G.science Grade 7 Text Book

General Science
Students
Textbook
Grade
7
General Science Student TextBook
GRADE 7
GeneralScience StudentTextBook
General Science
Students
Textbook
Authors:
Goshu Asab (M.Sc.)
Michael Getachew (M.Sc.)
Andualem Beka (B.Sc.)
7
Grade
Editors and Evaluators:
Getahun Getachew
Muluneh T/Birhan
Ali Kemal
AddisAbabaCityAdministrationEducationBureau
Table of Contents
GRADE 7
General
Unit 1: Basic Scienceof Science..................................................................................
Concepts StudentTextBook 1
1.1.The Nature of Science and its Branches.............................................................................. 2
1.2. Common Laboratory Equipment, Uses, Safety Rules and
Procedures in SciencLaboratories...................................................................................... 12
Review Exercise....................................................................................................................... 20
Unit 2: Matter in Our Surrounding.............................................................................. 22
2.1. Characteristics and Nature of Matter.............................................................................. 23
2.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter.................................................................. 34
2.3. Classification of substances............................................................................................ 39
2.4. Changes around Us: Physical and Chemical Changes................................................... 50
2.5. Separation of Mixtures and its Application periods....................................................... 55
Review Exercise...................................................................................................................... 69
Unit 3: Elements, Compound and Chemical Reaction........................................................... 73
3.1. Elements and their representation.................................................................................. 74
3.2. Compounds and their representation............................................................................. 77
3.3. Simple chemical reactions and equations...................................................................... 87
3.4. Uses Of Chemical Reactions in Every Day Situation.................................................... 95
Review Exercise..................................................................................................................... 100
UNIT 4: CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE........................................................................... 102
4.1. Microscope................................................................................................................... 103
4.2. Cell.............................................................................................................................. 112
Review Exercise................................................................................................................... 128
Unit 5: Living Things and Their Diversity............................................................................ 132
5.1. Living Things............................................................................................................... 133
5.2. The kingdom of life..................................................................................................... 143
Review Exercise.................................................................................................................. 161
Unit 6: Earth in Space........................................................................................................... 166
6.1. Shape & dimensions of the Earth................................................................................ 168
6.2. Parts of the Earth (Body and Atmosphere).................................................................. 176
6.3. Earth’s movementsa...................................................................................................... 184
6.4. Systems & Cycles (effects, measurement ideas/estimation)........................................ 188
REVIEW EXERCISE........................................................................................................... 197
UNIT 7: MOTION, FORCE, ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES........................... 201
7.1. Definition and types of motion....................................................................................... 203
7.2. Definition of Force and Gravitational Force.................................................................. 207
7.3. Effects of force................................................................................................................211
7.4. Measuring forces.............................................................................................................214
7.5. Definition of Energy (Property of matter can be converted) ......................................... 216
7.6. Forms and Conversion of Energ..................................................................................... 217
7.7. Energy Sources (sun, fuel, hydroelectric, wind, nuclear)............................................... 220
7.8. Wise use & Conservation of energy............................................................................... 223
7.9. Resource depletion and environmental degradation...................................................... 224
Review Exercise.............................................................................................................. 228
AddisAbabaCityAdministrationEducationBureau
i
GRADE 7
Unit 1 Basic Concepts of Science

Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will able to:

• Define science as a body of knowledge and the processes and practices
used to add to that body of knowledge
• Describe the main branches of science and explain their relationship
• Relate how science and technology affect one‘s beliefs, practices,
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and ways of thinking.
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• Appreciate the contributions of outstanding scientists to science and
technology.
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• Discuss the importance of scientific values in decision making and

problem solving.
• Relate how science and technology affect one‘s beliefs, practices,
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and ways of thinking.

• Identify the significant contributions of Ethiopian Scientists in science
and technology.
• Identify different laboratory tools
• Demonstrate safe ways of using apparatus in the laboratory.
• Practice precautionary measures in the laboratory
• Exhibit knowledge of lab safety rules and procedures.
• Identify potential hazards and implement appropriate safety procedures
when working in the laboratory
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GRADE 7
Main Contents
Main Contents
Contents
1.1. The
1.1. The Nature
Nature ofofScience
Scienceand
anditsitsBranches
Branches
-Definition of
-Definition ofscience
science
-Branches of
-Branches of science
science
-Science andtechnology
-Science and technology
-Scientists andethical
-Scientists and ethicaldiscipline
discipline
1.2.
1.2. Common laboratoryequipment,
Common laboratory equipment, uses, safety rules
uses, and procedures
safety in science in
rules and procedures laboratories
science laboratories
- Common laboratory apparatus
- Common laboratory apparatus
- Laboratory safety rules
-Laboratory safety rules
-Science Laboratory safety symbol and hazard signs,
and meanings resources
meanings resources
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-Science Laboratory safety symbol and hazard signs, and
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-Steps to write Laboratory report
-Steps to write Laboratory report
1.1
1.1. The
TheNature of Science
Scienceand
and
its its Branches
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Nature of Branches
By the end of this section you should be able to:

 Define science as a body of knowledge and the processes and practices used to add
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to that body of knowledge

 Describe the main branches of science and explain their relationship
 Relate how science and technology affect one‗s beliefs, practices, and ways of
thinking.
 Appreciate the contributions of outstanding scientists to science and technology.
 Discuss the importance of scientific values in decision making and problem
solving.
 Identify the significant contributions of Ethiopian Scientists in science and
technology.
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GRADE 7
Introduction
In the lower grades, you have learnt about science in general. For
example, environmental science .In this and next grade you will
learn about general science which deals with things related to our
day to day life.
1.1.1. Definition of science
Activity 1.1
Form a group and discuss the following questions. Then share your ideas to
the class
i. Describe science by your own words
ii. Investigate the ways in which the major areas of science are further
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divided. You can use reference books and the internet to augment
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your current ideas
Iii. Differentiate Conventional Science and Indigenous Science
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The word science comes from the Latin word ‘Scientia’, which means’
Knowledge’. But science is not just about having knowledge: Science
is a systematic method of gaining knowledge about the physical and
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natural world and the social aspect of human society. It provides an

ordered way of learning about the nature of things, based on observation
and evidence. Through science, we explore our environment, gather
knowledge and develop ideas that help us interpret and explain what
we see. Science may be indigenous or conventional.
Indigenous science is process by which Indigenous people build their
empirical knowledge of their natural environment. It is knowledge
based on the social, physical and spiritual understandings.
Conventional science is the system of knowledge which relies on
certain laws that have been established through the application of the
scientific method to phenomena in the world around us.
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GRADE 7
Indigenous Science incorporating local people‘s knowledge and In-
digenous perspectives, while conventional scientific approaches are
commonly recognized as Western science.
Activity 1.2
Activity 1.2
Perform the following activities.
Find some practical indigenous knowledge in your community that
Find some practical indigenous knowledge in your community that solves
solves community
community problemsproblems
and present and present
your findingyour finding
to your class to your class
Why teach Indigenous Knowledge in science?

There are two main reasons to include Indigenous Knowledge in the
science:Firstly, to increase awareness of original culture and identity
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Secondly, in modern day environmental problems have social and
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cultural dimensions which benefit from perspectives other than
Western science.
Ethiopia is one of the countries where a wide variety indigenous
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knowledge practiced for a long time to solve practical problem that

exist in different areas like:-
• Extractions of medicinal chemicals from plants to treat disease and
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fight infections. The common medicinal plants used for treating curing
various disease are: Hagenia Abyssinica (Kosso tree) , Eucalyptus
globulus (bahrzaf), Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst (Damakese) etc
• Preserving meat by adding a salt and smoke drying
1.1.2. Branches of science
Activity 1.3
Form a group and discuss the following questions. Then share your ideas
to the class
1. What are the major branches of science?
2. Give short descriptions of physics, biology and geology.
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GRADE 7
Science has two major categories, which are natural science and social
science. Again, natural science has three branches which are Biology,
chemistry and physics. It as shown below in figure1.1
Science
Natural
Social
science
science
Biology Chemistry Physics

