____41. It refers to the fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells are
suspended.
A. Serum
B. Platelets
C. Plasma
D. water
____42. A straw – yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for
some time and the clot contracts.
A. Serum
B. Platelets
C. Plasma
D. water
____43. The following are problems in the study of blood, excluding
A. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen
suspected to contain blood.
B. Does the stain contain blood or another substance?
C. Where has to be searched for?
____44. When searching for blood stains attention should be directed not only to
clothing and weapons, but also the
A. finger nails
B. linings of the pockets
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C. seams and folds of the garments of the suspect
D. all of the above
____45. Which of the following statement is NOT relevant in searching for the
location of blood as evidence from the crime scene?
A. Blood is often found in places which are not directly visible as for example
under the edges of a table where the criminal may have wiped his hands.
B. Blood on clothing that have been recently washed, the seams should be
cut open to ascertain if any blood may be there.
C. it may not be possible to detect blood Even on well rinsed clothing.
D. It has been the experience in the chemical laboratory of the National
Bureau of Investigation to find traces of blood in the metal lining of the
inside surface of a knife where the blade, outside surface of the handle
and the junction between the blade and handle were found negative for
blood.
____46. It is suggested that the blood be scrapped off with a clean knife or razor
blade, care being taken not to include scrapings of the surface. The
scrapings are placed in a pill box and sealed with tape. Envelopes or paper
packets may be used as containers provided precaution is taken to avoid
less of contents as a result of sifting through and unsealed corners. The use
of exterior and interior envelopes will minimize danger of loss by sifting.
From the given method above pertaining on the collection of the blood stain
as a physical evidence, where is the possible location of the specimen?
A. Glazed surface like glass, tiles, automobiles
B. Hard surface like axe, hammer, knives, stones, crowbars
C. Smooth surface like walls, finished floors, table tops
D. Clothing
___47. How would you collect blood stain from hard surface like axe, hammer,
knives, stones, crowbars
A. Blood stains may be removed by moistening a small one inch square
of white cotton fabric with distilled water or physiological saline
solution (0.9% solution of NaCl)) and rubbing the stain off on to this.
B. A protective cover is necessary before packing the specimen to
prevent scraping of the stain by friction in the event that the whole
object is shipped to the laboratory.
C. It may be necessary to cut out the blood stained area, but where this
is done, photographs should be made of the stains prior to the
collection. The stained portion is placed in clean cardboard box or
wrapped in a clean paper.
D. Each article of clothing must be packed separately to avoid possible
contamination. In packing, one should take special care never to place
newspaper directly in contact with the stain.
____48. Which is TRUE in the collection of a clothing smeared with blood that was
seized from the crime scene?
A. All clothing suspected to contain blood must be dried thoroughly before
packing. Exposure to the open air for a couple of hours will be
sufficient to dry the specimen.
B. Hastening the drying process by exposure to heat or sunlight should be
a done since heat and sunlight may increase the rate of drying the
blood stain.
C. Exposure of the clothing to a fan for the purpose of expediting the
drying is also desirable.
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D. Article of clothing smeared with blood must be placed in one package.
____49. The preliminary test for blood is carried out at the scene of crime and may
be made by the ____ in cases of emergency provided there is enough
blood left for a later expert examination.
A. Policeman
B. Detective
C. Investigation agent
D. All of the above
____50. An extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute blood stain and is
the most commonly used preliminary test for blood.
A. Benzidine test
C. Guaiacum test
D. Leucomalachite green test
____51. An alternative test to benzidine test. A positive results with this test is highly
indicative of blood. The negative result is, therefore, valuable and is
conclusive as to the absence of blood.
A. Benzidine test
C. Guaiacum test
____52. Intense blue color produced immediately from this preliminary test for
blood.
A. Benzidine test
C. Guaiacum test
____53. A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution and
it may not react to very old stains.
A. Benzidine test
C. Guaiacum test
____54. It is known to destroy many important blood factors necessary for the
forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be limited only to
seeking out blood invisible to the naked eye.
A. Benzidine
B. Phenolphthalein
C. Guaiacum reagent
D. Luminol
____55. The actual proof that stain is blood consists of establishing the
presence of the characteristic of the ____ of the blood.
A. Serum
B. Platelet
C. White blood cell
D. Red blood cell
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____56. Useful for the demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles for
making the distinction between mammalian, avian, piscine, and reptilian
blood and for the investigation of menstrual, lochial and nasal charges.
A. Physical examination
B. Chemical test
C. Presumptive test
D. Microscopic test
____57. The following are microchemical test or mocrocrystalline test for blood,
Except
A. Teichmann hemin reaction/teichman test/haemin crystal test
B. Haemochromogen crystal test or takayama test
C. Luminal test
D. Acetone-haemin test
____58. One of the two popular microchemical test and a delicate test for the
presence of hemoglobin.
A. Teichmann hemin reaction/teichman test/haemin crystal test
B. Haemochromogen crystal test or takayama test
C. Luminal test
D. Acetone-haemin test
____59. What is the color change for a positive result of Takayama Test for blood?
A. Green
B. Blue
C. Salmon Pink
D. Brown
____60. The almost delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence
of blood in both old recent stains. This is performed by means of an optical
instrument known as ______.
A. Microscope
B. Spectroscope
C. Chromatography
D. Cylinder
____61. It is the standard test used to determine whether the blood or blood stain is
of human or animal origin.
A. Precipitin test
B. Luminal test
C. Acetone-haemin test
D. Presumptive test
____62. What indicates a positive result for a precipitin test for blood?
A. Red blood cells are spotted
B. A rhombic dark color change was detected
C. A white cloudy line or ring or band at the contact points of the fluid that
appears immediately
D. No changes was seen
____63. Detection of sperm and semen are the most reliable marker for the
investigation in cases such as
A. Rape
B. Sodomy
C. Bestiality
D. All of the above
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____64. An average male ejaculate measures around 3.5 milliliters. Each milliliter
can contain between _______ sperm cells.
A. 10 and 40 million
B. 10 and 50 million
C. 15 and 45 million
D. 20 and 50 million
____65. The following are parts of seminal fluid, escept
A. Spermatozoa
B. Seminal Plasma
C. Epithelial Cell
D. serum
____66. Which of these factors affect the deficient sperm production?
A. Age
B. Diet
C. Undescended testis
D. All are correct answer
____67. Where to look for seminal stains?
A. Water traps
B. soil
C. Perineum
D. Knife junction
____68. Which of the method of collection given is TRUE to seminal fluid?
A. Handling of articles bearing stains should be done very carefully to
avoid damage to spermatozoa.
B. Vaginal / anal / penile swabs should be sent along with their smears on
slides. Swabs should be taken on sterile gauze / cloth and their smears
prepared on sterile slides. These should be dried in air at temperature
100 degrees Celsius.
C. The seizures of wearing apparel that has relations to sex offenses must
be made the day after the crime was committed
D. If fluid semen is found it should be placed in a plastic container.
____69. There are four examination for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form of
stains namely: Physical Examination, Chemical Examination, Microscopic
Examination and ___.
A. Biological Examination
B. Microchemical test
C. Mechanical test
____70. To naked eye seminal stains generally appear translucent or opaque spots,
at times with yellowish tint and darker border depending on color and
thickness of substrata, which, if absorbent, also acquire stiffness due to dried
semen.
A. Reddish
B. Yellowish
C. Violet-like
D. Whitish
____71. What is pH value of seminal fluid?
A. 7.4
B. 7.5
C. 7.6
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D. 7.8
____72. These tests are used to detect Seminal Stains, except
A. Florence Test
B. Barberio Test
C. Benzidine Test
D. Acid Phosphatase Test
____73. Choline is detected in this method.
A. Florence Test
B. Barberio Test
C. Benzidine Test
D. Acid Phosphatase Test
____74. The most reliable confirmation for the presence of semen is the positive
visual identification of sperm cells (or spermatozoa) using the Christmas
tree stain.
A. Florence Test
B. Barberio Test
C. Christmas tree stain Test
D. RSID – semen strip test
____75. Gunshot residue examination are performed to help the investigators in
determining
A. whether a person has discharged a firearm or not
B. whether a firearm was discharged or not
C. the possible gunshot range or the distance of the shooter to the victim
D. all of the above
____76. The following are common methods used by most crime laboratories to
detect gunshot residue, excluding
A. Paraffin Test
B. Takayama test
C. Lead Residue Detection
D. Gunpowder residue examination
____77. Paraffin Test was originated from Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used
paraffin for collecting gunpowder residues from discharged firearms.
A. Uruguay
B. Colombia
C. Cuba
D. Philippines
____78. To determine whether a person has discharged a firearm, the Paraffin
Diphenylamine Test is used. The basis of this test is the presence of ____in
the gunpowder residue.
A. Nitrates
B. Nitrites
C. Sulfates
D. oxalates
____79. These particles of gunpowder residue are being extracted by the paraffin
cast and will appear as blue specks , when diphenylamine reagent is added
on the cast. It must be noted that the specks are generally located on the
area of the ___and forefingers.
A. Pinky finger
B. Middle finder
C. Thumb
D. palm
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____80. Is there any means of removing these nitrates from the hands?
A. None
B. Sometimes
C. uncertain
D. maybe
____81. Usually, gunpowder nitrates that are embedded on the skin stay for___.
That is why paraffin casting should be conducted within the specified period.
A. 24 hours
B. 48 hours
C. 36 hours
D. 72 hours
____82. Which of these substances give false positive result in paraffin testing?
A. Fertilizers
B. Explosives
C. alcohol
D. Urine
____83. Is paraffin test result a conclusive evidence?
A. No
B. Yes
C. Sometimes
D. Maybe
____84. There are instances wherein a person who actually discharged a firearm
would still give a negative result to the paraffin test because of several
these factors, except
A. Length of the barrel
B. Age of the gun
C. Direction of firing
D. All of the above
____85. Which of the following is an importance of Gunshot Range Determination?
A. In connection to self defense
B. In the distinction between murder and suicide
C. Time of firing
D. Identification of the shooter
____86. The following observations may be noted form directly inflicted wounds,
excluding
A. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn
B. Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole
C. The presence of partially burned powder residues around the entrance
hole
D. Powder tattooing around the wound
____87. Smudging is observed when the gun is held ________. The smoke and soot
from the burned pores are deposited around the hole of the entrance
producing a dirty appearance.
A. Directly to the victim
B. from 2 inches to the maximum of 8 inches
C. from 8 inches to the maximum of 36 inches
D. from 36 and more
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____88. As a rule, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of a firearm if such
firearm has not been discharged. But if the firearm has been
discharged,____ salts are formed and can be detected inside the barrel.
A. Iron
B. Copper
C. Silver
D. Calcium
____89. Black powder and smokeless powder are examples of
A. Propellant or low explosives
B. Primary explosive or initiators
C. High explosives
D. primers
____90. Which of the following is an example of initiators?
A. Firecrackers
B. TNT
C. Dynamite
D. Lead azide
____91. Can there be an explosion without an explosive?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Sometimes
D. maybe
____92. The problem of illegal use of explosives in the Philippines is not very serious
.It is usually encountered in ____ where TNT, picric acid, the explosives
recovered from Japanese ammunitions and dinitric compounds are used.
A. dynamite fishing
B. mining
C. demolition
D. terrorism
____93. It is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere
on the human body except on the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet.
A. Hair
B. Skin
C. Finger
D. Toe nails
____94. The most distinctive part of the hair.
A. Roots
B. Shaft
C. cortex
D. Tip
____95. It is the outside covering of hair and gives hair resistance to chemical
composition & stability
A. Cortex
B. Cuticle
C. Medulla
D. Shaft
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____96. The interior of the hair and it is embedded with pigment granules that give
hair its color.
A. Cortex
B. Cuticle
C. Medulla
D. Shaft
____97. Medullary index of Humans is ___.
A. 0.5
B. Less than 0.5
C. Greater than 0.5
D. 1.0
____98. The comparison microscope is an indispensable tool for comparing the
morphological Characteristics of hair. When comparing strands of human hair,
the criminalist is particularly interested in matching the color, length, and
_____.
A. Diameter
B. Size
C. Shape
D. Length
____99. Which of the following statement is NOT TRUE?
A. The collection of 50 full-length hairs from all areas of the scalp will
normally ensure a representative sampling of head hair.
B. Because of potential for alteration, it is recommended that head hair
samples be obtained as soon as possible from suspects & victims of crime
C. Recent major breakthroughs in DNA profiling have extended this
technology to the individualization of human hair.
D. Significance of association of facial hairs may be as great as head & pubic
hair associations
____100. In general it is the most reliable and best means of identifying fibers.
A. Burning or ignition test
B. Fluorescence test
C. Microscopic examination
D. Chemical test
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Module in
CHEM 211
(Forensic Chemistry & Toxicology)
Final Coverage
Prof. Mirza V. Lachauna

Prof. Emelyn P. Lira
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Chemical Aspects
10 of Document
Examination
At first impression it seems that the
examination of questioned documents is hardly within the
province of a chemist, but if we consider the fact that the
essential materials in a document examination of any kind
are the paper and ink or pencil, and the chemical
examination of inks, paper, erasures, alternations, and
sequence of writing are often associated with such
examination, it will be very evident that there is a large
amount of purely chemical work in document examination.