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Figure 1.1. Branches of science
Natural science is the study of nature and natural laws. It includes fields
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such as chemistry, biology, physics and geology. These fields of study in

natural science are closely interrelated. There are no distinct boundaries
between them.
Biology is a branch of natural science which studies about living things.
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Chemistry is a branch of natural science which deals with

theproperties, composition, structure and transformation of substances.
Physics is the branch of natural science. It is the study of the nature
of matter, energy and their interactions.
There is no clear boarder line between the different branches of
natural sciences. Knowledge of natural sciences overlaps with each other.
For example, chemistry and physics knowledge are studied as a subject
called physical science/physical chemistry. It is the study of properties of
materials and their interaction.
◊ Biophysics: combination of biology and physics.
◊ Biophysics is the study of physical phenomena and physical processes in
living things, on scales spanning molecules, cells, tissues and organisms.
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GRADE 7
◊ Biochemistry: combination of biology and Chemistry
Biochemistry is the branch of science that explores the chemical processes
within and related to living organisms. It involves the study of chemical
reaction in living things.
Biophysics l
Physics
Biology
Natural
Science
Chemistry
Physical Chemistry
Biochemistry
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Figure1.2.The relationships between some fields of Natural Science
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Key words
Science a systematic method of gaining knowledge about the physical
and natural world.
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to help human beings
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work easier and live better or putting scientific knowledge into practice.
Exercise
Exercise 1.11.1
I.I.Give
Giveshort
shortanswer
answerfor the
for followings questions
the followings questions
1.1.What
What is is
science?
science?
2.2.List thethe
List three
threebranch
branchofofnatural science
natural science
3.3.Which
Which field of of
field science is study
science of matter
is study andand
of matter energy?
energy?
1.1.3. Science and technology
You have already seen what science is. Now, you will see what a technology is.
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to help human beings work easier
and live better as well as enjoy their environment more. It includes the use of
materials, tools, techniques, and sources of power to make life easier or more
pleasant and work more productive. Things such as automobiles, TV sets,
radio, bulb, microchip, computer, airplane and home tools (appliances) are the
products of technology.
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GRADE 7
1.1.3. Science and technology

You have already seen what science is. Now, you will see what a
technology is.
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to help human beings
work easier and live better as well as enjoy their environment more.
It includes the use of materials, tools, techniques, and sources of
power to make life easier or more pleasant and work more
productive. Things such as
automobiles, TV sets, radio, bulb, microchip, computer, airplane and
home tools (appliances) are the products of technology.
A person who studies technology is called a technologist.
Technologists apply Science and mathematical knowledge and skills
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to produce a very useful tool.
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Figure 1.3 Relationship of science and technology

Science and technology is integrally connected; but they are
different fields driven by different concepts and processes.
Science generates knowledge for its own sake, proposing and
testing explanations. Technology, on the other hand, develops
human-made solutions to real-world problems. Of course,
science uses technology to generate knowledge and technology
uses scientific knowledge to generate solutions.
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GRADE 7
Uses of Science and technology for the society

Science and technology plays an important role in our daily life. It is
mainly concerned with the production of new materials of desirable
properties and qualities to satisfy social needs and plays an important
role in agriculture, in the production of medicines and drugs, in
environment and population control, in the construction industry, in
manufacturing various products such as cosmetics, textiles, dyes,
soaps and detergents, plastics, rubber and a variety of metals, non-met-
als, alcoholic beverages, dry cells and car batteries
1.1.4. Scientists and ethical discipline

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Famous scientists in Ethiopia and world
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A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research
and evidence, to make hypothesis and test them, to gain and share
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understanding and knowledge. Some of the world and Ethiopian

scientists and their contribution are listed below.
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Marie Curie (1067-1934), Isaac Newton (1643-1727) Michael Faraday Albert Einstein (1879-
won the Nobel Prize for discovered the laws of (1791-1867),discov- 1955) Developed special
the discovery of the motion and law of gravity. ered the generation of relativity theory
elements polonium electricity from mag-
and radium netism. He built the
1st dynamo.
Fig1.4 some world known scientist and their works
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GRADE 7
Activities 1.3
Form a group and the following activity
Choose one of the scientists and create a role-play for the press
release following the news of his/her discovery. Various roles to
consider would include: the scientist; media; fellow scientists; and
the general public. Alternatively, you could choose an Ethiopian
scientist and create a cartoon strip showing their discovery.
Dr.Aklilu
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Lemma(1935 -1997)
made his most
important scientific
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discovery very early in

his career, in 1964, when
he discovered a
natural treatment to
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schistosomiasis,also
known as snail Prof.Yalemtsehay Mekonnen
fever disease or bilharzia. He found that was born in Asela, Ethiopia on
berries from the endod plant, which is May 30, 1955. She work on
commonly used to make soap and shampoos human physiology, the impact
in many parts of Africa, is a potent, of pesticides on human health,
inexpensive and safe molluscicide, to the use of plants as medicinal
prevent the spread of the parasitic worm. against human and animal
This discovery made the plant an object disease and as the first female
of scientific research in many parts of the professor of Addis Ababa
world. university.
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GRADE 7
Gebisa Ejeta (born 1950) is an

Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher is
Ethiopian plant breeder,
an Ethiopian scientist, who has worked geneticist and Professor at Purdue
to ensure biodiversity and the rights of University. In 2009, he won the
communities to their genetic resources. World Food Prize for his major
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contributions in the production of
sorghum.
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Ethical principle in science
Activity 1.4
Activity 1.4
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Form a group and discuss on the following questions then present

your opinion to the class
i. Do you think ethical discipline is important for science?
ii. List down same ethical disciplines in science
Ethics is an integral part of science. Like science, it requires to be

consistent and empirically justified in our interpretation the action
of scientists. Things are always get in front of us either right or wrong,
good or bad, but we have to decide that what we actually want to do
through our ethical point of view. The following are some of ethical
principles that various codes address in science. Those are:
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GRADE 7
• Honesty
• Responsibility
• Objectivity
• Openness
• Competence
• Legality
• Non-Discrimination
• Carefulness.
Exercise 1.2
Choose the best answers for the following questions.
1. The natural science disciplines are
A. interacting C. Interrelated
B. overlapping
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D. all of the above
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2. The branches of natural science studying the composition
of compounds,
and the processes taking place in organisms, respectively, are:
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A. Chemistry and biology C. Biology and physics

B. Physics and geology D. Biology and geology
3. Which one of the following is true about Science?
A. It is the study of physical and natural world.
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B. It comes from Latin word “Scientia meaning ‘knowledge’

C. It is the system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific
method
D. All
4. Which one of the following is true about Indigenous knowledge?
A. It is based on scientific method
B. The knowledge derived from western countries
C. It incorporates local people’s knowledge’s
D. It has universal perspective and commonly recognized
as western science
5. World famous scientists who discover law of motion and gravity
A. Michael Faraday B. Marie Curie C. Isaac Newton
D. Albert Einstein
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C. It incorporates local people‘s knowledge‘s
GRADE 7
D. It has universal perspective and commonly recognized as western science
5. World famous scientists who discover law of motion and gravity
A. Michael Faraday B. Marie Curie C. Isaac Newton D. Albert Einstein
1.2
1.2. Common laboratoryEquipment,
Common Laboratory Equipment, User,
Uses, Safety
Safety Rules
Rules and
and Procedures in
Procedures in Science
Science Laboratories laboratories
At the end of this topic, students will be able to:-
 Identify different laboratory tools (such as Balance, Beaker, Tongs, Bunsen
burner, Test tubes, Petri dishes, etc.), and describe their uses
 Prepare some laboratory equipment/tools from locally available materials
 Demonstrate knowledge of lab safety rules and procedures.
 Practice precautionary measures in the laboratory
 Identify potential hazards when working in the laboratory
 Implement appropriate safety procedures when working in the laboratory
 Demonstrate the appropriate use of personal protective equipment for a
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given laboratory activity.
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1.2.1. Common Laboratory Apparatus

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Activities 1.4
Form a group and perform the following task. From locally
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available materials produce laboratory tools such as beaker,

measuring cylinder, balance, tong, etc. and present its use to th
class.
i. List down some laboratory safety rule
ii. Discuss hazard symbols on chemical bottles, electrical
gadgets and other materials found in the laboratory
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GRADE 7
Laboratory equipment comprises different sets of apparatus, which
are designed to perform various tasks in the laboratory by students,
teachers and scientists. The students can conduct laboratory work
smoothly and more efficiently only when they are familiar with the
apparatus commonly used in the laboratory. Some apparatus are
shown in tables 1 described here below.
Table 1 Different laboratory tools and their use
Name Picture Use
Triple-beam Obtaining the mass of an

balance object
Beaker
T Holding water (also used to
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heat liquid
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Tongs Transport a hot beaker;

remove lid from crucible
Thermometer Used to measure

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temperature
Test tubes Holds small amounts of liquids for

mixing or heating.
Petri dish Measuring small distance
Graduated Marked with milliliter (ml)

cylinder scale and is used to measure volume
Bunsen burner Heating (flame-safe) contents

in the lab
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GRADE 7
Key words
Laboratory equipment refers to the various tools and equipment used
by
students, teachers and scientists working in laboratory
Laboratory report is how you explain what you did in experiment,
what you learnt and what the result mean
Project work
Prepare laboratory tools
Dear students, prepare some laboratory equipment’s or tools such
as beaker, measuring cylinder, balance, tongs, etc. from the locally
available materials
1.2.2 Laboratory Safety Rules

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Laboratory may be considered as a place of discovery and learning.
However, by the very nature of laboratory work, it can be a place of
danger if proper common-sense precautions are not taken. Follow
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the followings laboratory safety rules precautions when you perform

an activity in laboratory.
• Dress appropriately (wear, goggles, gloves, shoes and
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laboratory coats).
• Tie back loose hair.
• Know the locations of safety equipment like fire extinguisher.
• Know what to do in case of an accident.
• Do not taste or smell chemicals.
• Do not eat or drink in laboratory.
• Never add water to concentrated acid solutions. Always
add acid into water. Follow the Amharic AW! Not WA!
(A-acid, W-water)
• Carry out only the experiments assigned by your teacher.
• Dispose of all chemical wastes properly.
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GRADE 7
1.2.3 Science laboratory safety symbol and hazard signs, Meanings

Depending upon the scientific investigation being conducted, a lab
can be filled with dangerous chemicals, Biological specimen, sharp
instrument, breakable objects. In order to safe workplace and avoid
accidents, lab safety symbols and signs need to be posted throughout
the workplace. The following laboratory safety symbols warn of
possible dangerous in laboratory user to help keep safe and
informed.
Toxic materials High voltage hazardT Gloves Saftety glasses

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Flammable materrials boots Face shield

Corrosives
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Electrical hazard Chemical storage area Hand wash Fire extinguisher
Biological hazard Health hazard Protective cloth Hearind protection
Figure: 1. 4 A) hazard signs B) Laboratory safety symbols
1.2.4 Writig a Laboratory Report

Laboratory is the places where experiments in science performed;
students learn and develop their power of observation, skill in han-
dling apparatus varies kinds and independent thinking.
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GRADE 7
A laboratory report is a written composition of the results of an

experiment. It should be written precisely and clearly, using good
grammar and punctuation. Each report must include: title, objective,
theory, materials and (equipment) used, procedure, observation,
result, discussion, and conclusion.
Exercise 1.3
Choose the best answers for the following questions
1.Which one of the following is NOT allowed in science laboratory?
A. Knowing the hazards of the materials being used
B. Reading the labels on the reagent bottle carefully
C. Wearing any type of cloth and shoes
D. Never use laboratory glassware for eating or drinking
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purposes.
2. Which of the following laboratory tools used for the approximate
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measurements of volume of liquids
A. Test tube
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B. thermometer
C. measuring cylinder
D. dropper
3. The type of laboratory equipment categorized under measuring
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equipment is
A. Bunsen burner B. Triple-beam balance
C. Flask D. Stand and clamp
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GRADE 7
Unit Review
Unit Review
Check List Competencies given below are expected to be achieved in this
Check List Competencies given below are expected to be achieved
in thisunit
unitbyby
students. You are
students. Yourequired to respond
are required tobyrespond
saying Yes
byorsaying
No. PutYes
a tick
or No.(√)
Putmark
a tick (√)―Yes‖
under mark underif “Yes”
column you are column if youthe
able to perform arecompetency
able to or
perform the―No‖
under competency
column ifor under
you “No” to
are unable column
performif the
youcompetency.
are unableThis
to perform
would the
helpcompetency. This would
to evaluate yourself and you help to evaluate
can revise the partsyourself
of topics for
and you can revise the parts of topics
which the competencies are not met. for which the competencies
are not met.
No. Can I Yes No
1. Define science as a body of knowledge and the processes

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and practices used to add to that body of knowledge
ES
Describe the main branches of science and explain their
relationship
RT
2.
3. Relate how science and technology affect one‗s beliefs,

practices, and ways of thinking.
FO
4. Appreciate the contributions of outstanding scientists to

science and technology.
5. Discuss the importance of scientific values in decision

making and problem solving.
6. Relate how science and technology affect one‗s beliefs,

practices, and ways of thinking.
7. Identify the significant contributions of Ethiopian
16
17
GRADE 7
Scientists in science and technology.
8. Identify different laboratory tools
9. Demonstrate safe ways of using apparatus in the

laboratory.
10. Practice precautionary measures in the laboratory
11. Exhibit knowledge of lab safety rules and procedures.
12. Identify potential hazards and implement appropriate

safety procedures when conducting laboratory
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Key
Key terms
terms
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Science
Science Technology
Technology
conventional science Ethics
indigenous
conventional science EthicsLaboratory equipment
science
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Safety rule Laboratory

indigenous science Laboratory equipment
Technologist Scientist
Natural
Safety rule science Hazard sign
Laboratory
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Technologist Scientist
Natural science Hazard sign
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GRADE 7
Unit Summary
Unit Summary
 Science is a systematic method of gaining knowledge about the physical and

natural world and the social aspect of human society.
 Science may be conventional or indigenous.
 Indigenous science is process by which Indigenous people build their
empirical knowledge of their natural environment
 Conventional science is the system of knowledge which relies on certain
laws that have been established through the application of the scientific
method to phenomena in the world around us.
 Science has two major categories, which are natural science and social
science.
T
ES
 Natural science has three branches which are Biology, chemistry and physics
 Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to help human beings work
RT
easier and live better as well as enjoy their environment more.

 A person who studies technology is called a technologist
 Science and technology plays an important role in our daily life
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 Some famous scientists in Ethiopia are Dr. Aklilu Lemma, Engineer Kitew
Ejigu,Dr.Gebisa Ejeta, Prof.Yalemtsehay Mekonnen and
 Famous scientists from the world Albert Einstein, Michael Faraday. Marie
Curie and Isaac Newton etc.
 Laboratory equipment comprises different sets of apparatus, which are
designed to perform various tasks in the laboratory.
 Knowing Laboratory safety rule is very important to reduce risks faced
during laboratory investigation
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GRADE 7
Review Exercise
Part I. Write ‘True’ for the correct statements and ‘False’ for
the wrong statements.
1. Natural science is the study of nature and natural laws.
2.Biology, Physics and chemistry do not share common areas
of study.
3. Technology makes life easier or more pleasant and work more
productive.
Part II: Choose the best answers for the following questions
1.The study of living things is the concern of
A. Chemistry C. Biology
B. Physics D. Geology
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2.___________ is a branch of natural science which studies the
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nature of matter, energy and their interaction.
A Chemistry C. Biology
B Physics D. Geology
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3. The famous Ethiopian scientist who discovered a natural

treatment to schistosomiasis or bilharzia disease.
A. Eng. Kitew Ejigu C. Dr. Gebisa Ejeta
B. Dr. Aklilu Lemma D. Prof. Yalemtsehay Mekonen
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4. Which of the following is NOT a laboratory safety rule?

A. You should tie back loose hair
B. You should add water to Acid.
C. Do not suck solution in the pipette by mouth
D. When lighting a Bunsen burner, you should light
the match stick before turning on the gas
5. ______________is a branch of Knowledge and the systematic
study of universe and its all encompasses, one that based upon
facts, observation and experiments
A. Theory C. Dogma
B. Natural law D. Science
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GRADE 7
Part III Match the items in column ‘A’ with items in column 'B'
A B
1. Biochemistry A. Combination of biology and physics
2. Physical chemistry B. Combination of Geology and physics
3. Biophysics C. combination of biology and chemistry
4. Geo physics D. combination of chemistry and physics
Part IV; Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms.

1._____________is the places where experiments in science is
performed.
2. A person who study about technology is called ____________
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3.Who is the famous Ethiopian scientist has involved in
development of African commercial hybrid strains of
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sorghum_______
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Part V: Give short answer to the following questions.

1. Define technology
2. What is the difference between science and technology?
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3. List and explain the functions of some common laboratory

apparatus (equipment’s).
4. Mention the steps to write laboratory report.
5. Why ethics in science is important?
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GRADE 7
Unit 2 Matter in Our Surrounding