1. Defined document.
2. Described the proper care, packing, preservation and
Transportation of Evidence/ Document.
3. Described the different methods of examination of
questioned document.
4. Defined ink.
5. Enumerated the types of ink.
6. Enumerated and discussed each of the tests for ink.
7. Enumerated and described the other aspects of document
examinations.
8. Performed laboratory experiment on Document
Examination.
II. DOCUMENT DEFINED
Document is an original or official written or printed paper furnishing

information or used as proof of something else.
III. PACKING, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF

EVIDENCE/DOCUMENTS
1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible.

2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along
old lines. Place it in a Manila paper envelope or brown envelope or it can be
placed in a transparent plastic envelope.
3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plane white
paper in folder.
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4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could
possibly mark them.
IV. THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
• A questioned document is one in which a document in its entirety, or in

part, is subject to question as to authenticity and/or origin.
 Most Common Questioned Document

 Letters  Passports
 Checks  Petitions
 Driver’s license  Threatening letters
 Contracts  Suicide notes
 Wills  Lottery tickets
 Voters registration
 Cases Involving Questioned Documents
 Forgery  Robbery
 Counterfeiting  Arson
 Mail fraud  Burglary
 Kidnapping  Homicide
 Con games  Serial
 Embezzlement murder
 Gambling  Psychologica
 Organized crime l profiling
 White collar crime  Deviant sex
 Art crimes crimes
 Theft
V. EXAMINATION AND COMPARISON OF PAPER
The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper
and ink or pencil or writings. The examination of paper maybe necessary if we want
to know the age of the document, the presence of alterations, erasures and other
forms of forgery.
VI. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION / ANALYSIS

OF PAPER
1. Whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source.

2. Determine of probable age of paper.
3. Determination of the composition of paper.
VII. COMPOSITION OF PAPER
Paper is made of three components namely:

1. Fiber Composition
2. Sizing Material – to improve quality of paper
3. Loading Material – to add weight to the paper
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EGYPTIAN PAPYRUS - one of the earliest substance used for writing. It is
form the name papyrus, that the word paper was derived.
 FIBER COMPOSITION: practically all papers maybe classified form the

standpoint of their basic fiber composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely:
a. mechanical pulp-ground wood sulfite mixture.
b. Soda-sulfite mixture
c. Rag sulfite
 SIZING MATERIAL – added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of

sizing materials are rosin, casein, gelatin, starch.
 LOADING MATERIAL – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the

pores between the fibers of the paper. Examples are calcium sulfate and
barium sulfate.
VIII. THE EXAMINATION OF PAPER
The four test for paper:

1. Preliminary Examination
2. Physical test causing no perceptible change
3. Physical test causing a perceptible change
4. Chemical Test
 PRELIMINARY TEST FOR PAPER

The test deals with the appearance of the document and the following are
observed:
a. folds and creases
b. odor
c. impressions caused by transmitted light
d. Presence of discoloration and daylight and under ultraviolet light.
WATERMARKS – it is a distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the

time of its manufacture by a roll usually a dandy roll.
WIREMARKS – marks produced on paper by the flexible wire soldered to
the surface of the dandy roll that carries the watermark.
 PHYSICAL TEST CAUSING NO PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE

A test applied on paper without perceptibly changing or altering the
original appearance of the document.
a. Measurement of length and width
b. Measurement of thickness
c. Measurement of weight/unit area
d. Color of the paper
e. Texture
f. Gloss
g. Opacity
h. Microscopic Examination
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OPACITY – the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through
or dark objects from being seen through the paper.
 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION CAUSING A PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE

This is done only if sufficient samples are available and if proper
authorization from the court is acquired this can be done.
a. bursting strength test or “POP” test
b. folding endurance test
c. accelerated aging test
d. absorption test
 CHEMICAL TEST - This test determines the fiber composition, the loading
material and sizing material used in the paper.
 FIBER COMPOSITION – examination is purely microscopic and it
determines the material used and nature of processing.
e. LOADING MATERIALS – is determined by burning and ashing a
portion of the paper and then the ash examined.
f. SIZING MATERIAL – gelatin is extracted by boiling the paper in
water and the solution treated with tannic acid; rosin is extracted
by heating the paper with 95% alcohol. The alcohol evaporated
and the residue treated with acetic anhydride and strong sulfuric
acid; starch is determined by addition of dilute iodine solution; case
in is determined by addition Millon’s reagent.
IX. INK
Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of

inks are:
1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different
inking from ink on other parts of the same
documents or other document.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind
of ink were made with the identical ink, or inks
of different qualities or in different conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as purports to be
4. Whether documents of different dates or a
succession of differently dated book entries
show the natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions
point to one continuous writing at one time under identical conditions.
X. TYPES OF INK
1. Gallotannic ink or iron-nutgall ink – the type of ink
where age maybe determined. Today the most
frequently used ink for making entries in record books
and for business purposes. Gallotannic ink is made of a
solution off iron salt and nutgall. This ink can penetrate
into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on the surface, thus making its
removal more difficult to accomplish.
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2. Logwood ink – made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small
amount of potassium dichromate is added.
Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of
precipitate. Phenol is added as preservative. This ink is
inexpensive and does not corrode steel pen. Will not
wash off the paper even fresh, flows freely.
3. Nigrosine Ink or Aniline Ink – made of coal tar

product called nigrosine dissolved in water. It easily
smudge, affected by moisture, maybe washed off from
the paper with little difficulty. It is best determined by
spectrographic method.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India Ink – the

oldest ink material known. Made of carbon in the form of
lampblack. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of
the paper so that it may easily be washed off. Not
affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
5. Colored writing ink – today, almost all colored inks

are composed of synthetic aniline dyestuffs dissolved in
water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is
added to render the writing more permanent.
6. Ball Point Pen ink – made of light fast dyes

soluble in glycol type solvents as carbitol, glycol or oleic
acid. Paper Chromatography is the best way of
determine this type of ink.
XI. TEST FOR INK
1. Physical Test– applied to determine the color and presence of alterations,

erasures, destruction of sizes with the use of stereoscope, handlens or
microscope.
2. Chemical Test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are
applied on the ink strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristic color
reactions or other changes in the ink is observed. Reagents used: 5% HCI,
10% oxalic acid, tartaric acid, 2% NaOH, 10% NaOC1, C1 2, H2O, KCNS,
water.
3. Paper Chromatography – a reliable procedure that can be adopted to
identify and compare ballpoint pen ink.
XII. DETERMINATION OF APPROXIMATE AGE OF DOCUMENT
 Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this determination
except when the color is black, because on the observation that within a few
hours, the color of ink writings becomes darker because the dye contain
therein is influenced by the light of the room, oxygen of the air, acidity or
alkalinity of the paper.
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There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation of
the ink writing and apparently these methods depend upon:
 Physical phenomena such a matching the color of the ink writing with
the standard colors of with itself over a period of time.
 Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the
length of time the ink has been on the paper.
 Age of paper
a. through watermarks
b. in certain case from the composition of paper
XIII.OTHER ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
 ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS – unnecessary writings that are not capable of

being read usually made on checks, birth certificate, passport and transcript
of record.
 SOME ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS

1. Erasure – means removal of writing from the paper. Can be made
chemically or mechanically.
2. Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or
other marking material.
3. Sympathetic Ink or Invisible ink – substances used for invisible
writing.
4. Indented Writing – term applied to the partially visible depression
appearing on a sheet of paper underneath the one that the visible
writing appears.
5. Writings on Carbon Paper – used sheets of carbon paper can be made
readable.
6. Contact Writing – blank paper may contain traces of ink because of
previous contact with some writings.
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Self
Assessment
Name:___________________________ Score:_________
Course, Year & Section:______________ Date:__________
1-10. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer.

_____1. It is one of the earliest substance used for writing. It is form the name
papyrus, that the word paper was derived.
a. Linen c. manila hemp
b. Egyptian papyrus d. yellow paper
_____2. It is a distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its
manufacture by a roll usually a dandy roll.
a. Watermarks c. wiremarks
b. Erasures d. trademark
_____3. Refers to the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or
which prevents dark objects from being seen through the paper.
a. Opacity c. texture
b. Color d. transparency
_____4. This is determined by burning and ashing a portion of the paper and then
the ash examined.
a. Fiber composition c. sizing material
b. Loading material d. burning test
_____5. It is a type of ink where age maybe determined. Today this is most
frequently use ink for making entries in record books and for business
purposes.
a. Gallotanic ink c. logwood ink
b. India ink d. carbon ink
_____6.It is made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount of
potassium dichromate is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of
precipitate.
b. India ink d. carbon ink
_____7. It is the oldest ink material known.
b. Aniline ink d. carbon ink
_____8. It is a reliable procedure that can be adopted to identify and compare
ballpoint pen ink.
a. Paper Chromatography c. ink analysis
b. Spectroscopy d. chemical test
_____9. They are composed of synthetic aniline dyestuffs dissolved in water.
a. Ball point pen ink c. Colored writing ink
b. Carbon ink d. aniline ink
_____10. It is made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type solvents as carbitol,
glycol or oleic acid. Paper Chromatography is the best way of determine this type of
ink.
a. Ball point pen ink c. Colored writing ink
b. Carbon ink d. aniline ink
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11-15.True-or-False.
_________11. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as
possible.
___________12. The examination of paper maybe necessary if we want to know the
age of the document, the presence of alterations, erasures and other forms
of forgery.
___________13. Physical test causing no perceptible change includes pop test and
folding endurance test.
___________14 Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given for the age of
ink determination except when the color is black, because on the observation
that within a few hours, the color of ink writings becomes darker because the
dye contain therein is influenced by the light of the room, oxygen of the air,
acidity or alkalinity of the paper.
___________15. Erasures on questioned document can only be made mechanically.
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Activity
Name:______________________________ Score:__________
Course, Year & Section:________________ Date:___________
Graphology is the analysis of the physical characteristics and patterns of

handwriting with attempts to identify the writer, indicate the psychological state at
the time of writing, or evaluate personality characteristics.
System of Graphology
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Instruction:
Identify two (2) persons.
Study their handwritings and describe their profile characteristic or personality by
drawing conclusions from certain types of characteristics from the handwriting
sample. Base your findings from the “System of Graphology” given.
Tabulate your answer. By filling out the table below.
Sample Profile Characteristic/ Personality

No.
Note:
Attached handwriting sample upon submission of your answer for
validation
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GLASS AND GLASS

11 FRAGMENTS AND
FRACTURES
Important evidence of value to the investigation and successful prosecution
of a case may be obtained for an examination of glass which was broken during the
commission of a crime. The evidence may be fragments of a headlight lens found at
the scene of a hit-in-run accident; window glass from the scene of robbery; or glass
through which a bullet was fired. Cases of vandalism are known in the Philippines
and a case of this nature was recently referred to the police. This concerns a group
of young students from an exclusive school who, in the early morning, threw stones
at the show windows along Taft Avenue for no reason at all except probably to
satisfy their mania. In cases of these nature, a study of the fracture may determine
from what direction and by what means the glass window was broken.

1. Defined glass.
2. Named the composition of glass.
3. Described each of the analysis or tests used for glass
examination.
4. Discussed the principle of 3R’s Rule for radial crack.
5. Explained the principle of RFC Rule for concentric crack.
6. Performed laboratory experiment on glass and glass
fragment and fracture.
I. GLASS DEFINED
A super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-
crystalline inorganic substance.
II. COMPOSITION OF GLASS
Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO2(silica), B2O3 (boric oxide),

phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5). For commercial use silica is the most important oxide.
It is the base of commercial glasses. It is made of silica sand and other metallic
oxides. Oxide is for fluxing, durability and reduction of viscosity. Glass like window
and plate that are made in mass production is fairly uniform in composition. These
may contain incidental impurities and the presence of these substances in invaluable
for the identification and comparison of glass by spectrographic analysis. Glass has
also presence of trace elements which may be sufficient to establish or negate the
fact of a common source of two samples of glass.
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III. ANALYSIS / TEST FOR GLASS
1. SPECTROGRAPHIC TEST – an instrumental method of analysis that

determines the presence of trace element. Shows the constituent elements
of a glass. It will not give sufficient information to establish the origin of the
samples examined. A rapid examination and an adequate method for glass
analysis since it requires only a small amount of sample.
2. X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS – not as effective as the spectrographic
analysis. Determines the type of pattern of glass. The type of pattern
depends upon the composition of glass.
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXAMINATION – the most sensitive method of
determining differences of composition in glass samples and it depends upon
the study of the physical properties of glass. Properties like specific gravity or
density, refractive index.
4. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION – determines the differences in the
appearance of their fluorescence thus indication of physical and chemical
differences.
5. POLISH MARKS – optical glass and other fine glassware are usually
polished. In the polishing of glass fine marks are often left on the surface
that can sometimes serve as a basis of comparison.
IV. GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME
In the field of Forensic Chemistry emphasis is placed on:
1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run.

2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of assault
or other crimes of violence.
 ANALYSIS OF GLASS FROM VEHICLES
Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an

automobile or any vehicle for that matter is discovered in which fragments of
the lens can be found, a comparison maybe made with the fragments found
at the scene of accident employing the methods of analysis for glass.
 HOW GLASS BREAKS (HOW GLASS FORMS CRACKS WHEN A BLOW

OR PRESSURE IS APPLIED ON ONE OF ITS SURFACE)
When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for
example. The glass first bends a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit
of elasticity if reached the glass breaks along radial lines starting from the
point where the destroying force is applied originating from the opposite
surface of the glass, because this is the portion or surface which is more
subjected to stretching by bending. The front surface is only pushed. While
the radial fractures are taking place the newly created glass triangle between
the radial rays also bend away from the direction of the destroying force. By
this bending the glass is stretched along the front surface and when the limit
of elasticity is reached the glass breaks in concentric cracks. These originate
on the front of the glass because of stretching.
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 ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOWS
 BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY BULLET HOLES

1. On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found
to have been blown away giving the hole the appearance of a volcano
crater. Such appearance indicates that the bullet was fired from the
opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.
 If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the
flake marks are evenly distributed around the hole.
2. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer
more flaking than the right.
3. Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane would indicate a
shot fired at an angle from the left.
 WHERE THERE ARE TWO BULLET HOLES IN A WINDOW PANE

(ONE FROM EACH SIDE)
The problem of which one was fired first becomes important to
determine who is the aggressor. It will be found that the fractures
caused by the first bullet will be complete, especially the radial cracks,
whereas the fractures from the second will be interrupted and end-
stopped at points where they intersect those from the first.
1st
2nd
The hole on the right was created first. Cracks radiating out
from the hole will stop when they encounter another crack.
Stress placed on the glass (causing it to crack) will be
transferred along the existing crack rather than across it.
 BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY FIST OR STONE or HURLING

PROJECTILE
The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the

window is quite difficult but the principles of radial cracks and concentric
cracks or fractures will apply.
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VI. THE PRINCIPLE OF 3Rs RULE FOR RADIAL CRACK
3R’s Rule – “Stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to the
rear side of the glass.”
The front side is referred to as the side that was struck.
 FRACTURES ON SAFETY GLASS
Laminated glass, which is now being used in automobiles, does not

shatter when struck sharply. Frequently the cracking of safety glass is not
complete; the radial cracks do not extend to the side of impact and the spiral
cracks do not extend to the other side.
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Self
Assessment
Name___________________________ Score:________
Course, Year & Section:____________ Date:_________
1-5. True-or-False.
______ 1. Glass is made of silica sand and other metallic oxides
_______2. Ultraviolet light examination determines the differences in the appearance
of their fluorescence thus indication of physical and chemical differences.
_______3. Physical properties examination is the most sensitive method of
determining differences of composition in glass samples and it depends
upon the study of the physical properties of glass.
_______4. Laminated glass, which is now being used in automobiles, does shatter
when struck sharply.
_______5. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the right side will suffer
more flaking than the left.
6-10 . Give what is ask.

__________________6. A supercooled liquid that possess high viscosity and
rigidity. It is a non-crystalline inorganic substance.
__________________7. It is an instrumental method of analysis that
determines the presence of trace element. Shows the
constituent elements of a glass.
______________________8.
Glass is usually composed of
______________________9.
these three compounds:
______________________10.
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Activity
Name:__________________________ Score:_________
Course, Year & Section:_____________ Date:__________
At 9:30pm on a cloudy, dark night in February, 19-year-old Craig Elliott Kalani

went for a walk in his neighbourhood in northwest Oregon but never returned home.
A hit-and-run driver killed him. Crime-scene investigators collected pieces of glass
embedded in Craig’s jacket and other glass fragments found on the ground near his
body. It was found that the driver of the car was Ms. Susan Nutt.
Using glass as the prime physical evidence, justice should be administered to
the victim. If you were the investigator, what will you do to solve the case?
Apply the four (4) stages on the practice of forensic chemistry. Tabulate your
work, by filling out the table below.
Crime Collection of Actual Result of the Court

committed evidence examination examination appearance
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12 TOOL MARK
Toolmark identification is a forensic discipline that has as its primary concern

the determination of whether or not a toolmark was produced by a particular tool.
This determination is based on the class and individual marks in a given toolmark,
which are product of the manufacturing process.

1. Defined Tool.
2. Described the characteristics of Tool marks.
3. Discussed each of the general classes of tools
impression.
4. Explained the different uses of tool mark as evidence.
5. Identified the proper preservation and packaging of
tools.
6. Performed laboratory experiment on Tool marks.
I. DEFINITION OF TERMS
 A tool is an instrument or object capable of

making a mark on another object.
 A tool mark is defined as any impression, cut,

scratch, gouge, or abrasion, or any other marking left
on an object by another harder object or instrument.

II. TOOLS IMPRESSIONS MAY BE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO GENERAL

CLASSES
 These produced by such instruments like an Axe-hammer, pliers and cutters

which touch the area only once in producing the impression.
a. Compression Marks – which produced by a single application of
tool is the area of contact, for example: the impression of a
single blow of a hammer.
b. Friction Marks – which are series of scratches or striations
produced by pushing a tool across the surface such as those
produced by cutters jimmy or axe.
 Those produced by such instrument like saw or file which is applied in a
repeated strokes over the same area.
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III. APPLICATION OF TOOL MARKS

 Knife marks on bone
 Fractured knife blades
 Homemade explosive devices
 Crimp marks on detonation
 Cut marks on wire
 Pry marks on a window or door
IV. USES OF TOOL MARK EVIDENCE

 Tool Mark may be used to:
a. Link a person who used the tool in the commission of the crime, or
some other acts material to the commission of crime;
b. Establish whether a given tool or weapon found at the crime scene
has made a mark that is material to the crime;
c. Establish a connection between similar evidence discovered in a series
of crimes;
d. Determine whether a door or window was forced open from the
inside or outside;
e. Compare a tool mark from a crime scene with a tool mark found on
the property, equipment, or vehicle of a suspect; and
f. Facilitate and narrow the search for a given tool or weapon.
V. PRESERVATION AND PACKAGING OF TOOLS
Package the object containing tool marks so that no alteration or damage will
occur during shipment. Small object should be wrapped with clean paper and placed
in envelops or boxes, while important areas or larger objects can be protected by
paper. Whole large objects can be packed in cartons or crates, if not delivered in
person.
Test marks are made with suspected tools on material similar to those on
which the tool marks are present and compared with suspected tool marks by using
comparison microscope.
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Self
Assessment
Name__________________________ Score:_________
Course, Year & Section:___________ Date:__________
1-4. Identify.
______________________1. It is an instrument or object capable of making a mark
on another object.
______________________2.It is defined as any impression, cut, scratch, gouge, or
abrasion, or any other marking left on an object by
another harder object or instrument.
______________________3.It is produced by a single application of tool is the area
of contact, for example: the impression of a single blow
of a hammer.
______________________4. These are series of scratches or striations produced by
pushing a tool across the surface such as those
produced by cutters jimmy or axe.
5-9. True-or-False
_________5. Tool marks are not important in crime scene investigation.
_________6. Tool mark may be used to link a person who used the tool in the
commission of the crime.
_________7. Tool marks Facilitate and narrow the search for a given tool or weapon.
_________8. Tool marks are usually discovered on doors.
_________9. Standard of comparison may not be applied for tool marks analysis.
10-15. Give what is ask.
_____________________________10.
_____________________________11.
_____________________________12. Uses of Tool Mark Evidence
_____________________________13.
_____________________________14.
_____________________________15
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Activity
Name:________________________ Score:__________
Course, Year & Section:___________ Date:___________
The Lindbergh Baby Kidnapping
Given the following scenario:

 In 1932 the infant son of Charles and Ann Lindbergh was kidnapped from his
nursery. A handmade wooden ladder used to gain entrance to a second-floor
window, a ransom note, some muddy footprints, and a chisel were the only
clues left at the crime scene.
 The ransom was paid, but the infant was never returned.
 His body was eventually found in the woods near the Lindbergh home.
 A suspect, Richard Hauptmann, was eventually arrested.
 One of the first things forensic investigator, Arthur Koehler looked for was
Richard Hauptmann’s toolbox. . .was the hand plane used to construct the
homemade ladder.
As an investigator you looked for toolmarks and use this as an evidence to convict
the suspect and serve justice to the victim.
How will you do it?

By applying the four (4) divisions of the practice of forensic chemistry, solve the
case.
Crime Collection of Actual Result of the Court

committed evidence examination examination appearance
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METALLURGY
13 (AS APPLIED TO
CRIME DETECTION)
Metallurgical techniques, such as metallographic examination, are seldom re-
ported as being used in forensic science investigations. In these cases, most findings
related to the metal's nature rely on visual and chemical examinations. The potential
of applying metallurgical techniques to forensic science investigations is illustrated by
means of two case histories. The information needed to establish a link between
different pieces of metal is obtained from a metallographic examination of the
metal's microstructure which reflects its thermo mechanical history. It is shown that
this kind of information is unique and cannot be obtained by applying conventional
techniques such as chemical analysis. It is therefore concluded that metallurgical
techniques can successfully complement other scientific techniques commonly
employed in the forensic science context.

1. Defined metallurgy.
2. Defined metallogaphy.
3. Discussed the application of metallurgy in criminal
investigation.
4. Defined counterfeit coins.
5. Identified different kinds of counterfeit coins.
6. Discussed the various methods in restoration of tampered
serial number.
7. Identified the preliminary examination in number
restoration.
8. Described the different techniques in spot detection of
tampered serial number.
9. Performed laboratory experiment in metallurgy.
I. DEFINITION OF TERMS
 METALLURGY – the art of extracting and working on metals by the

application of chemical and physical knowledge.
 METALLOGRAPHY – branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the
microstructures of metals and alloys.
II. APPLICATION OF METALLURGY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

1. Robbery
2. Theft
3. Hit and run
4. Bomb and explosion
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5. Nail Examination
6. Counterfeit coins
7. Restoration of tampered serial numbers
III. COUNTERFEIT COINS

 COUNTERFEIT COINS – coins made to imitate the real thing and used for
gain.
 TWO KINDS OF COUNTERFEIT COINS:
1. CAST COINS– coins made in molds or coins made by casting
method. An impression of genuine coin is taken by use of plaster of
Paris, clay, or bronze. The plaster molds bearing the image of a good
coin are filled within a low temperature alloy made with lead or tin.
Sand molds are used for high temperature metals such as copper or
silver alloys. Cast coin has poor imitation. It can be easily detected.
The surface is usually pitted and uneven. The edges of lettering and
designs are rounded instead of sharp.
2. STRUCK COINS – made by striking or stamping method or these are

coins made by means of dies. Consists of making an impression of a
coin on a metal blank by pressure. Stamping is done by way of steel
dies. Often well executed. Its detection is not easy since weight,
specific gravity, composition may all be good. Careful comparison of
smaller details of the designs with those of the genuine should be
made.
Note: Examination of counterfeit coins is not wholly chemical.
IV. SERIAL NUMBER

Serial number is a unique number used for identification and inventory
purposes. A serial number allows a company to identify a product and get
additional information about it, for replacement, or as a means of finding compatible
parts.
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In many instances criminals will obliterate serial numbers from objects so that
ownership may not be traced. Whether it is a handgun or motor vehicle, it takes little
effort on the part of the perpetrator to grind off these identifying marks.
Many objects have serial numbers in the form of labels or placards, which
are easily removed but serial numbers that are mechanically stamped into a metal
surface, can be restored using the acid etching recovery method.
When serial numbers are stamped into a metal surface, the metal beneath
these stamps is compressed. When the numbers are removed, either by filing or
grinding, a relatively smooth surface results. In many cases the perpetrator is
satisfied that his task was successful if the numbers are no longer visible. But in
reality, the compressed metal still retains these marks.
The theory behind acid etching is quite simple: When applying an etching
reagent, generally a strong acid, the metal around the stamped marks will be etched
or eaten away by the acid leaving the compressed metal intact.
V. RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching fluid.
 ETCHING FLUID – fluid used to restore

tampered serial numbers. Choice of etching fluid
depends on the structure of the metal bearing the
original number.
 ETCHING FLUIDS
1. For cast iron and cast steel – 10% sulfuric
acid and potassium dichromate
2. For wrought iron and forged iron-Solution 1
: hydrochloric acid + water + cupric chloride
+ alcohol and Solution 2:15% nitric acid
3. For aluminum-glycerin + hydrofluoric acid +
nitric acid
4. For lead – 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one
part water
5. For stainless steel – dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in
alcohol for copper, brass, silver, and other copper alloys-ferric chloride
+ hydrochloric acid + water
6. For Zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide
7. For Tin – 10% hydrochloric acid
8. For Silver – concentrated nitric acid
9. For Gold and Platinum – 3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric
acid
VI. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION IN NUMBER RESTORATION
Important points in the preliminary examination in number restoration:
1. A careful search for the location of the serial number must be before the
start of the restoration process.
2. Grease and oil must be removed using gasoline, alcohol, etc.
3. Clean or polish the area using sandpaper.
4. Photograph the affected area.
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 Spot Detection of Tampered/obliterated Serial Number