Learning Outcome
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• Use particles theory‘s postulates to explain properties
and behaviour of materials.
• Classify matter as an element, compound, homogeneous
mixture, or heterogeneous mixture with regard to its physical
properties.
• Describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of
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particle separation, arrangement and types of motion.
• Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and
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changes of matter.
• Appreciate that matter can be classified based on physical or
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chemical properties.
• Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate
them.
• Demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along this unit:
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observing, classifying, comparing and contrasting, making

mode, inferring, communicating, asking questions, designing
experiments, drawing conclusions, applying concepts.
Main Contents
2.1. Characteristics and nature of matter
2.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter
2.3 Classification of substances (in terms of composition
and observable properties
2.4. Physical and Chemical Changes of Substances
2.5 Separation of mixtures and its application
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GRADE 7
Introduction
The object around us, called matter, exist in three physical forms or
states. These are solids, liquids and gases. For example, water can exist
as ice (solid), water (liquid) and steam (gas).The physical state of a given
sample of matter depend on temperature and pressure. Energy must be
added or removed to change one form or state of substance into another.
The idea that matter is made up of tiny particles is called the Particulate
nature of matter.
Most of the changes that occur in our surrounding are either physical
or chemical. A physical change is a change in the form of matter but not
T
in its chemical identity. A chemical change, or chemical reaction, is a
ES
change in which one or more kinds of matter are transformed into a new
kind of matter.
RT
There are two principal ways of classifying matter: by its physical state as
a solid, liquid or gas and by its chemical constitution as pure substance
and mixture. Mixtures can be separated using a variety of techniques.
FO
Some of the methods used to separate mixtures are separation by hand,

sieving, filtration, evaporation, magnetic separation, decantation and
distillation.
2.1. Characteristics and Nature of Matter
After completing this section, you will be able to
• Define matter with examples from day today life.
• Demonstrate that matter is made up of tiny particles.
• State the postulates of the particle theory of matter.
• Infer the particulate nature of matter from demonstration
/investigation.
• Apply particle nature of matter in explaining diffusion and every day
effect of diffusion.
23
GRADE 7
• Describe and/or make a representation of the arrangement,
relative spacing, and relative motion of the particles in each of
the three states of matter.
• Describe and explain compression in terms of distance between
particles.
• Use the terms melting, evaporating, condensing, and freezing/
solidification to describe changes of state.
• Use the particulate nature of matter to explain: melting, freezing/
Solidification, Evaporation, Condensation.
Activity 2.1
Form a group and discuss the following questions and share your
ideas with the rest of the class.
T
1. Describe matter by your own words?
2. Consider the followings: air, light, soil, plant, water, sound,
ES
table and heat. Try to classify them as matter and non-matter.
RT
2.1.1. Meaning and Properties of matter

What is matter? Matter is anything that has mass and occupies
space. The term mass refers to the amount of matter present in a
sample. Matter includes all things both living and nonliving that can
FO
be seen (such as plants, water, soil, rocks, table and even this book),
as well as things that cannot be seen by our naked eye (such as air
and bacteria). Unlike matter, energy is known and recognized by its
effect. It cannot be seen, touched, smell or weighed.
Therefore, various forms of energy such as heat, light, and sound are
not considered to be matter.
Exercise 2.1
1. Classify each of the following as matter or energy (non-matter).
a. Air e. Gold i. Silver
b. Pizza f. Virus j. Cake
c. Sound g. heat k. Water
d. Light h. Bacteria l. Magnetism
24
GRADE 7
2.1.2 Particulate nature of matter.
Activity 2.2
Form a group and perform the following activity. Then present your
finding to the class.
1. Inflate a balloon and observe its shape in the class room
2. Make observations while wind blowing leaves, or dust in
your surroundings. Based on the above activity
a. What do you think that matter is made of?
b. How do the particles move around in space
The particle model of matter states that all matter is made up of
tiny, moving particles with spaces between them. Matter is made of
T
particles too small to be seen that move freely around in space. The
inflation and shape of balloon indicates that it is filled with a small
ES
particle of gas such as helium, hydrogen, nitrous oxide, oxygen, or
air. On other hand, from the effect of wind blowing leaves or dust it
RT
is possible to understand the particle matter is in continuous motion.

The idea that matter is made up of tiny particles is called the
Particulate nature of matter.
FO
Activity 2.3
Perform the following activities
Fill in the blank by using the following words
{Increase, less, faster, cold, temperature, water, particles, mov-
ing, more, energy}
1. Everything is made of ____________.
2. Particles are always__________________.
3. An increase in ____________makes particles move
_________.
4. An increase in____________ is the same thing as an
_________ in energy.
5. The particles in hot water have _________energy than
_________water.
6. The particles in ice move ____________ than particles in
___________.
25
GRADE 7
2.1.3 Particle theory of matter (Particle model of matter)

Particulate nature of matter means that all matter is made up of
discrete tiny particles. Many years later, scientists came back to
Democritus’ idea and added to it. The theory they developed is
called the particle model of matter.
The followings are main ideas (postulate) in the particle model
of matter:
1. All matter is made up of tiny particles.
2. The particles of matter move continuously.
3. The particles have spaces between them.
4. Adding heat to matter makes the particles move faster.
T
5. There are forces between the particles.
ES
6. Particles of one substance differ from the particles of other
substance.
RT
Scientists find the particle model useful for two reasons. First, it
provides a reasonable explanation for the behavior of matter.
Second, it presents a very important idea i.e. the particles of matter
FO
are always moving. The air you breathe, your books, your desk, and
even your body all consist of particles that are in constant motion.
Thus, the particle model can be used to explain the properties of
solids, liquids, and gases.
Exercise 2.2
I. Give short answers
1. List the postulates of particle theory.
2. Describe the particulate nature of matter
2.1.4. Diffusion
Experiment: 2.1
Title: simple experiment on diffusion
Objective: To discover what is meant by diffusion 26

GRADE 7
2.1.4. Diffusion
Experiment: 2.1
Title: simple experiment on diffusion

Objective: To discover what is meant by diffusion
Materials: Perfume, ink, beaker, pipette, Water (H2O)
Procedure
1. Take a bottle of perfume and open it in one corner of the room
and record how long it takes to reach to different students at
different distances to smell it.
2. Add 2 or 3 drop ink into a beaker of water using a pipette and
watch the ink diffuse to color the water.
T
Write your result/conclusion from the above experiments
ES
The mixing and spreading out of a substance with another substance
due to the movement or motion of its particles is called diffusion. It
RT
is also defined as the net movement of particles from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration. Concentration is the
way of measuring how much or how many particles of a substance
FO
in that place.
Diffusion in gases is very fast. This is because the particles move
very quickly in all direction. Example: The smell of hot sizzling
food reaches us even when we are at considerable distance. When
someone opens a bottle of perfume in one corner of room, its smell
spreads in the whole room quickly
Diffusion in liquids is slower than that in gas. This is because the
particles in liquids move slower as compared to particles in gases.
Example: If a drop of ink is put into a beaker of water, then the color
of ink spreads into the whole water of the beaker.
Diffusion in solids is very very slow process because the particles of
solids are highly restricted to motion.
27
GRADE 7
Diffusion in Daily Life
Diffusion is everywhere around us in our everyday life. The
followings are some common effect of diffusion in day to day
activities.
Tea: A tea bag placed in a cup of hot water will diffuse into the water.
Perfume: When perfume is produced in one part of a room, it spreads
to the rest through diffusion. There are fewer of the scent-producing
chemicals in the further parts of the room, so the molecules naturally
spread out.
Food Coloring: A drop of food coloring in a glass of water colors
the water through diffusion. The dye molecules slowly spread evenly
through the liquid, creating one particular shade.
Soda: Leave a soda bottle open and the carbon dioxide bubble will
T
diffuse and leave it flat. Air has a lower concentration of that bubbly
carbon dioxide than the drink does, so the CO2 molecules depart the
ES
beverage and spread into the air.
RT
Exercise 2.3
1. Complete the blank space from the word box
Diffusion, low, scent, high
FO
You can smell axe in the classroom after someone sprays it in

the hallway because the _____moves from_____ concentration
in the hallway to___ concentration in the classroom. This is
an example of______
2. Arrange increasing order of the rate of diffusion of solids, liquids
and gases.
28
GRADE 7
2.1.5 Properties of solids. liquids and gases
Activity 2.4
Copy the table in your exercise book and complete it using
objects around you. Discuss your reasons for each decision with
your group.
Substance solids, liquids and I know this is be

gases cause….
Water liquid I can pour it.

T
ES
According to Kinetic (particle) theory, all matter is composed of tiny
particles (atoms, molecule, and ions).These particles are arranged
RT
differently in solids, liquids and gases.
Solids
In solids the particles are arranged in fixed pattern. The particles held
FO
together strongly and are tightly packed. Particles in solid can vibrate
but stay in the same place. Solids have definite shape and definite
volume. Examples of Solids are Stones, wood, metals etc.
Figure 2.1: pattern of Solids
29
GRADE 7
Liquids
The particles in a liquid are separated by spaces that are large enough
to allow the particles to slide past each other. It takes the shape of its
container because the particles can move around more freely than
they can in a solid. At room temperature water, ethanol, benzene, oil
are liquids.
T
ES
Figure 2.2: pattern of liquids
Gases
The particles in a gas are separated by much larger spaces than the
RT
particles in a liquid or a solid. Therefore, a gas is mostly empty

space. For example, air, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen are gases
FO
Figure 2.3: pattern of gas
30
GRADE 7
Pattern of gas Microscopic view of gases
Figure 2.3 pattern and microscopic view of gases