1. Presence of any sign of welding surrounding the serial number.
2. Presence of several scratches and filing marks on the serial surface.
3. Presence of any sign of concavity on the serial number surface.
4. Presence of any difference in the style of letters and numbers.
5. Appearance of fragmentary marks which could not be properly identified
because part of it is superimposed by letters and numbers.
6. Presence of any difference in the spacing of individual letters and numbers.
7. Misalignment of letters and numbers.
8. Absence of one or more letters before, in between or after a set of sequential
numbers.
9. Letters and numbers are stamped on places where the serial is normally
located.
10. Sizes of letters and numbers are sharper and coarser than the others.
11. Presence of any irregularities in the depth if individual letters and numbers.
12. Model of the vehicle in the chassis number does not tally with that of the
rating plate.
13. Absence of rating plate.
14. Alteration of the production number.
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Assessment
Name:________________________________ Score:______
Course, Year & Section:__________________ Date:_______
1-6. Identify.
______________________1. It is the art of extracting and working on metals by
the application of chemical and physical
knowledge.
__________________________2. It is the branch of metallurgy that involves the
study of the microstructures of metals and
alloys.
__________________________3. Refers to coins made to imitate the real thing and
used for gain.
__________________________4. These are coins made in molds or coins made by
casting method
__________________________5. These are coins made by striking or stamping
method or these are coins made by means of
dies.
__________________________6. Refers to fluid used to restore tampered serial
numbers.
7-10. Give what is ask.
_____________________________7.
Application of metallurgy in
_____________________________8. criminal investigation
_____________________________9.
_____________________________10.
10-15. Complete the Table

Type of material Etching fluid
1.cast iron and cast steel
2.aluminum
3.silver
4.tin
5.gold and platinum
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Activity
Name:____________________________ Score:____________
Course, Year & Section:______________ Date:_____________
Case: Tata Xenon pickup truck
In this case, the driver of a Tata Xenon pickup truck was stopped by the police and
subsequently found to be transporting 500 kg of Doda Chura (poppy straw—the
dried, upper portion of the opium poppy, minus the seeds). Our team travelled to the
district police station and examined the chassis and engine of the truck. It was
evident that grinding and rubbing had been performed in the area of the chassis
number. The number plate was missing from the engine. We were able to
successfully restore the original numbers of the pickup truck.
By following the process of tampered serial number restoration, the result:
The restored number of the chassis of the Tata Xenon pickup truck
*MAT464203CSK02410*
The question now is, if you were in the team, what process did you follow to reveal
the truth?
Discuss your answer.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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SOIL
(PETROGRAPHY AS
14 APPLIED TO CRIME
DETECTION)
There are many instances when it is not possible to completely solve
problems involving the analysis of substances by either chemical or spectrographic
means. In such cases the determination of the refractive index and other optical
properties by means of the petrographic microscope may prove of value

1. Defined petrography.
2. Described the types of soil.
3. Discussed the collection and submission of soil as evidence.
4. Identified the different constituents of soil.
5. Enumerated and discussed the analysis of soil.
6. Described each of the other methods of analysis for soil.
7. Explained the application of soil analysis to scientific crime
detection.
8. Defined dust and dirt.
9. Identified the composition and classification of dust.
10. Discussed the proper collection and submission of dust and dirt
specimen.
11. Identified and discussed each of the method in the analysis of
dust and dirt.
12. Performed laboratory experiment on soil.
I. PETROGRAPHY DEFINED
 PETROGRAPHY – branch of geology that deals with the systematic

classification and identification of rocks, rock forming minerals and soil. Also
includes study of dust, dirt, safe insulation, ceramics and other such
materials, both natural and artificial.
II. TYPES OF SOIL
1. Alluvial Soil – formed from soil particles that

were washed, blown, or moved by gravity to
the lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc.
deposited by moving water.
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2. Colluvial Soil – formed from decomposition
of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks, the decomposed particles moved by
gravity.
3. Sedentary Soil – inactive, not migratory soil.
 FORMS OF SOIL
SANDY SOIL
Sandy soils are free draining, with the largest, but fine and hard particles.
It has a gritty feel. It does not bind very well. It is poor in holding water
and easily warms up in the spring season. Sandy soils are very low in
nutrients, as they are usually washed away.
SILTY
This kind is finer, smoother in texture and hold water better than sandy
soils. It also holds up nutrients and make it better for crop cultivation. Silty
soils are heavier than sandy soils, and almost midway between the
properties of sandy and clay soils.
CLAY
The particles that make up clay are the finest and they bind very well. It
has very little air spaces. Clay very sticky when wet, and can be molded
into any shape and form. When they dry, they are rock hard. Clay soils do
not drain very well.
PEATY
Peaty soils are acidic and as a result, does not support decomposition very
well. It is dark in color, rich in organic material, although contains less
nutrients than loamy soils. It retains water very well.
CHALKY
Chalky soils are alkaline with a pH of about 7.5. It is not acidic and often
stony with chalk or limestone bedrock. It is free draining because of its
coarse and stony nature. Not the best for crops to grow in as they lack
manganese and iron.
LOAMY
This soil is a mixture of sand, clay and silt particles and has the ability to
retain water. It is high in calcium, aeration and ideal for most crops and
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vegetables. It is the soil all farmers dream of, as it is full of nutrients from
decomposed organic material. It is soft and easy to cultivate.
III. COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF EVIDENCE
1. Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers,

clothes, tires, tools and furniture.
2. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole
submitted to the laboratory.
3. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box.
4. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point
of reference.
IV. CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL

1. PRIMARY MINERALS – includes under composed rock fragments ranging
from stone down thru pebbles, sand and silt. Important minerals include
quartz (silica), calcite (limestone, CaCO3), feldspar (silicate of A1, Na, Ba, Ca,
K) dolomite, mica.
2. CLAY MINERAL – a product of decomposition of primary minerals found in
nearly all soils and is the major constituents of most heavy soil. It imparts to
soil cohesiveness and plasticity and becomes hard and adherent on heating.
3. ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS – one of the most variable of all soil
constituents and is of peculiar importance in the identification of soil.
V. ANALYSIS OF SOIL – there are several methods of petrography analysis that

are being use in the laboratories to establish the identify of two or more samples
of soil. There is no procedure that is specially recommended. It all depends on
the availability of the apparatus.
 DENSITY GRADIENT APPARATUS is

a simple apparatus utilizing simple
procedure in determining the identity
or non-identity
of soil samples based on the density
distribution. The procedure is rapid,
requiring a few hours of completion. It is
sensitive to small changes in
composition.
VI. OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR SOIL
 X-ray diffraction, spectrographic analysis and thermal analysis are

methods extensively used in commercial and private laboratories as general
procedure.
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VII. APPLICATION OF SOIL ANALYSIS TO SCIENTIFIC CRIME DETECTION
The value of soil as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that soils
differ in various characteristics over the surface of the earth. This difference
makes it possible to establish the identity or non-identity of two soil samples.
 DUST AND DIRT – has been described as “matter in the wrong place”.
The study of such piece of evidence may often provide the investigator with
clues as to the occupation or previous whereabouts of a person under
investigation.
 DUST – matter which is dry and in finely divided form
 MUD – dust mixed with water
VIII. COMPOSITION OF DUST
Whatever is the origin of dust and wherever it is found it always

contain substances of plant and animal origin and substances of mineral
origin.
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE DUST

For purpose of criminal investigation, dust may well be classified from their
source.
 Dust Deposited from the Air −− Extremely fine dust particles present
in the air everywhere. More in thickly populated and industrial region.
Settle very slowly and ultimately deposited on any exposed surface. Its
value in crime detection is significant.
 Road and Footpath Dust −− produced by the wear and tear of the road
surface be vehicular and pedestrian traffic together with particles of soil
carried by the wind or rain from adjoining regions.
 Industrial Dust −− Industries ;like cement, button, powdered gypsum
and plaster of Paris factories, flour milling, paint pigment, involves
industrial processes like grinding, milling or beating for the purpose of
producing finely powdered ultimate products which in the process impart a
pronounced local character to the dust on the neighboring roads and
buildings.
 Occupation Dust−− Some of the fi8nely powdered material may be
found on the clotting and foot wears of employees engaged in such
industries. Aside from this for example, coal miner will have coal dust on
his clothes, bricklayer will yield brick duct, sand and lime on his clothes.
From the forensic chemical point of view, the identification of

occupational dust is of great importance. In criminal investigation, the
identification of the person through the articles of clothing left in the scene of
crime or in a vehicle may place him in an identifiable class and thus to
distinguish from the great majority of other persons. Such observation does
not serve to distinguish the wearer of the cloth from all other persons.
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IX. COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF DUST AND DIRT SPECIMEN
 Dust and dirt present in clotting or objects that can be readily transported
should be left in site. The whole article is packed in a clean box with proper
protection and hipped to the laboratory.
 If the object is immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like sofa, piano,
dresses, the specimen maybe removed by mechanical means if present in
large quantity.
 Dust on clotting maybe removed by the used of vacuum cleaner with paper
bags used in the dust sack to collect the dirt.
X. ANALYSIS OF DUST AND DIRT
If the sample is very small, micro-chemical test or spectrographic analysis

maybe employed. If the amount of specimen is sufficient the following is
employed.
1. Examine the sample under the ultraviolet light

2. Treat a small quantity with a drop of water on a spot plate.
a. observe of aqueous drop with hand lens
b. Note the proportion of the solid matters that remains in
suspension and proportion that settles rapidly.
c. Reaction with litmus paper (aqueous drop)
3. Treat a small quantity with a drop of 0.1 NaCl.
a. Note evolution of gas
b. Note formation of precipitate
c. Note changes in color
d. Note materials dissolved by acid
4. Treat a small quantity with ethanol
a. Note color of alcohol drop
b. Note difference between color of an aqueous solution in procedure
2 and that in alcohol solution.
c. Note other change.
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Assessment
Name:___________________________________ Score:________
Course, Year & Section:_____________________ Date:________
1-9. Multiple Choice.

_____1. Refers to a type of soil which formed from soil particles that were washed,
blown, or moved by gravity to the lowlands
a. Colluvial c. alluvial
b. Sedentary d. no correct answer given
_____2. This soil is formed from decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks, the decomposed particles moved by gravity.
a. Colluvial c. alluvial
b. Sedentary d. no correct answer given
_____3, It includes under composed rock fragments ranging from stone down thru
pebbles, sand and silt.
a. Primary minerals c. organic constituent
b. Clay mineral d. mineral oil
____4. It is a product of decomposition of primary minerals found in nearly all soils
and is the major constituents of most heavy soil.
_____5. It is one of the most variable of all soil constituents and is of peculiar
importance in the identification of soil.
_____6. They are alkaline with a pH of about 7.5. It is not acidic and often stony
with chalk or limestone bedrock.
a. Peaty soil c. Chalky soil
b. Loamy soil d. Clay
_____7. This soil is a mixture of sand, clay and silt particles and has the ability to
retain water.
a. Peaty soil c. Chalky soil
b. Loamy soil d. Clay
_____8. Dust like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of Paris factories,
flour milling, paint pigment, involves industrial processes like grinding, milling
or beating for the purpose of producing finely powdered ultimate products
which in the process impart a pronounced local character to the dust on the
neighboring roads and buildings.
a. Occupational dust c. footpath dust
b. Industrial dust d. air dust
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_____9. Some of the finely powdered material may be found on the clotting and
foot wears of employees engaged in such industries.
a. Occupational dust c. footpath dust
b. Industrial dust d. air dust
10-15 true-or-False.
________10. Sedentary Soil are inactive, and not a migratory type of soil.
________11. Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers,
clothes, tires, tools and furniture.
________12. Dirt is not of value as a piece of evidence on crime detection.
________13. Dust on clotting maybe removed by the used of a blower.
________14. The value of soil as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that soils
differ in various characteristics over the surface of the earth.
________15. From the forensic chemical point of view, the identification of
occupational dust is of great importance.
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Activity
Name:________________________________ Score:_____
Course, Year & Section:___________________ Date:______
You can collect soil as a piece of evidence from this scene of crime.
How would you collect and explain how you would use it in the investigation?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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DNA
15 ANALYSIS
DNA profiling is a forensic technique in criminal investigations, comparing

criminal suspects’ profiles to DNA evidence so as to assess the likelihood of their
involvement in the crime. It is also used in parentage testing, to establish
immigration eligibility, and in genealogical and medical research.

1. Defined DNA.
2. Identified biological evidence that can be submitted for
DNA Analysis.
3. Discussed the science of DNA typing
4. Explained the standard of admissibility of forensic DNA
typing.
I. DNA DEFINED
 DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid – is a chemical substance found in all cells

whose composition has been passed on from parent to their children. All cells
in the body have the same DNA composition except individual egg and sperm
cells.
II. BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE THAT CAN BE SUBMITTED FOR DNA ANALYSIS

a. Blood and bloodstain
b. Semen and seminal stain
c. Hairs with follicle or root
d. Saliva or buccal swab
e. Bones and organs
f. Tissues and cells
III. CASES WHERE DNA ANALYSIS CAN BE OF HELP

a. Sexual assault
b. Murder
c. Homicide
d. Robbery
e. Hit and run
f. Extortion
g. Paternity case
h. Identification of remains from mass disaster cases and missing persons
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IV. HOW DNA TYPING IS DONE?
DNA typing is done by first carefully extracting the DNA from the
evidentiary samples. The DNA is then analyzed to give a particular pattern.
The patterns are compared with that of known individual to determine a
match. In individual identification, the pattern obtained from the evidentiary
sample is compared with that of a suspect.
If the patterns are different, the evidentiary sample definitely has not
originated from the suspect. If the DNA pattern of the evidentiary ample is
SIMILAR to that of the sample obtained from the suspect and not from a
random individual in the population is calculated from a formula based on
well-accepted concepts of statistical probabilities and population genetics
using an established population genetic data base.
V. THE SCIENCE OF DNA TYPING
DNA, the genetic “blue print” of life, is found in every cell of the human body
which contains a nucleus. Short for “deoxyribonucleic acid”’ DNA is located in
chromosomes found within the nucleus of most cells.
DNA is composed of long, tightly coiled strands which contains, in human,

approximately 3.3 billion base pairs in a single molecule.
These long strand of DNA are simply a combination of four different bases
named, adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine (abbreviated “A”, “C”, “G”, and “T”).
The DNA sequence, or order of the base pairs, is the same for every cell in a
person’s body which has a nucleus, with the exception of reproductive cells ( ova and
sperm), each of which contains only one-half of that person’s DNA.
Approximately 99.9% of the sequence of these 3.3 billion bases is identical

for all humans and performs the same function. Examples of these functions include
the existence in each person of two eyes, head, hair, stomach acids, and other
biological functions common to humans.
However, approximately 1/1000 of the sequence of the DNA molecule is

different among individuals, with the exception of identical twins. Thus, about 3
million of these A, C, G, and T’s are combined in different sequences in different
humans. The fact people vary to this extent allows forensic scientist to determine
whether DNA from particular evidence sample could or could not have originated
from a known person.
Cells that have nucleic, and therefore DNA, are found throughout the human
body.
Blood, sperm, hair roots, bone, teeth, organs, muscles and other tissues all
contain DNA which can be tested by forensic scientist.
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Body fluids in liquid or dried form, such as saliva and vagina secretions, can
also be tested, inasmuch as these fluid normally contains cells referred to as
“epithelial cells”, such as those from the lining of the mouth and vagina.
The types of physiological evidence in criminal cases from which DNA can be
extracted and tested are numerous. Examples include:
a. Blood and semen stains on clothing, weapons and other surfaces.
b. Swabs taken from victims in sexual assault cases.
c. Hairs with roots attached.
d. Other, less common, sources of DNA evidence include partially
decomposed tissue and bone, teeth, and envelopes and postage
stamps previously moistened with saliva.
The more widely used DNA test employed to analyze both known and
unknown samples in criminal cases and paternity establishment is referred to as
“RFLP” (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) Testing.
The procedure is routinely used in medical diagnostics, genetics, molecular

biology, and other scientific fields, and is based on scientific principles which have
been established for decades.
The RFLP technique necessitates dividing DNA into fragments of various

sizes. Because some of these fragments are relatively large, the RFLP testing process
requires the DNA extracted from evidentiary material be well-preserved, or in “high
molecular weight” form, for the procedure to be successfully employed.
A very small sample size such as minuscule bloodstains, low levels of sperm
found on vaginal swabs, or a small number of hair roots or a sample too degraded
for RFLP testing may require the use of a second form of DNA typing. Loosely
referred to as the Polymerase chain Reaction (PCR), this alternative form of testing is
frequently useful in instances in which RFLP typing may prove futile.
VI. STANDARD OF ADMISSABILITY OF FORENSIC DNA TYPING
 The general acceptance standard of Frye vs. United States (D.C. Cir 1923)
293 F. 1013, is utilized by the majority of appellate courts which have
addressed the admissibility by forensic DNA typing.
1. The test is applied to determine the admissibility of results derived from

new or novel scientific technique.
2. The requirement of general acceptance exists due to judicial fear that “lay
jurors tend to give considerable weight to ‘scientific’ with impressive
credentials.” We have acknowledged the existence of a “misleading aura of
a certainty which often envelops a new scientific process, obscuring its
currently experimental nature.”
 An increasing number of appellate courts utilize the “relevancy” or “reliability”

or “Federal Rules” standard in determining the admissibility of forensic DNA
typing results.
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1. These standards require the examination of a number of factors in the
determination of admissibility, subject to a variation among individual
states. Factors utilized include:
a. The reliability of the scientific test itself;
b. The novelty of the technique and its relationship to the methods of
analysis outside the forensic arena;
c. The existence of a community of scientists qualified to critically
examine the testing method;
d. The rate of error in the use of the testing technique; and
e. The existence and application of standards governing the use of the
analysis method.
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Assessment
Name:_______________________________ Score:________
Course, Year & Section:__________________ Date:________
1-3. DNA stands for:

1. D=_______________________________________
2. N=_______________________________________
3. A=_______________________________________
4-8. Biological evidence for DNA Analysis:
4. _________________________________________
5. _________________________________________
6. _________________________________________
7. _________________________________________
8. _________________________________________
9-13. Cases where DNA Analysis can be helpful:
9. _________________________________________
10. _________________________________________
11. _________________________________________
12. _________________________________________
13. _________________________________________
14-15. Factors in the determination of admissibility in court of DNA Analysis:
14. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
15. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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Activity
Name:_____________________________ Score:__________
Course, Year & Section:________________ Date:___________
A cold case is a crime, or suspected crime, that has not yet been fully
resolved and is not the subject of a recent criminal investigation, but for which new
information could emerge from new witness testimony, re-examined archives, new or
retained material evidence, as well as fresh activities of the suspect. New technical
methods developed after the case can be used on the surviving evidence to analyze
the causes, often with conclusive results.
Typically, cold cases are violent or other major felony crimes, such as murder
or rape which—unlike unsolved minor crimes—are generally not subject to a statute
of limitations.
Sometimes disappearances can also be considered cold cases if the victim has
not been seen or heard from for some time, such as the case of Natalee Holloway or
the Beaumont Children.
About 35% of those cases are not cold cases at all. Some cases become
instantly cold when a seeming closed (solved) case is re-opened due to the discovery
of new evidence pointing away from the original suspect(s). Other cases are cold
when the crime is discovered well after the fact—for example, by the discovery of
human remains.[1] Some cases become classified cold cases when a case that had
been originally ruled an accident or suicide is re-designated as murder when new
evidence emerges.
Research one (1) Cold Case solved by DNA Testing. Write the summary of the case
and fill out the table below to complete the information.
Name of the case:______________________________________________________

Summary:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Source:_______________________________
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Crime
Committed
Year
Committed
Crime
Scene
Perpetrator
Victim
No. of
years
unsolved
Year of
Conviction
Specimen
Tested for
DNA
Analysis
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16 TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology is a field of science that helps us understand the harmful effects

that chemicals, substances, or situations, can have on people, animals, and the
environment. Some refer to toxicology as the “Science of Safety” because as a field it
has evolved from a science focused on studying poisons and adverse effects of
chemical exposures, to a science devoted to studying safety.
Toxicology uses the power of science to predict what, and how chemicals
may cause harm and then shares that information to protect public health. When
talking about toxicology it is important to keep a few things in mind.
 Not everyone will respond to substances in exactly the same way. Many
factors, including the amount and duration of exposure, an individual’s
susceptibility to a substance, and a person’s age, all impact whether a person
will develop a disease or not. There are times in a person’s life when he or
she may be more susceptible to chemicals. These times may include periods
of active cell differentiation and growth in the womb and in early childhood,
as well as during adolescence, when the brain is continuing to develop. Just
because someone is exposed to a harmful substance, does not always mean
they will get sick from it.
 The dose of the chemical or substance a person is exposed to is another
important factor in toxicology. All substances have the potential to be toxic if
given to humans and other living organisms in certain conditions and at
certain doses or levels. For example, one or two aspirins may be good for
you, but taking a bottle of aspirin may be harmful. The field of toxicology
tries to understand and identify at what dose and through what exposure a
substance poses a hazard.
 Toxicologists also realize that even low-dose exposures that may seem
insignificant may have biological meaning or lead to an adverse health effect
if the exposure is continuous or happens during a critical window of
development.
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Desired Learning Objectives (DLO)

1. Explain the concept of toxicology
2. Discuss the different types of poisoning
3. Describe different methods in the diagnosis of poisoning
4. Identify symptoms caused by poisoning and disease
5. Cite various general treatment of poisoning
6. Describe evidence of poisoning in the living body and in the
dead
7. Discuss interpretation of toxicological analysis
8. Explain forensic questions, report of toxicologist as an expert
witness
I. TOXICOLOGY DEFINED
 Toxicology - is a scientific study of poisons, their nature, properties,

effects and detection and the treatment in case of poisoning.
II. IMPORTANCE OF TOXICOLOGY
a. To verify if it is a case of poisoning.

b. To be able to treat as the occasion demands
c. To forward justice.
III. POISON
 Poison is a substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living

organism causes death or injury.
IV. TYPES OF POISON
1. True poison – is one that still poisons no matter how diluted it is. [e.g.
hydrogen cyanide (HCN)]
2. Corrosive poison – is one which by contact with it chemically produces local
destruction of tissues. [e.g. nitric acid(HNO3), mercuric chloride acid(poison
used as herbicides)]
3. Cumulative poison – is one that increases suddenly in its intensity of action
after gradual additions of it. [e.g. digitalis, arsenic]
V. TYPES OF POISONING
1. Acute Poisoning – one in which there is prompt and marked disturbance of

function or death within a shorter period of time and is due to:
a. Taking a strong poison
b. Excessive single dose
c. Several doses, small but frequent
2. Chronic Poisoning – kind of poisoning in which there is gradual

deterioration of functions of tissues and may or may not result in death. It
may be produced by:
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a. Taking several small doses at long intervals
b. Taking only toxic doses of the drug
VI. EVIDENCE OF POISONING
1. Circumstantial or moral evidence - Is an evidence deduced from

occurrence of facts or circumstances.
Example. Motives for poisoning, purchasing the poison; keeping the materials
used. This is not strong evidence.
2. Symptomatic evidence – the symptoms observed during the poisoning.
This is not conclusive because some diseases may show similar symptoms as
those of poisoning.
Example. Arsenic poisoning is like cholera; alcoholic coma may stimulate
diabetic coma.
3. Chemical evidence – obtained by chemical analysis of the suspected
substance or the vomit or secretion of the body. This alone is not reliable
because the poison may be decomposed or changed or it may have been
replaced after death.
4. Postmortem evidence – is obtained from an examination of the tissue and
organs after death.
5. Experimental evidence – is obtained by administering the suspected
substance to some living animal and noting the effect or symptoms. This is
alone is also not conclusive because the tolerance may not be the same as in
man.
VII. METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Isolation
When the submitted specimen is in pure form, the poison must be
first be isolated. Thus, poison may be classified according to their method of
isolation as:
a. Volatile poisons – isolated by extraction with alcohol and chloroform
b. Non- volatile poisons – isolated by extraction with organic solvents such
as strychnine and other alkaloids
c. Metallic poisons – these are poisons such as arsenic, mercury and lead
d. Other substances requiring special methods of isolation like corrosive
acids.
2. Identification
The method employed for the identification of poison is specific.
Preliminary Tests should be conducted. Such tests include microscopic
examination and flame tests. Then confirmatory tests should be performed to
establish the presence of poison.
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VIII. CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS
A. Classification based on Origin
1. Animal/ Toxin – a poison produced by living organism stimulating

antibodies. Usually transferred through bites and stings of venomous
terrestrial or marine animals.
2. Vegetables – Poison Ivy and Jimsonweed plants
3. Mineral – hydrochloric acid, caustic alkali
4. Microbial – produced by microscopic organisms. Ex. Bacteria, fungi
5. Synthetic – manufactured by chemists such as drugs, pesticides as
well as chemical purified from natural sources such as metals from
ores and solvents from gasoline.
B. According to chemical properties
1. Volatile poisons – ethanol, methanol, nitrobenzene

2. Non-volatile – most drugs are non-volatile
3. Anions
4. Metallic
5. Miscellaneous (e g. pesticides)
C. Classification based on Physical Forms or Property
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Vapor
5. Aerosol
IX. ACCORDING TO ACTION (PHYSIOLOGICAL)
 Irritants – by direct contact, this poison inflames the mucous membrane or

the parts it comes in contact with resulting to nausea, vomiting, pain and
diarrhea
 Ex. Bromine
 Corrosive – by direct contact, chemically produces local destruction of

tissues.
 Ex. Phenol, HCl, HNO3, caustic soda (NaOH)
 Neurotics – those that affect the central nervous system
 Cerebral Neurotics: Narcotics – inducing drowsiness, sleep stupor,

complete or incomplete insensibility or loss of feeling
– Ex. Alcohol, opium, tobacco
 Spinal Neurotics: Tetanics – a poison that act on the spinal cord

producing spasmodic or continuous contractions of muscles resulting
in stiffness of the parts to which they are attached.
– Ex. Strychnine, Picrotoxin
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 Cerebrospinal Neurotics
o Deliriants – are poison that act on the brain causing disorder of

mental functions resulting to confusion of free will.
– Ex. Cannabis indica, cocaine
o Depressants – a substance that depress or retard the
physiological action of an organ.
– Ex. Antipyrine, lobella
 Aesthetics/ Exhaustive – poisons that cause marked loss of vital or

muscular power or general weakness.
– Ex. Aconite, KCN, digitalis
 Entrance and elimination of Poisons
Poison may enter the They may be eliminated

body through: by:
Mouth Emesis
skin Respiration
Nose and eyes Feces
Rectum and vagina Urine
Hypodermically Milk
Intravenously Sweat, saliva, tears
X. DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Posology - Is a science which deals with the study of the dosage of

medicine to be administered within a certain period.
 Medicine – is any substance which can be administered to correct or
alleviate the disease or disordered state of the system.
 Dose – is the quantity of medicine to be administered at one time
XI. TYPE OF DOSE
 Safe dose – is a one that does not cause harmful effects. Sometimes,
however, it may be too small to produce the desired effects.
 Minimum dose – is the smallest amount of medicine that can produce the
desired therapeutic effect without causing harm.
 Maximum dose – is the largest amount that will cause no injury but at the
same time produced the desired therapeutic effects
 Toxic or poisonous dose – is one that is harmful both to the healthy and
the sick
 Lethal or fatal dose – is the dose that kills.
XII. ANTIDOTES DEFINED
 Antidote – is any agent that neutralizes a poison or otherwise counteracts or

opposes its effects.
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XIII. KINDS OF ANTIDOTES
 Chemical or true or specific antidote – is one that makes the poison

harmless by chemically altering it.
 Mechanical antidote or antidotal measure – is an agent that removes
the poison without changing it; coats the surface of the organ so that
absorption is prevented.
– Ex. Stomach tube and pump, precipitants
 Physiological antidote – an agent that acts upon the system so as to

counteract the effects of the poison.
Ex. Chloral for strychnine convulsion
o Emetics – is an agent that causes vomiting

o Cathartic – is an agent that produces intestinal evacuation.
Uses of cathartics:
1. To remove the compounds that is formed by the action of the
chemical antidote
2. To hasten elimination of poison.
o Demulcent – is an agent that forms a protective film; soothes and

protects the parts where demulcent is applied.
o Precipitants – are substances that prevent absorption of poison by
precipitating them and rendering them insoluble.
XIV. CAUSES OF DEATH IN POISONING
1. Cardiac failure
2. Respiratory failure
3. General devitalizing
4. Shock to nervous system
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Self
Assessment
Name:_________________________________ Score:_________
Course, Year & Section:____________________ Date:__________
1-10. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer.