Table Properties of solids, liquids and gases
Properties Physical states
Gases Liquids Solids
Arrangement of -disorderly arranged •Less orderly •Orderly
particles -particles are very far -Arranged particles arranged(regular
apart are relatively close pattern)
-almost no attractive to each other •Particles are very
force between -Have relative close to each other
attractive force
particles between particles
29
Motion of -flow(move) freely flow together in -Do not flow or move
-flow together in random motion -Vibrate in a fixed
particles
random motion -are known as fluids position
-are known as fluids T
ES
compressibility Highly and easily Compressible to a Not compressible
compressible very small extent
RT
Volume and shape -Have no definite -Have no definite -Have definite

Shape and volume Shape Shape and volume
-Assume the shape of -Assume the shape
FO
the container and of the container

entirely fill it.
Density Have very low density -Have low density -Denser than all
than liquids and solids than solids -Condensed state than
-Condensed state all
compared to gases
Pressure Exert pressure equally Exert pressure Exert pressure towards
in all direction towards depth. gravity
Diffusion Diffuse spontaneously Diffuse very slowly Difficult to diffuse
in all directions with in random motion
random motion
Diagram
Exercise 2.4
1. What is the three state of matter? 31
GRADE 7
Exercise 2.4
1. What is the three state of matter?
2. List the properties of solids
3. Name a property of liquids that do not share with solids
4. Name a property of gas that do not share with liquids
5. Give a characteristic that is the same for liquids and solids
6. Give a characteristic that is the same for gases and liquids
7. Which state of matter cannot poured?
8. Which state of matter can be compressed easily?
II. Multiple choice questions

1. Which state of matter are fluids?
A. solid B. Liquid C. Gas D. B and C
T
2. In which state of matter is particles close together?
ES
A. solid B. Liquid C. Gas D.all
2.1.6. Changes in state

RT
Activity 2.5
Copy the flow chart. The arrows represent the process involved
FO
when matter change state.

Write the name for each process on the arrow to your flow chart.
A B
Solid Liquid Gas
D C
Solid Liquid Gas
A change of state is the change of a substance from one physical

form of matter to another. A change in physical state is the most
common type of physical change. Melting, freezing, evaporation,
and condensation are all changes of state. The three states of matter
can be interconverted without changing the composition of the
substance. To change a substance from one state to another, energy
must be added or removed.
32
GRADE 7
What happens when matter changes state?

During a change of state, the motion of the particles changes.
Particles can break away from each other and gain more freedom to
move, or they may attract each other more strongly and have less
freedom to move. During a change of state, a substance gains energy
from or loses energy to the environment, but the total amount of
energy is conserved.
How do solids and liquids change state?

When a solid is warmed, its particles gain energy and speed up, and
the attraction between them decreases. Eventually they slide past one
another. The process in which a solid substance changes into a liquid
on heating is called melting (or fusion).
T
The process of changing a liquid into a solid is called freezing (or
ES
solidification). When a liquid is cooled, its particles have less energy,
they slow down, and they lock into the fixed arrangement of a solid.
The temperature at which a liquid substance changes into a solid is
RT
the liquid’s freezing point.
How do liquids and gases change state?

As a liquid is warmed, its particles gain energy. Some particles gain
FO
enough energy that they escape from the surface of the liquid and
become a gas. The change from a liquid to a gas is called evaporation.
The temperature at which a liquid substance changes into a gas is the
liquid’s boiling point.
As a gas is cooled, its particles lose energy. The attraction between
particles overcomes the speed of their motion, and a liquid forms.
The change of state from a gas to a liquid is called condensation.
How do solids and gases change state?

Some solids and gases can change state without ever becoming a
liquid. The change from a solid state directly into a gas is called
sublimation. Deposition is
33
GRADE 7
Deposition is the change in state from a gas directly to a solid. Some
common substance undergo sublimation are: Iodine, ammonium
chloride and solid carbon dioxide (dry ice).
When matter changes from one state to another, its physical state
changes but its chemical identity does not. During a change of state,
the energy of the particles, their movement, and the distance between
them change. The mass of a substance does not change when its state
changes. Each state contains the same amount of matter.
T
ES
Figure 2.4: Interconversion process of the three state
RT
2.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

• Describe physical Properties.
FO
• Use physical properties of matter to identify substances.

• Conduct experiments to identify properties of substances
and make group report.
• Identify chemical properties
• Distinguish between physical and chemical properties.
34
GRADE 7
2.1.4 Physical properties of matter
Activity 2.6
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your conclusions
to the class. Given the following physical properties of substances:
odor, color, taste, melting point, boiling point and density.
1 Which of these physical properties have constant values under
specific condition, such as temperature?
2 Which physical properties can be recognized directly by our
sense organs?
3 Which of these properties are measured using instruments?
4 What will happen to ice kept in a cup in the classroom?
T
5. Which sense organs help us to detect color, odor and taste?
6. How do you describe the taste of lemon?
ES
Substances are identified by their properties as well as by their
RT
composition. A physical property can be measured and observed

without changing the composition or identity of a substance. For
example, we can measure the melting point of ice by heating a
block of ice and recording the temperature at which the ice is
FO
converted to water. Water differs from ice only in appearance and

not in composition, so this is a physical change; we can freeze the
water to recover the original ice. Therefore, the melting point of
a substance is a physical property. Other examples of physical
property is gold is a shiny yellow metal, lead has a high density.
Observations of these characteristics do not change the composition.
There are two kinds of physical properties, namely, extensive and intensive
physical properties. Extensive physical properties are the properties,
which depend on the amount or quantity of sample and therefore, can vary
from sample to sample. Examples: length, diameter, mass, and volume
Intensive physical properties are properties which
do not depend on the amount of a substance present.
Examples: density, color, melting point, and hardness.
35
GRADE 7
Intensive properties are useful in distinguishing between different
substances because they do not vary from sample to sample.
Some Physical Properties of Substances are Listed Below
1. Physical Properties Detected by Sense Organs
Color: The color of a substance results from its interaction
withl ight. Substances can be identified by their colors. For
example, chalk is white, water is colorless, and gold is yellow and so on.
Odor: refers to the property of a substance perceived by the
sense of smell. Terms commonly used to describe the odor of a
substance are pungent, fragrant, spicy, fruity and odorless. For
example water is odorless, flowers are fragrant, and orange smells fruity.
Caution!
Care has be taken in smelling substance as they may
T
be harmful
ES
Taste: refers to physical properties that can be perceived by
the taste buds of the tongue. The taste of a substance is usually
RT
described by terms like sweet, bitter, sour, salty, and tasteless. For
example honey is sweet, lemon is sour and table salt tastes salty.
Caution!
FO
Tasting can be used to identify substances only if the

substance to be tasted is not harmful.
Activity 2.7
You are allowed to taste some acids in the forms of citric acid that
are found in lemon and orange or acetic acid in the form of vinegar
at home but you are never kind allowed to taste any kind of acids in
the laboratory. What is the reason?
Discuss your finding in group and present to the class
36
GRADE 7
2.Physical State: Physical state is the form in which a substance is
found under a given conditions such as temperature and pressure.
The three physical states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. The
same substance may exist in different states at different conditions.
For example, water exists in three physical state form as a solid
below 0 ºC, as a liquid between 0 oC and 100 oC, and as a vapor or
gas above 100 oC.
3. Measurable Physical Properties
Measurable physical properties are the properties of a substance that
can be measured using an appropriate apparatus. These physical
properties have constant values under specific conditions. Examples
are melting point, boiling point, density and electrical conductivity.
Melting Point: is the temperature at which a solid substance
T
changes to its liquid state. For example, ice is the solid form of
ES
water. Ice melts to liquid (water) at 0°C.
Therefore, the melting point of ice is 0°C.
Boiling Point: is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of
RT
the liquid equals the surrounding atmospheric pressure. At sea level

water boils at 100°C.
Density: is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. It is
FO
expressed
Mass of substance m
mathematically as: Density = or d =
Volume of substance) V
Units of density are kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3).
Electrical Conductivity: Electrical conductivity is the ability of a

substance to conduct electricity. This is a physical property mostly
characteristic of metallic substances such as copper, aluminum, iron,
silver and zinc.
2.1.5 Chemical Properties of Matter
A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that describes
the way the substance undergoes or resists change to form a new
substance. Chemical
37
GRADE 7
properties cannot be determined just by viewing or touching the substance; the

substance‘s internal structure must be affected for its chemical properties to be
investigated.
Flammability is one example of a chemical property. Reactivity between two
substances is another chemical property of matter.
Table 2.2: Comparison between Physical and chemical properties.
Physical properties Chemical properties
Properties can be measured or observed Properties that describe how a

without changing the chemical nature substance changes (or resists change)
of the substance. to form a new substance.
Easily identified. Cannot be determined just by viewing