_____1.It is one that still poisons no matter how diluted it is. [e.g. hydrogen cyanide
(HCN)]
a. True poison c. cumulative poison
b. Corrosive poison d. natural poison
_____2. It is one which by contact with it chemically produces local destruction of
tissues, such as nitric acid and mercuric chloride acid.
_____3. Cumulative poison – is one that increases suddenly in its intensity of action
after gradual additions of it.
____4. It is one in which there is prompt and marked disturbance of function or
death within a shorter period of time.
a. Chronic poisoning c. acute poisoning
b. Moral poisoning d. natural poisoning
_____5. It is a kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of functions
of tissues and may or may not result in death.
_____6. It is an evidence deduced from occurrence of facts or circumstances.
a. Symptomatic evidence c. chemical evidence
b. Experimental evidence d. circumstantial evidence
_____7. This is not a conclusive type of evidence, because some diseases may show
similar symptoms as those of poisoning.
_____8. It is obtained by chemical analysis of the suspected substance or the vomit
or secretion of the body. This alone is not reliable because the poison may be
decomposed or changed or it may have been replaced after death.
_____9. It is obtained from an examination of the tissue and organs after death.
a. Postmortem evidence c. chemical evidence
b. Experimental evidence d. experimental evidence
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_____10. It is obtained by administering the suspected substance to some living
animal and noting the effect or symptoms.
11-15. Classify the following poison as to:

animal, vegetable, mineral, microbial
_______________11. Black widow spider
__________________12. King cobra
__________________13. Poison Ivy
__________________14. hydrochloric acid
__________________15, Bacteria
15-20. identify.
__________________16. Refers to any agent that neutralizes a poison or otherwise

counteracts or opposes its effects.
__________________17. It is an agent that causes vomiting.
__________________18. It is an agent that produces intestinal evacuation.
__________________19. It is an agent that forms a protective film; soothes and
protects the parts where demulcent is applied.
__________________20. It is the dose that kills.
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WEST VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
Lambunao Campus
Lambunao, Iloilo
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
Chem 211
Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
Final Examination
Name:_____________________________ Score__________
Course, Year & Section:________________ Date:__________
Instructions:
1. Write your answer on the space provided before each number.
2. Use black or blue ink.
3. Avoid erasure.
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
____1. Which of the following statement is NOT true?

A. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible.
B. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made
along old lines of the document.
C. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plane
white paper in folder.
D. Documents could possibly be touched with pencil and pen.
____2. A questioned document is one in which a document in its entirety, or in part,
is subject to question as to ____ or origin.
A. Texture
B. authenticity
C. Feel
D. Opacity
____3. Which of following is the most common questioned document?
A. Letters
B. Suicide notes
C. Lottery tickets
D. All of the above
____4. The following are example of cases involving questioned documents,
excluding
A. Forgery
B. Counterfeiting
C. Recipe
D. Art crime
____5. Which of the these problems is encountered in document examination
analysis of paper?
A. Whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source.
B. Determine of probable age of paper.
C. Determination of the composition of paper.
D. All of the above.
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____6. Paper is made of three components, except
A. Fiber Composition
B. Sizing Material
C. Loading Material
D. Coloring material
____7. It is added to paper to improve its texture, such as resin, casein, gelatin and
starch.
B. Sizing Material
C. Loading Material
____8. It is added to paper to give weight, examples are calcium sulfate and barium
sulfate.
B. Sizing Material
C. Loading Material
____9. This test for paper is done unless requested by the court.
A. Preliminary Examination
B. Physical test causing no perceptible change
C. Physical test causing a perceptible change
D. Chemical Test
____10. This test deals with the appearance of the document and the following are
observed, except
A. folds and creases
B. odor
C. impressions caused by transmitted light
D. Presence of signature
____11. Physical test causing no perceptible change is determined by the following
observations, except
A. Measurement of thickness
B. Measurement of volume
C. Color of the paper
D. Texture
____12. The quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or which
prevents dark objects from being seen through the paper.
A. Opacity
B. Color
C. Texture
D. Gloss
____13. This test is done only if sufficient samples are available and if proper
authorization from the court is acquired this can be done.
A. Measurement of width
B. folding endurance test
C. Measurement of area
D. Discoloration test
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____14.Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of inks are,
except
A. Whether the ink is the same or like or different inking from ink on other
parts of the same documents or other document.
B. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with
the identical ink, or inks of different qualities or in different conditions.
C. Whether an ink is as old as purports to be
D. Whether documents of different dates were written by the kind of ink.
____15. It is made of coal tar.
A. Gallotannic ink
B. Logwood ink
C. Aniline
D. Carbon ink
____16. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it may easily
be washed off and not affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
A. Gallotannic ink
B. Logwood ink
C. Aniline
D. Carbon ink
____17. Paper Chromatography is the best way to determine this type of ink.
A. Ball Point Pen ink
B. Logwood ink
C. Aniline
D. Carbon ink
____18. It is a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied on the
ink strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristic color reactions or
other changes in the ink is observed.
A. Physical Test
B. Chemical Test
C. Paper Chromatography
D. Microscopic test
____19. There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation of the ink
writing and apparently these methods depend upon
A. Physical phenomena such a matching the color of the ink writing with
the standard colors of with itself over a period of time.
B. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the
length of time the ink has been on the paper.
C. Only A
D. Both A and B
____20. Which of the following is an example of illegible writings.
A. Erasure
B. Obliteration
C. Indented
D. All of the above
____21. Glass is usually composed of oxides like silica, boric oxide and phosphorus
pentoxide. For commercial use ____is the most important oxide.
A. Silica
B. Boric oxide
C. Phosphorus pentoxide
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____22. It is an instrumental method of analysis that determines the presence of
trace element in glass.
A. Spectrographic test
B. x-ray diffraction analysis
C. ultraviolet light examination
D. physical properties examination
____23. It determines the type of pattern of glass. the type of pattern depends
upon the composition of glass.
____24. The most sensitive method of determining differences of composition in
glass samples.
____25. Optical glass and other fine glassware are usually polished. In the polishing
of glass fine marks are often left on the surface that can sometimes serve
as a basis of______.
A. Origin
B. Comparison
C. Analysis
D. Test
____26. Glass as evidence of crime, in the field of Forensic Chemistry emphasis is
placed on
A. Automobile glass in case of hit and run.
B. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
C. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of
assault or other crimes of violence.
D. All of the above
____27. In Hit and run accidents for instance, if an automobile or any vehicle for
that matter is discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a
_____maybe made with the fragments found at the scene of accident
employing the methods of analysis for glass.
A. Comparison
B. Characteristic
C. Test
D. sample
____28. When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example.
The glass first bends a little owing to its ___.
A. Plasticity
B. Ductility
C. Elasticity
D. Malleability
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____29. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more
flaking than the right. Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane
would indicate a shot fired at an angle from the___.
A. Left
B. Right
C. Middle
D. Both A & B
____30. The principle of 3R’s rule for radial crack, states that, “Stress lines on a___
crack will be at___ angle to the ___side of the glass.”
A. Radial, right, rear
B. Right, radial, rear
C. Radial, rear, right
D. Rear, radial, right
____31. Tools impressions may be classified into two general classes
A. These produced by such instruments like an Axe-hammer, pliers and
cutters which touch the area only once in producing the impression.
B. Those produced by such instrument like saw or file which is applied in a
repeated strokes over the same area.
C. Those produced by such tooth bites.
D. both A & B
____32. It is produced by a single application of tool is the area of contact, for
example: the impression of a single blow of a hammer.
A. Compression marks
B. Struck marks
C. Friction marks
D. Striation
____33. Which of the following is an application of tool marks?
A. Fractured knife blades
B. Crumpled letter
C. Cut marks on wire
D. Pry marks on a window or door
____34. Tool Mark may be used to, except
A. Link a person who used the tool in the commission of the crime,
B. Establish whether a given tool or weapon found at the crime scene has
made a mark that is material to the crime;
C. Facilitate and narrow the search for a given tool or weapon.
D. For immediate conviction of the culprit
____35. Which is TRUE?
A. Tool marks are important in crime scene investigation.
B. Tool marks are usually discovered on doors, windows and other
openings that may have been used by a criminal in their forcible entry
or exit.
C. Both A and B
____36. The following are application of metallurgy in criminal investigation, except
A. forgery
B. Nail Examination
C. Counterfeit coins
D. Restoration of tampered serial numbers
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____37.These are characteristics of cast coins, except
A. Cast coin has poor imitation.
B. Cast coins cannot be easily detected.
C. The surface is usually pitted and uneven.
D. The edges of lettering and designs are rounded instead of sharp.
____38. Struck coins detection is not easy since weight, specific gravity and ___may
all be good.
A. Composition
B. Characteristic
C. Color
D. Texture
____39. It is a unique number used for identification and inventory purposes and
allows a company to identify a product and get additional information about
it, for replacement, or as a means of finding compatible parts.
A. Serial Number
B. Template
C. Code
D. Password
____40. Many objects have serial numbers in the form of labels or placards, which
are easily removed but serial numbers that are mechanically stamped into a
metal surface, can be restored using the acid ___recovery method.
A. Etching
B. Alkaline fluid
C. File
D. Thinner
____41.Petrography is the branch of geology that deals with the systematic
classification and identification of rocks, rock forming minerals and soil. Also
includes study of
A. Dust
B. Roots of plants
C. Water
D. metals
____42. Which is not a type of soil?
A. Alluvial
B. Colluvial
C. sedimentary
D. Sedentary
____43. This kind is finer, smoother in texture and hold water better than sandy
soils.
A. Silty Soil
B. Clay
C. Peaty
D. Chalky
____44. This soil is a mixture of sand, clay and silt particles and has the ability to
retain water.
A. Silty
B. Clay
C. Loamy
D. Chalky
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____45. Which of the following is the proper collection and submission of soil as
evidence?
A. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole
submitted to the laboratory.
B. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box.
C. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point
of reference.
D. All of the above
____46. Quartz, calcite and feldspar are examples of
A. Traced minerals
B. Primary minerals
C. Clay minerals
D. Organic constituents
____47. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and becomes hard and
adherent on heating.
A. Traced minerals
B. Primary minerals
C. Clay minerals
D. Organic constituent
____48. It is one of the most variable of all soil constituents and is of peculiar
importance in the identification of soil.
A. Traced minerals
B. Primary minerals
C. Clay minerals
D. Organic constituent
____49. Which is NOT true?
A. There is no procedure that is specially recommended for soil analysis.
B. Soil examination depends on the availability of the soil sample.
C. Density Gradient Apparatus is a simple apparatus in determining the
identity or non-identity of soil samples.
D. X-ray diffraction is extensively used in commercial and
private laboratories as general procedure for soil analysis.
____50. The value of soil as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that soils differ
in various characteristics over the surface of the earth. This difference
makes it possible to establish the of two soil samples.
A. texture
B. identity
C. non-identity
D. Both B & C
____51. Dust and dirt have been described as “matter in the wrong place”. The
study of such piece of evidence may often provide the investigator with
clues as to the ___of a person under investigation.
A. occupation
B. education
C. personality
D. status
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____52. For purpose of criminal investigation, dust may well be classified from their
source. These are the following, except
A. Dust Deposited from the Air
B. Road and Footpath Dust
C. Environmental dust
D. Occupational Dust
____53. From the forensic chemical point of view, the identification of ___ is of great
importance.
A. Dust Deposited from the Air
B. Road and Footpath Dust
C. Environmental dust
D. Occupational Dust
____54. If dust and dirt is present in sofa, piano, dresses, the whole object is
transported to the laboratory.
A. False
B. True
C. Maybe
D. Sometimes
____55. Analysis of dust and dirt, if the sample is very small, micro-chemical test or
spectrographic analysis maybe employed. If the amount of specimen is
sufficient the sample examined under the ultraviolet light, and observe the
following, aside from
A. Note evolution of gas
B. Note formation of precipitate
C. Note the change in composition
D. Note changes in color
____56. Which of the following is the importance of Toxicology?
A. To verify if it is a case of poisoning.
B. To be able to treat as the occasion demands
C. To forward justice.
D. To convict the culprit
A. A,B,C
B. A,B,D
C. B,C,D
D. A,C,D
____57. Which of the following is a true poison?
A. hydrogen cyanide
B. nitric acid
C. arsenic
D. ethyl alcohol
____58. Arsenic is an example of
A. True poison
B. Corrosive poison
C. Cumulative poison
D. Addictive poison
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____59. Acute Poisoning is one type of poisoning, in which there is prompt and
marked disturbance of function or death within a shorter period of time and
is due to:
A. Taking a strong poison
B. Excessive single dose
C. Taking only toxic doses of the drug
D. Several doses, small but frequent
A. A,B,C
B. A,B,D
C. B,C,D
D. A,C,D
____60. Purchasing the poison and keeping the materials used. These are examples
of
A. Experimental evidence
B. Chemical evidence
C. Circumstantial or moral evidence
D. Postmortem evidence
____61. Ethanol, methanol, nitrobenzene are example of
A. Volatile poisons
B. Non-volatiles
C. Anions
D. Metallic
____62. Which of the following is an irritant
A. Phenol
B. Bromine
C. Nitric acid
D. Caustic soda
____63. The following are examples of Cerebral Neurotics, except
A. Alcohol
B. Opium
C. Tobacco
D. Cocaine
____64. They are classified as Cerebrospinal Neurotics:
A. Narcotics
B. Tetanics
C. Deliriants
D. Depressants
A. A & B
B. B & C
C. C & D
D. A & D
____65. Lethal dose is defined as ___.
A. one that does not cause harmful effects.
B. one that is harmful both to the healthy and the sick
C. the dose that kills.
D. the largest amount that will cause no injury
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____66. Stomach tube and pump is an example of ___.
A. Chemical antidote
B. specific antidote
C. Mechanical antidote
D. Physiological antidote
____67. It is an antidote that acts upon the system so as to counteract the effects of
the poison.
A. Chemical antidote
B. specific antidote
C. Mechanical antidote
D. Physiological antidote
____68. What is an emetic?
A. an agent that produces intestinal evacuation
B. an agent that causes vomiting
C. an agent that forms a protective film
D. are substances that prevent absorption of poison by precipitating them
____69. The following are the uses of what kind of antidote?
o To remove the compounds that is formed by the action of the
chemical antidote
o To hasten elimination of poison.
A. Emetic
B. Cathartic
C. Demulcent
D. Precipitant
____70. Causes of death in poisoning are the following except

A. Cardiac failure
B. Respiratory failure
C. Dehydration
D. Shock to nervous system
____71. It is a chemical substance found in all cells whose composition has been
passed on from parent to their children.
A. RNA
B. DNA
C. AB
D. ABO
____72. Which of the following biological evidence can be submitted for DNA
Analysis?
A. Blood and bloodstain
B. Semen and seminal stain
C. Hairs
D. Saliva or buccal swab
_____73. Which of the cases where DNA Analysis can be of help?
A. Child abuse
B. Human trafficking
C. counterfeits
D. Paternity case
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____74. The Supreme Court, in a recent case has made a pronouncement on the
admissibility of the DNA test result.
A. True
B. False
C. Sometimes
D. Not certain
_____75. DNA typing is done by first carefully extracting the DNA from the
evidentiary samples. The DNA is then analyzed to give a particular ___.
A. Pattern
B. Size
C. Shape
D. Comparison
_____76. DNA, the genetic “____” of life, is found in every cell of the human body
which contains a nucleus.
A. Thumb mark
B. blue print
C. design
D. match
____77. DNA is composed of long, tightly coiled strands which contains, in human,
approximately 3.3 billion base pairs in a single molecule. These long strand
of DNA are simply a combination of four different bases named
A. Adenine, cysteine, glutamine and thymine
B. adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine
C. arginine, cytosine, guanine and thymine
D. adenine, cysteine, guanine and thymine
____78. The more widely used DNA test employed to analyze both known and
unknown samples in criminal cases and paternity establishment is referred
to as
A. RFLP Testing
B. PCR Testing
C. RTPCR Testing
D. DNA Testing.
____79. Cells that have ___, and therefore DNA, are found throughout the human
body.
A. Electron
B. Tissue
C. Nucleic
D. Proton
____80. An increasing number of appellate courts utilize the “relevancy” or
“reliability” or “Federal Rules” standard in determining the admissibility of
forensic DNA typing results. These standards require the examination of a
number of factors in the determination of admissibility, subject to a
variation among individual states. Factors utilized include:
A. The reliability of the scientific test itself;
B. The rate of error in the use of the testing technique; and
C. The existence and application of standards governing the use of the
analysis method.
D. All of the above
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‘The haughtiness of a man will humble him,

but whoever is humble in spirit will obtain glory.’
Proverbs 29:23
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Post Test
Name:____________________________ Score:__________
Course, Year & Section:______________ Date:___________
Multiple choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer.