T
or touching the substance.
ES
The composition or identity of a The substance‘s internal structure must
substance not change. be affected for its chemical properties
to be investigated.
RT
Examples: color, density, volume, Examples :Flammability and reactivity

melting. boiling. Conductivity.
FO
Exercise 2.5
1. Classify each of the following properties as a physical property or a
chemical property.
a. Iron metal rusts in an atmosphere of moist air.
b. Mercury metal is a liquid at room temperature.
c. Nickel metal dissolves in acid to produce a light green solution.
d. Potassium metal has a melting point of 63°C.
e. Copper metal possesses a reddish brown color.
f. Titanium metal can be drawn into thin wires.
37
38
GRADE 7
g. Beryllium metal, when inhaled in a finely divided form, can
produce serious lung disease.
h. Silver metal shows no sign of reaction when placed in
hydrochloric acid.
i. Lead is denser than aluminum.
j. Flammability of plastics.
2. Classify each of the following properties as intensive property
or extensive property.
a. boiling point b. length c. mass d. Color
e. density f. volume g. melting point
3. Categorize the following physical properties as physical
properties recognized by our sense organs or measurable
physical properties T
a. Density b. odor c. taste d. melting point
ES
e. color f. conductivity
2.3. Classification of substances

RT

• Use the particle theory to describe the difference between pure
FO
substances and mixtures

• Differentiate between elements and compounds.
• Classify common elements into metals and non-metals.
• Investigate the properties of metals and non-metals and compile
a list of general properties.
• Investigate the properties of non-metals and compile a list of
general properties.
• Describe and classify mixtures as homogeneous and heterogeneous.
• Use models/ particles diagrams to show differences between
homogenous and heterogeneous.
• Describe the relationship among elements, compounds, mixtures,
homogenous mixture and heterogeneous mixtures.
39
GRADE 7
Activity 2.8
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your findings to
the rest of the class.
1 Consider the following substances: chalk, bronze, sugar
solution, iron, water, milk, oxygen, copper, gold, sugar, table salt,
cooking oil, sulfur, air, silver, hydrogen, ink, chlorine and soil.
Classify them are pure substance or mixture.

Among pure substance ,state whether it is an element or a
compound
In addition to its classification by physical state, matter can also be
classified in terms of its chemical composition into two broad
T
categories: pure substances and mixtures.
ES
MATTER
Anything that has mass
RT
and occupies space
PURE SUBSTANCE MIXTURE

Only one substance Physical combination of
FO
present
Figure 2.5 Matter falls into two basic classes: pure substances and mixtures.
2.3.1. A pure substance

Pure substance is a single kind of matter that cannot be separated
into other kinds of matter by any physical means. All samples of a
pure substance contain only that substance and nothing else. Pure
water is water and nothing else. A pure substance always has a
definite and constant composition. Some other common examples of
pure substances are oxygen, sulfur, copper, silver, gold, sugar, table
salt, water and carbon dioxide. Pure substances are classified as
elements and compounds.
40
GRADE 7
PURE SUBSTANCE
Only one substance
present
ELEMENT COMPOUND
Cannot be broken down Can be broken down into
into simpler substances by constiiuent elements by
chemical,but not physical
chemical or physics means
means
Figure 2.6 a pure substance can be either an element or a compound.
2.3.2 Elements and compounds

T
ES
Elements: An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken
down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. It is
composed of only one kind of particle (atoms), which is the smallest
RT
particle of an element. At present, 118 elements are known. Among

these elements, 92 of them occur naturally on earth while the rest
are man-made or artificial elements. Elements might be divided into
FO
metals and non-metals.

Metals: Many chemical elements are referred to as metals. Some
examples of metals are gold, iron, silver, copper, aluminum, sodium
and lead.
Metals are characterized by the following physical properties
• They are shiny (lustrous) in nature

• They are good conductor of heat and electricity
• Their density and melting point is high
• Moldable (Malleable): malleability is the ability of a substance
to be pressed into sheets when hammered.
• Ductile: ductility is the ability to be drawn into thin wire
• Are solid at room temperature except mercury that are found
in liquid state.
41
GRADE 7
Figure 2.7: Image of copper, silver & gold
Non-metals: non-metal is a chemical element that does not have

metal’s properties and are few in numbers as compared to metal.
Carbon, oxygen, sulfur, fluorine and phosphorous are some
common examples of nonmetal.
T
Activity 2.9
ES
Perform the following activity
Which non-metal is essential for our life?
RT
They are characterized by the following physical properties.

These are
• They exist in two of the three states of matter at room temperature:
gases (oxygen) and solids (carbon). Only bromine exists as a liquid
FO
at room temperature.
• They are not shiny (dull appearance), and are non-conductors of
heat and electricity
• They have relatively, low melting points and boiling points.
Figure 2.8: Images of carbon and sulfur
42
GRADE 7
Table 2.3: Comparing properties of metals and non-metals.

Metals Non-metals
These are solids at room temperature These exist in all three states
except mercury
These are very hard except sodium These are soft except diamond
These are malleable and ductile These are brittle and can break down into pieces
These are shiny These are non-lustrous except iodine
Electropositive in nature Electronegative in nature
Have high densities. Have low density
Compounds
Compounds T
A compound is a pure substance that is made up of more than one type of atom
ES
A bonded
compoundtogetheris
. Aa compound can be broken
pure substance intomade
that is two orup more
of elements
more than by aone
type of atom
chemical bonded
means. together.
For example, A compound
Water is a compound. canBybemeans
brokenof aninto two or
electric
RT
more elements
current, water canby be abroken
chemical means.
down into Forhydrogen
the gases example, and Water
oxygen, is
botha of
com-
pound. By elements.
which are means of Thean electric
ultimate current,products
breakdown waterforcananybecompound
broken are down
into the gases hydrogen and oxygen, both of which are elements.
elements. Elements can combine with other elements to form compounds. Sodium
The ultimate breakdown products for any compound are elements.
FO
chloride is formed by the combination of sodium and chlorine elements. Such

Elements can combine with other elements to form compounds.
types of compounds that are formed by the combination of two different elements
Sodium chloride is formed by the combination of sodium and
are called binary compounds.
chlorine elements. Most binary
Such types compounds contain
of compounds metallic
that are formedand non-
by the
combination of two
metallic elements. Somedifferent
examples ofelements are called
binary compounds binaryoxide
are calcium compounds.
(lime)
Most
from binary compounds
calcium and contain
oxygen, Carbon dioxidemetallic andandnon-metallic
from carbon oxygen, etc. elements.
Some
Whatexamples
distinguishesofanbinary
elementcompounds
from a compound?are calcium oxide
A compound‘s (lime)are
properties from
calcium and oxygen, Carbon dioxide from carbon and oxygen, etc.
always different from those of its component elements, because the elements are
What distinguishes an element from a compound?
chemically rather than physically combined in the compound.
A compound’s properties are always different from those
of its component elements, because the elements are
chemically rather than physically 42 combined in the compound.
43
GRADE 7
Experiment 2.2
Title: Distinguishing compounds and mixtures.

Objective: To investigate the difference between a compound and a
mixture.
Materials Required: Small bar magnet, iron filings, powdered
sulfur, test tube, Bunsen burner, magnifying glass, test tube tong, sand,
beam balance, watch glass and test tube made from soda glass tube.
Procedure
Part I
Prepare a mixture containing iron powder and sulfur
powder in the ratio 7:4 by mass. Do this by weighing out 7 g of
iron powder and 4 g of finely powdered sulfur onto separate
pieces of filter paper (or use weighing boats). Mix the two
T
powders by pouring repeatedly from one piece of paper to the
ES
other until a homogeneous mixture (by appearance) is obtained.
Note the appearance of the pure elements and the
mixture. Demonstrate that iron can be separated from
RT
the mixture by physical means. Do this by bring one end

of a magnet close to the mixture as shown in figure 2.9
FO
44
GRADE 7
Questions: i .What did you observe as you bring the magnet close
to the mixture?
ii. What did you observe under the magnifying glass?
Part II 1. Place about 2 g of the mixture into a soda glass tube
2. Insert a plug of mineral wool (mineral fiber) into the
mouth of the test tube. Clamp the test tube as shown
in the diagram
3. Heat the powder mixture at the base of the test tube
gently at first and then more strongly (use a blue flame
throughout). Heat until an orange glow is seen inside
the test tube. Immediately stop heating. Let the students
T
see that the glow continues and moves steadily through
ES
the mixture.
4. Allow the test tube to cool down.
5. Once cool, it is possible to break open the test tube to
RT
show the appearance of the product, iron (II) sulfide.