_____1. Which of the following would not be included in the work of the biology unit
of a crime lab?
A. Blood typing
B. Comparison of hairs
C. DNA profiling
D. Fingerprint analysis
_____2. Which of the following makes a false statement? An expert witness must be
able to demonstrate:
A. Education in his/her area of expertise.
B. A formal degree in forensic science.
C. Significant experience in a relevant field.
D. Working knowledge of the subject matter.
_____3. Who is the final evaluator of forensic evidence?
a. Police
b. Jury
c. Accused
d. Media
_____4. Bite marks would be least likely to be found in cases involving:
a. Sexual abuse
b. Murder
c. Arson
d. Assault
_____5. The scientific method requires that scientific evidence be validated by what
means?
a. Formulating pertinent questions
b. Formulating hypotheticals
c. Performing experiments
d. All of the above
_____6. Which of the following services does not normally lie within the expertise of
the forensic scientist?
a. Drug identification
b. Wood comparisons
c. Document examination
d. Polygraph examination
_____7. The effectiveness of an expert’s testimony is almost always dependent on:
a. The ability of the expert to talk in clear, concise language.
b. The educational background of the expert.
c. The scientific validity of the tests used.
d. All of the above
_____8. The lay or ordinary witness provides testimony that relies on what?
a. Scientific education
b. Personal opinions
c. Personal knowledge
d. Scientific experience
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_____9. The conditions at a crime scene can be compromised by all of the following
actions except:
a. Taking photographs at the crime scene.
b. Eating food at the crime scene.
c. Turning on a faucet on the crime scene.
d. Smoking at the crime scene.
_____10. The types of evidence commonly found during a vehicle search include all
of the following except which?
a. Questioned documents
b. Fibers
c. Paint evidence
d. Broken glass
_____11. The purpose of the crime-scene search is to locate what?
a. DNA evidence
b. Physical evidence
c. Fingerprint evidence
d. Bloodstain evidence
_____12. Which of the following acts is permissible for officers at the scene?
a. Eat
b. Drink
c. Smoke
d. None of the above
_____13. Officers should attempt to locate tool marks at the point of entry during
the investigation of what type of crime?
a. Homicide
b. Burglary
c. Hit and run
d. Assault
_____14. The most common methods of crime-scene recording do not include
which one of the following?
a. Note taking
b. Photographs
c. Sketches
d. Infrared analysis
_____15 . Which statement about note taking is not true?
a. The name of the individual who packaged and marked items of evidence
should be recorded.
b. Note taking is done after all crime-scene processing has been completed.
c. Notes should include location of each item of physical evidence that is
recovered.
d. Disposition of items after collection must be included.
_____16. Crime-scene photography must produce examination-quality photographs,
which are photographs that can be easily interpreted by whom?
a. The judge
b. Investigators at the crime laboratory
c. Everyone involved in the case
d. The jury
_____17. Where must detailed information about each photograph taken at a crime
scene be recorded?
a. In the crime-scene notes
b. On a photography log
c. In the crime-scene sketch
d. On a chain of custody form
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_____18. If the crime scene includes a dead body, the photographer should:
a. Determine time of death.
b. Attempt to identify the victim.
c. Document all personnel at the scene.
d. Depict injuries and weapons at the scene.
_____19. Investigators should collect possible carriers of trace evidence, which may
include which of the following?
a. Vacuum sweepings
b. Clothing
c. Fingernail scrapings
d. All of the above
_____20. Small amounts of trace evidence can be conveniently packaged in a
carefully folded paper package called what?
a. Druggist fold
b. Vacuum sweeping
c. Mailing envelope
d. Manila envelope
_____21. Which of the following items is likely to contain DNA evidence?
a. Bedsheet
b. Blue rug fiber
c. Glass fragment
d. Self-adhesive mailing stamp
_____22. What should a victim’s fingernail scrapings be packaged in?
a. A druggist fold
b. A sealable plastic bag
c. Sealed airtight container
d. Both b and c
_____23. A properly maintained chain of custody is not the responsibility of which
one of the following?
a. Crime-scene processor
b. Evidence clerk
c. Forensic technician
d. Trial judge
_____24. Success in the recognition and collection of physical evidence is
determined primarily by what factor?
a. Notoriety of the case
b. Time available to the evidence collectors
c. Skill of personnel processing the crime scene
d. Type of evidence involved
_____25. When biological samples of unknown origin are discovered at a crime
scene, what should investigators do?
a. Assume no pathogens are present and treat the samples accordingly
b. Allow only trained hazardous material teams to handle the evidence
c. Package the samples in plastic bags
d. Assume pathogens are present and treat the samples accordingly
_____26. What determines the appropriate manner of collecting and preserving
physical evidence at a crime scene?
a. The nature of the evidence
b. The circumstances of the crime
c. The importance of the case
d. The number of evidence collectors present at the crime scene
_____27. Which of the following is not a concern of the evidence collector?
a. Maintaining the chain of custody
b. Utilizing the proper packaging material for evidence
c. Labeling evidence
d. Determining the natural variations that exist in physical evidence
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_____28. The relative evidential value of laboratory test results is almost always
dependent on what?
a. Importance of the case
b. Quantity of evidence submitted
c. Way the evidence was collected and presented for examination
d. Crime laboratory’s caseload
_____29. Physical evidence at a hit-and-run scene could include which of the
following?
a. Fiber and tissue
b. Glass fragments
c. Fabric impressions
d. All of the above
_____30. A dry bloodstain can be collected from an object that cannot be
transported to the crime lab by doing what?
a. Scraping the stain off the surface
b. Cutting out the area of the object bearing the stain
c. Transferring the stain to a moistened swab
d. All of the above
_____31. Physical evidence may be obtained from which of the following?
a. The crime scene
b. The victim
c. The suspect
d. All of the above
_____32. The successful outcome of a criminal investigation is almost always
directly related to what?
a. The manner in which the evidence is collected and preserved
b. The number of people employed in the crime lab
c. The volume of the physical evidence collected
d. Whether the crime is considered high profile
_____33. Corroborative use of physical evidence is using it to do what?
a. Provide a lead to give the investigation direction
b. Establish a definite identity
c. Support other investigative findings
d. Rule out a particular suspect
_____34. Who ultimately determines the significance of physical evidence during a
trial?
a. The judge
b. Expert witness
c. The Supreme Court
d. The jury
_____35. Physical evidence is considered to have _____ eyewitness (testimonial)
evidence.
a. The same value as
b. Greater value than
c. Less value than
_____36. What can be used in making an identification of a deceased individual?
a. Fingerprinting
b. Dental examination
c. Facial reconstruction
d. All of the above
_____37. The death of an individual due to chronic alcoholism is ruled what?
a. Natural
b. Accidental
c. Suicide
d. Undetermined
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_____38. Which of the following would be most likely to cause a sharp force injury?
a. Hammer
b. Baseball bat
c. Piece of glass
d. Cinder block
_____39. Where are defense wounds most typically seen?
a. Hands
b. Face
c. Shins
d. Back
_____40. What does hemoglobin transport in the blood?
a. Hydrogen
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Carbon monoxide
d. Oxygen
_____41. Homicide, suicide, accident, natural, and undetermined are all categories
of what?
a. Manner of death
b. Cause of death
c. Mechanism of death
d. Method of death
_____42. The comparison of two bullets is possible with a comparison microscope.
Such a comparison is made difficult by what fact?
a. Lands and grooves are subject to wear and tear, and hence striations
markings are susceptible to continuing change.
b. Often, evidence bullets are distorted on impact and only small areas are
found with intact markings.
c. The presence of grit and rust can to some degree alter the markings on
bullets fired through the same barrel.
d. All of the above
_____43. The “dermal nitrate test” has fallen into disfavor because of its lack of
specificity. Which of the following common materials is not one of the substances
that give a misleading positive reaction to this test?
a. Tobacco
b. Chocolate
c. Urine
d. Cosmetics
_____44. When an etching agent is applied to a metal surface in order to restore a
removed serial number, the stamped area will dissolve at _____ the unstamped
area.
a. A greater rate than
b. The same rate as
c. A slower rate than
_____45. Discharged evidence bullets must be carefully handled to avoid damaging
what?
a. Manufacturer’s imprint
b. Caliber markings
c. Striation markings
d. Ejection pattern
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_____46. Tools and tool marks are often found at burglary scenes and can be useful
evidence. Proper tool mark evidence collection by the field investigator would
include which of the following?
a. Reporting whether a tool found at the crime scene fit into the tool marks
b. Making test marks with the suspected tool onto a soft metal surface
at the crime scene
c. Taking a photograph and cast of the marks if necessary
d. Packing of tool and tool mark evidence together so that the crime
lab personnel know they are thought to be a matched set.
_____47. Which of the following is not expected to show any evidential marks or
impressions?
a. A fired bullet
b. A cartridge casing fired from a handgun
c. A cartridge casing fired from a shotgun
d. A shotgun pellet
_____48. Which of the following procedures is not to be followed in collecting and
packaging firearms evidence at the crime scene?
a. Marking a fired bullet on its base for identification
b. Avoiding inserting a stick or pencil into the barrel of a weapon
c. Marking an empty cartridge case on its base for identification
d. Unloading a weapon before shipping it to the crime laboratory
_____49. Which of the following factors is least likely to be considered by the
technician examining a tool mark?
a. The direction of the tool movement as it passes over the surface
b. The side or portion of the tool making the impression
c. The brand name of the tool
d. The angle at which the tool was held
_____50. Which of the following is not a possible result of a laboratory examination
of firearm evidence?
a. Determination that two or more cartridge cases were fired from the
same weapon.
b. Determination of how far from the victim the weapon was held
c. Restoration of serial numbers that had been ground off the gun
d. Matching of a bullet to a particular shell
_____51. Which of the following statements is true?
a. A bullet can be individualized to a weapon by the number and twist of its
lands and grooves.
b. The comparison microscope is an indispensible tool of the firearm
examiner.
c. The diameter of the bore of a rifled firearm is its gauge.
d. Carbonaceous smoke or soot deposited around a bullet hole is normally
indicative of a discharge 18 feet or less from the target.
_____52. The distribution of gunpowder particles and other discharge residues
around a bullet hole permits:
a. Determination of the distance from which the gun was fired.
b. Determination of the kind of firearm used.
c. Estimation of the angle of bullet impact.
d. Estimation of the height of the shooter.
_____53. The pointed end of a bloodstain always faces:
a. Opposite its direction of travel.
b. Toward the direction from which the force came.
c. In its direction of travel.
d. Toward the position of the blood source.
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_____54. What conclusion can be made if a murder victim’s blood is found inside
the muzzle of a firearm?
a. No conclusion can be made
b. The firearm is the murder weapon
c. The firearm was present during injury to the victim
d. The owner of the firearm is the perpetrator
_____55. A trail pattern leading away from the victim at a stabbing scene was most
likely created by what?
a. A victim’s arterial wound
b. Blood dripping from the murder weapon
c. Postmortem movement of the victim
d. Blood expelled from a respiratory injury
_____56. Proper location and documentation of bloodstain patterns at the crime
scene is the responsibility of whom?
a. Bloodstain analysis specialist
b. Lead investigator
c. Criminalists and specialists
d. All crime-scene personnel
_____57. Marijuana has potential use in which medical application?
a. Lessening of nausea caused by anticancer drugs
b. Muscle relaxant
c. Reduction of excessive eye pressure in glaucoma
d. All of the above
_____58. A low dose of alcohol will not inhibit which of the following?
a. Confidence
b. Concentration
c. Judgment
d. Memory
_____59. What is the most heavily abused drug type in Western countries?
a. Tranquilizers
b. Alcohol
c. Barbiturates
d. Amphetamines
_____60. Which is not a factor in determining the rate at which alcohol is absorbed
into the bloodstream?
a. The alcoholic content of the beverage
b. The presence or absence of food in the stomach
c. The amount consumed
d. All of the above are factors
_____61. What is a substance with a pH of 8 likely to be?
a. Water
b. Neutral
c. Acidic
d. Basic
_____62. The rate of alcohol absorption on a full stomach is _____ the rate of
absorption on an empty stomach.
a. The same as
b. Less than
c. Greater than
_____63. Alcohol is eliminated from the body, chemically unchanged, in what?
a. Urine
b. Breath
c. Perspiration
d. All of the above
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_____64. A neutral substance will have a pH closest to which of the following?
a. 0
b. 2
c. 5
d. 7
_____65. Which of the following is not classified as a heavy metal?
a. Zinc
b. Arsenic
c. Mercury
d. Thallium
_____66. Which of the following is not a layer of the hair shaft?
a. Cuticle
b. Cortex
c. Medulla
d. Follicle
_____67. Where are the pigment granules that impart hair with color found?
a. Cortex
b. Medulla
c. Cuticle
d. Both a and b
_____68. The medullary index of human hair is _____ the medullary index for most
other animals.
a. The same as
b. Less than
c. Greater than
_____69. Medulla may be classified as which of the following?
a. Interrupted or absent
b. Fragmented
c. Continuous
d. All of the above
_____70. A person of which race is most likely to have head hair with continuous
medulla?
a. Negroid
b. Caucasian
c. Mongoloid
d. Native American
_____71. A hair sample was examined, and its medulla appeared to have a pattern
described as resembling a string of pearls. It was most likely from what animal?
a. Rabbit
b. Deer
c. Cat
d. Mouse
_____72. In what stage can a hair most readily be removed from the scalp?
a. Anagenic
b. Catagenic
c. Telogenic
d. Analgesic
_____73. A human hair in cross-section appeared flat in shape. What is its most
likely racial origin?
a. Caucasian
b. Negroid
c. Indian
d. Mongoloid
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_____74. In determining whether a hair sample originated from a male or a female,
what is the most important consideration?
a. Whether the hair is bleached
b. The results of DNA analysis performed on the root structure
c. Whether the hair was dyed
d. The length of the hair
_____75. Nuclear DNA typing can be most successfully accomplished on hairs that
have been removed during which stage of growth?
a. Telogenic
b. Mutagenic
c. Catagenic
d. Anagenic
_____76. Which type of crime is least likely to be solved with the use of fiber
evidence?
a. Breaking and entering
b. Sexual assault
c. Bombing
d. Hit-and-run
_____77. Which plant fiber is the most prevalent by far?
a. Linen
b. Silk
c. Kapok
d. Cotton
_____78. Which of the following is not a synthetic fiber?
a. Rayon
b. Polyester
c. Acrylic
d. All of the above are synthetic.
_____79. In the collection of fiber evidence, great care should be taken to do what?
a. Avoid cross-contamination of evidence
b. Shake off all garments to be sent for examination before neatly
folding them
c. Send as much potential evidence as possible to the crime lab to
ensure that nothing is missed
d. Package all items from each individual together in one bag to avoid
later confusion
_____80. What is the average length of human hair growth per month?
a. 1 in.
b. 1 mL
c. 1 cm
d. 1 dm
_____81. It is a virtual certainty that two fabrics share a common origin if their
fibers:
a. Can be fitted together at their torn edges.
b. Have the same striations.
c. Have the same color.
d. Appear identical in cross-section.
_____82. Which of the following properties would not be examined when comparing
two synthetic fibers?
a. Presence or absence of delustering particles
b. Diameter
c. Lengthwise striations
d. Medullary index
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_____83 . A human head hair is best characterized by what?
a. The absence of a cortex
b. Its scale pattern
c. A medulla that is more than half the overall diameter of the hair
shaft
d. A medulla that is absent or is less than one-third of the overall diameter
of the hair shaft
_____84. Which statement is true?
a. The racial origin of hair can always be identified.
b. Hair can be individualized through its trace elemental composition.
c. Hair is routinely examined to determine sex.
d. Two hairs from the same head may not have the same morphological
characteristics.
_____85. Rayon is classified as what kind of fiber?
a. Natural
b. Synthetic
c. Plant
d. Regenerated
_____86. The cortex of hair derives its major forensic importance from the fact that
it contains what?
a. Scales
b. Pigments
c. Medullae
d. DNA
_____87. Forcibly removed hairs are most likely to provide useful DNA evidence
because they bear what?
a. Catagenic roots
b. Telogenic roots
c. Follicular tissue
d. Mitochondria
_____88. A criminalist is more likely to obtain DNA from hairs that are in what
stage?
a. Anagenic
b. Catagenic
c. Telogenic
d. Terminal
_____89. Animal hair can be best distinguished from human hair by examining
what?
a. The medulla
b. The cuticle
c. Both the medulla and cuticle
d. Its color
_____90. Which of the following questions cannot be answered by means of a
microscopic examination of a hair?
a. Whether a hair came from a 25-year-old or an infant
b. Whether a hair is from a man or a woman
c. Whether a hair is from a scalp or a beard
d. Whether the hair is consistent with Caucasian hair or Negroid hair
_____91. Which step in the examination of fibers would logically be taken first?
a. Examination of dye composition using visible light microspectrophotometer
b. Making a cross-sectional view of the fibers
c. Microscopic examination for color and diameter of fibers
d. Infrared spectrophotometry
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_____92. What are the three layers of the hair shaft?
a. Cuticle, root, and medulla
b. Cortex, mitochondria, and pigment
c. Pigment, cortex, and pigment
d. Cuticle, cortex, and medulla
_____93. What is the main ingredient in ordinary glass?
a. Lime (CaO)
b. Soda (NaCO)
c. Sand
d. Metal oxides
_____94. When a bullet penetrates a pane of glass, it leaves a crater-shaped hole
that:
a. Is wider on the exit side.
b. Is wider on the entrance side.
c. Forms randomly, so the direction of impact cannot be determined from its
appearance.
d. a and c
_____95. What are the two most important physical properties of glass for forensic
comparisons?
a. Color and density
b. Weight and density
c. Refractive index and density
d. Refractive index and weight
_____96. What is the logical first step in soil analysis?
a. Search for the presence of debris under low-power magnification
b. Comparison of dried soil samples for color and texture
c. Use of the density-gradient tube technique
d. Examination of minerals and rocks under high-power magnification
_____97. Which blood components are directly pertinent to the forensic aspects of
blood identification?
a. Platelets
b. Blood serum
c. Red blood cells
d. Both b and c
_____98. To determine whether a bloodstain is of human or animal origin, what will
the serologist perform?
a. A precipitin test
b. The luminol test
c. An analysis with Hemastix strips
d. RIA
_____99. Evidence to substantiate that a rape occurred could include what?
a. Blood and semen
b. Hairs
c. Fibers
d. All of the above
_____100. The individuality of an organism is determined by the organism’s what?
a. DNA nucleotide sequence
b. Nitrogenous bases
c. Amino acids
d. Environment
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Chem211 Module New

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Notes to the Students

Forensic Chemistry is an important tool of creating opportunities for the you to

Unit 2: Unit 10:

Unit 1: INTRODUCTION 1-6

Unit 2: DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY IN THE

Unit 3: SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE 15-17

Unit 4: WITNESS 20-21

Summative Test: Unit 1 – Unit 4 24-27

Unit 5: BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS 28-43

Unit 6: SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN 47-54

Unit 7: GUNSHOT RESIDUE 58-68

Unit 8: EXPLOSIVES AND EXPLOSIONS 73-76

Unit 9: HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBER 79-96

Summative Test: Unit 5 – Unit 9 100-109

MIDTERM EXAMINATION 110-124

Prof. Mirza V. Lachauna

Forensic Chemistry is the application of chemistry and its subfield, forensic

Desired Learning Objectives (DLO):

I. Forensic Chemistry Defined

 Is defined as that branch of Chemistry which deals with application of

 In the identification of evidence

III. Practice of Forensic Chemistry

1. Collection or reception of the specimen

The proper collection, preservation, and transportation of specimens

Factors that must be considered when collecting specimen for

As much as possible, the investigator should collect sufficient amount

b. Standard for comparison

When the evidence in question is located in or added with the foreign

Each piece of evidence must be collected and preserved as a separate

d. Labeling and Sealing

2. The Actual Examination

 The first step in the examination of an article is to scrutinize it carefully

 The third step is the laboratory examination which consist s of the

3. The Communication of the Results of the Examination

The results of the examination conducted should be communicated

The written report of the forensic chemist is usually supplemented by

IV. Roles of Forensic Chemist in the Scientific Investigation

A Forensic Chemist, as a man of science, performs laboratory examinations

1. Conducts qualitative and quantitative determination of abused drugs as well

V. Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

Make careful and minute examination of everything and do not be

An expert with a wide and uncontrollable imagination is considered as

6. Avoid Complicated Theories

The simplest explanation is fundamentally the right one.

VI. Equipment Used in the Forensic Examination

1. HPLC (High Powered Liquid

3. EMIT (Enzyme Multiple

4. SEM (Scanning Electron

5. FTIR (Fourier Transform

I. True-or-False. Write the word True if the statement is correct and

________1. Forensic chemistry is defined as that branch of Chemistry which deals

II. The work of a Forensic Chemist is divided into four stages:

_____The Actual Examination

IV. Matching Type. Letters Only

What is Forensic Chemistry?

Scopes of Forensic Chemistry:

Practice of Forensic Roles of Forensic Chemist

Six Golden Rules in the