The test tube can be broken open using a pestle and
mortar. It is advisable to wear protective gloves.
FO
6. Take the product formed and powder it. Examine the

product under a magnifying glass. Bring a magnet
over it.
45
GRADE 7
2.3.3. Mixtures
Activities 2.10
Discuss the following ideas in groups and present your opinion
to the rest
of the class.
1. Suppose a teaspoon of magnesium filings and a teaspoon of
powdered sulfur are placed together in a metal beaker. Would
this constitute a mixture or a pure substance? Suppose the
magnesium filings and sulfur are heated so they react with
each other, forming magnesium sulfide. Would this still be a
“mixture”? Why or why not?
2. What is the difference between pure water and a solution of
sodium chloride in water?
T
3. Do you think air is a pure substance or a mixture? Why?
ES
A mixture is a physical combination of two or more pure substanc-
es in which each substance retains its own properties. Components
of a mixture retain their identity because they are physically mixed
RT
rather than chemically combined. Consider a mixture of small rock salt

crystals and ordinary sand. Mixing these two substances changes
neither the salt nor the sand in any way. Common mixtures include:
Soil- a mixture of different sized particles and plant material,
FO
Cooking oil – a mixture of vegetable oils.

Ink- contains a mixture of dyes, dissolved in alcohol and water,
Milk- contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats, water, minerals,
Air- contain oxygen, nitrogen , carbon dioxide.
Mixtures are sub classified as heterogeneous or homogeneous.
Homogeneous Mixture
Activity 2.11

The following substances are given: air, milk, soil, salt solution,
brass, chalk, water, cooking oil, gold, silver, sugar solution, Pepsi.
Identify which are the homogeneous mixture
46
GRADE 7
Homogenous mixtures are a combination of two or more

substances that has the same composition throughout and has no
visible
mixture boundary. A homogeneous
also called solution. For example,mixture alsoof called
a mixture solution.
table salt For
and water (salt
example, a mixture of table salt and water (salt solution) is a homo-
solution) is a homogeneous mixture because all the parts of the solution have the
geneous mixture because all the parts of the solution have the same
same salt-water
salt-water composition.Homogeneous
composition. Homogeneous mixture
mixture(solution) may exist
(solution) mayinexist
one of
in
theone
threeofstates
the three states
i.e. solid, i.e.and
liquids solid,
gas. liquids and gas.
Table 2.4: state and type of homogeneous mixture (solution)
Type of homogeneous Common examples
mixture(solution)
Gaseous Gas in gas Air, mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
Liquids Gas in liquid T Soft drinks(Pepsi, Miranda, coca

cola),beer
ES
Liquid in liquid Alcohol in water
RT
Solid in liquid Salt solution, sugar solution
Solids Solid in a solid brass (Zn/Cu), Bronze (cu/Sn)

FO
Vinegar Steel Sugar solution
Figure 2.11: Some common examples of homogeneous mixture

Figure 2.11: Some common examples of homogeneous mixture
46
47
GRADE 7
Activity 2.12
Heterogeneous Mixtures
Activity 2.12
Consider the following substances: ethanol alcohol, bronze, sugar
Perform the iron,
solution, following tasksmilk,
water, in groups and present
oxygen, yourgold,
copper, findings to thetable
sugar, rest ofsalt,
the
class.
cooking oil, sulfur, air, silver, charcoal, ink, chlorine and soil.
Consider the following substances: ethanol alcohol, bronze, sugar solution, iron,
water,
Thenmilk, oxygen,
identify amongcopper, list ofsugar,
the gold, table salt,
substances cooking
which areoil, sulfur, air,
silver, charcoal, ink,mixture
heterogeneous chlorine and soil.
Then identify among the list of substances which are heterogeneous mixture
Heterogeneous mixtures are a combination of two or more substances that has no

T
uniform composition throughout and contains one or more visible boundaries
ES
between the components. The components of a heterogeneous mixture can be
identified by our naked eyes or with the help of a microscope or a magnifying
RT
glass. For example, a mixture of sulfur and iron filings is a heterogeneous mixture.
This is because the sulfur particles remain visible and physically separated. Others
Examples of heterogeneous mixture are blood, milk, Mixture of sand and water,
FO
river water, muddy water, benzene and water, oil and water, dusty air, soil etc.
Soup Soil
Blood
Figure 2.12:some common examples of heterogeneous mixtures
47
48
GRADE 7
Figure 2.12:some common examples of heterogeneous mixtures
Table 2.5: Differences between homogenous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture
It has a uniform composition It has a non-uniform composition
It has only one phase There are two or more phase
The constituent cannot be seen easily. The constituent can be seen easily
‗Homo‘ means the same ‗Hetero‘ means different
E.g. sugar solution, soft drinks, salt Milk, soil. sand and water, oil and
solution, water
I Answer
Exercise 2.6
the following
T
Exercise 2.6
questions correctly
ES
1. Classify each of the following as a mixture or a pure substance.
1. Classify each of the following as a mixture
a. Water b. uranium c. blood d .alcohol e. the oceansorf.airon
pure substance.
g. table salt
h. brass i. hydrogen
a.Water j gold, k c.
b. uranium sugar.
blood L. milk dM. honey N. benzene
.alcohol e. the oceans
RT
Of the pure substances, which are elements and which are compounds?
f. iron g. table salt h. brass i. hydrogen j gold,
2. Define and
k sugar. l. milk give four examples illustrating n.
m. honey each of the following terms.
benzene
a. element b. compound C. homogeneous mixture d. heterogeneous mixture
Of the pure substances, which are elements and which are
II. Choose the best answers for the following questions
compounds?
FO
2.1. Define
Which ofand the following
give four is metallic
examples liquid element at room
illustrating eachtemperature
of the following
A. terms.
bromine B. mercury c. sodium D. iron
a. element
2. Substance b. compound
y is hard, c. homogeneous
lustrous solid which readily conduct mixture
heat and electricity. Y
d. heterogeneous
is likely to be: mixture
II.
A. Choose the best C.
Salt. B. metalloid answers
Metal D.for nonthe following questions
metal
1.3.Which of the following is metallic liquid element at room
Which of the following substance make a homogeneous mixture with water
temperature?
A. benzene B. oil C. sugar D. sulfur
A. bromine B. mercury C. sodium D. iron
4. Which substance is not a mixture?
2. Substance y is hard, lustrous solid which readily conduct heat
and electricity. Y is likely to be:
A. A.air Salt.
B. seaB.water
metalloidC. pureC.
water 48 D. D.
Metal brass
non metal
3. Which of thearound
2.4. Changes following substance
Us: Physical make aChanges
and Chemical homogeneous mixture
with water? this section, you will be able to
After completing
A. benzene
 Describe physicalB.andoil C. sugar
chemical change D. sulfur
 Distinguish the physical and chemical changes using their characteristic
49
 Conduct some simple activities to show physical and chemical changes and
GRADE 7
A. air B. sea water C. pure water D. brass
2.4. Change around Us: Physical and Chemical Changes
2.4. Changes around Us: Physical and Chemical Changes
 Describe physical and chemical change
 Distinguish the physical and chemical changes using their characteristic
 Conduct some simple activities to show physical and chemical changes and
write group report.
 Observe and describe physical chemical changes that are important in everyday life.
 Identify useful and harmful physical and chemical changes.
Activity 2.13
Activity 2.13
The followings are day to day activities in your home. Copy and complete the
The followings are day to day activities in your home. Copy and complete
table, by identifying which activities represent ―physical change‖ and which one
T
the table,―Chemical
represent by identifying which
change" activities
by giving represent
reasons for your“physical
choice change” and
which one represent “Chemical change" by giving reasons for your choice
ES
Name of activities Physical Chemical
changes
Name of activities Physical changeschangesChemical
Reasons Reasons
RT
Burning of charcoal changes

Burning of charcoal
Melts of ice
Melts of ice
Dissolving sugar
Dissolving sugarinin
FO
water
water
Fermentation
Fermentation
Rusting of nail
Rusting of nail
Evaporation of water
Evaporation
Spoilage of water
of food
Burning
Spoilage candle
of food
Burning candle
49
50
GRADE 7
Change is happening all around us all of the time. Changes are

classified as either physical or chemical changes.
2.4.1. Physical change
A physical change is a process in which a
substance changes its physical appearance
but not its chemical composition. A new
substance is never formed as a result of a
physical change. A change in physical
state is the most common type of physical
change. Melting, freezing, evaporation,
and condensation are all changes of state.
In any of these processes, the composition Figure 2.13: melting of ice
T
of the substance undergoing change remains the same even though
its physical state and appearance change. The melting of ice does
ES
not produce a new substance; the substance is water both before and
after the change. Similarly, the steam produced from boiling water
is still water. Melting of ice, Grinding salt, Tearing paper into small
RT
pieces, Making an iron bar magnetic, evaporation of water,

dissolving sugar in water and breaking a stick are common examples
of physical changes.
FO
2.4.2. Chemical change

A chemical change is a process in
which a substance undergoes a change
in chemical composition. Chemical
changes always involve conversion of
the material or materials under
consideration into one or
more new substances, each of which Figure 2.14: burning of candle
has properties and composition distinctly different from those of the
original materials. Consider, for example, the rusting of iron objects
left exposed to moist air. Some examples of chemical changes are:
Iron nail going rusty, heating magnesium ribbon, Burning candle.
photosynthesis,fermentation,etc
51
GRADE 7
Experiment 2.3
Title: Rusting of iron.
Objective: To investigate the type of change that occurs during
rusting of iron
Procedure:
1. Put a few lean, shiny iron nails into a test tube containing some
fresh tap water. The water contains dissolved air.
2. Set the test tube in a rack. After a few days observe the change
that has taken place.
T
ES
Figure: 2.15 rusting of iron

RT
Questions
1. What color do you observe on the iron nail?

2. Is the change physical or chemical? Why?
FO
2.4.3 Characterstics of physical and chemical changes
Activity 2.14
Discuss the following idea in groups and present your opinion to the
rest of the class
1. List the characteristics of physical and chemical changes yo know
2. Compare and contrast the characteristics of physical and chemical
changes
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GRADE 7
Characteristics of physical change
 No new substance is formed

 The composition of substance not altered
 It is easily reversed by physical means
 Energy changes are not neccerily
 It is a change in physical property
Characteristics of Chemical change
 New substances with new properties are formed

 The composition of substance altered
T
 It is accompanied by Energy changes
ES
 The change is not easily reversed
 It is a change in physical property
2.4.4 Useful and and
2.4.3. Useful Harmful physical
Harmful physical and Chemical
and Chemical Changes
Changes
RT
Activity 2.15
Activity 2.15
Perform
Perform the the following
following tasks inand
tasks in groups groups and your
present present your findings
findings to of
to the rest the
rest of the class.
FO
the class.
List the important
List the important and harmfulandphysical
harmfuland
physical andchanges
chemical chemical
thatchanges that
encounter
encounter in our live.
in our live.
a. important physical changes
a. important physical changes
b. important
b. important chemicalchemical
changeschanges
c. harmfulc. physical changes changes
harmful physical
d. harmful
d. chemical changes changes
harmful chemical
Useful effect of Physical changes

Physical changes is useful in the following ways:
 Evaporation and condensation create water cycle
52
53
GRADE 7
 Freezing preserves food, medicine, and other materials

 Melting, cutting, bending and mould different tools and accessories
 To get substances in the form, shape or size we want
 To mix two or more substances together
 To separate substances from their mixtures
Harmful effect of Physical changes
Even many physical changes are useful, it may also be harmful in several way: like
cutting tree, bad weather condition, oil spills, etc.
Useful effect of chemical changes
ChemicalChemical
Changes Changes
is usefulisinuseful
the following ways: ways:
in the following
Photosynthesis: chemical changes which occur in plants (photosynthesis) produce
T
substances which enable plants to grow. We depend on plants for our food. The
ES
change which occur in the food we consume are chemical change
Energy production: Most of the energy used nowadays, with the exception of
wind, water and nuclear energy, is chemical energy. This energy released as heat or
RT
electricity when certain chemical change takes place.

Food & medicine production, Food digestion, Fermentation, food cooking, etc. are
also some important chemical change in our live.
FO
-To producenew
To produce new substance
substance
Harmful effect of Chemical changes
In contrast to its usefulness, some chemical change has negative impact. For
example Rusting (rusting of car, bridges, and ships), souring food, burning of fuel,
smoke emission, plastic disposal, dumping of chemicals, etc. are harmful chemical
change in our live.
Exercise2.7
1. Classify the following as physical changes or chemical changes.
a. the cutting of wood f. photosynthesis
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54
GRADE 7
Exercise2.7
I Answer the following questions correctly
1.Classify the following as physical changes or chemical changes.
a. the cutting of wood
b. interaction of food with saliva and digestive enzymes
c. The vigorous reaction of potassium metal with water to
produce hydrogen gas is a change.
d. Straightening a bent piece of iron with a hammer is an
example of a change.
e. The ignition and burning of a match involve a change
f. photosynthesis
g. boiling of an egg.
h. boiling of water
i. dissolution of salt
T
ES
II. Choose the best answers for the following questions
1. Change in size, shape and state of a substance is a____
A. chemical change B. Physical change
RT
C. cyclic change D. none

2. Which of the following statements is correct?
A. Evaporation is a chemical change
FO
B. Digestion of food is chemical change

C. Burning of paper is physical change
D. all
3. among the following which is a physical change?
A. Burning candle B. fermentation
C. making an iron bar magnetic D. all
2.5. Separation of Mixtures and its Application periods
• List methods of separation of mixtures
• Give some specific examples of mixtures that can be
eparated by filtration, decantation, simple distillation,
magnetic separation and using separator funnel
• Name apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple
distillation, using separator funnel.
55
GRADE 7
• Assemble apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple

distillation, separator funnel
• Conduct and report on an investigation that uses physical
means such as particle size, density, boiling point, solubility
and magnetism to separation.
• Perform simple activities in group, to carry out the separation
of mixtures using local materials and write a group report.
• Compare and evaluate the different ways of separating
mixtures from products in community.
Activity 2.16
Discuss the following questions in groups and present your
conclusion to the class
T
1. Write the common separation methods you know for the
following common mixtures from your daily life experiences
ES
A. Teff and peas
B. A mixture of iron filings and sulfur powder
RT
C. A mixture of chalk particles in water

D. A mixture of cooking oil and water
E. Salt solution
F. A mixture of alcohol and water
FO
G. a mixture of salt and sand

H. mixture of orange, banana and mango
2.5.1. Separation Techniques of Mixture

Most of the substances around us exist in the form of mixtures.
However, these mixtures can be separated into pure substances using
various separation techniques. The process of separating the constitu-
ent substances of a mixture by physical methods, taking advantage of
the differences in their physical properties is called separation process.
56
GRADE 7
Some of the methods used to separate mixtures are Separation
by hand, sieving filtration, evaporation, magnetic separation,
decantation and distillation. Note that the methods for the
separation of mixtures into their components depend on the
differences in the size, magnetic property, melting point, boiling
point, solubility, etc. of the components. We will discuss some of
the methods that are used to separate the components of mixtures.
I. Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separation is used to separate magnetic and non-magnetic
substances in a mixture. For example, if sand is mixed with iron
filings the mixture is heterogeneous. To separate the iron filings from
the sand, you can use a magnet. The iron filings (magnetic
component) are attracted by the magnet, while the sand does
T
not attracted.
ES
RT
FO
b
a
Figure 2.16 (a) the mixture contains iron fillings and sand. (b) A magnet
separates the iron fillings from the mixtures.
57
GRADE 7
Experiment 2.4
Title: Separation of mixture using bar magnet
Objective: To separate a mixture of iron fillings and sand
Equipment/ Materials
Magnetic bar, Iron fillings, Sand, Petri dish/ plastic plate/bowl Plastic bag/wrapper, Spatula
Other requirements: Working bench/table, Open space, Laboratory coat, Eye goggles,
Nose mask, and Hand gloves.
Experimental Procedure
1. Mix the sand with the iron filings in the plastic plate.
2. Wrap the plastic bag around the bar magnet
3. Suspend the bar magnet over the plate

T
4. The iron would be collected / attracted to the surface of the magnetic bar
ES
5. Carefully remove the plastic bag around the magnetic bar and scrape off the iron filings
RT
FO
Figure 2.17 mixture of sand and iron fillings
On completion of the experiment, you should answer the following questions
1. Why was the sand not attracted to the magnet? What can you conclude from
this experiment?
2. Can the same procedure be used to separate carpenter‘s nails from saw dust?
Give a reason(s) for your answer.
II.Decantation
57
58
GRADE 7
II.Decantation
What type of separation method is used to get a cup of clear coffee as it is poured
from coffee pot (―jebena‖) as shown in Figure 2.18?
T
ES
Figure 2.18: Separation by decantation
RT
Decantation is the process of separation of liquid from solid and other immiscible
(non-mixing) liquids, by removing the liquid layer at the top from the layer of solid
or liquid below. The process can be carried out by tilting the mixture after pouring
out the top layer. This process can also be used to separate two liquids that do not
FO
mix with each other for e.g. cooking oil and water. When we leave the mixture of
cooking oil and water, two separate layers are formed, with water at the bottom
and oil, being lighter, at the top. We can remove the oil layer from the top by
pouring it into another vessel, which leaves us with the water layer at the bottom.
Figure 2.19: Decantation of solids from a solid-liquid mixture

Figure 2.19: Decanation of solid from
58
a solid-liquid mixture
59
GRADE 7
Separating funnel: When two liquids do not mix, they form two separate
layers and are known as immiscible liquids. These two liquids can be separated
by using a separating funnel. A separating funnel is a special type of glass funnel,
which has a stop-cock in its stem to regu-
late the flow of liquid. It will separate the
immiscible liquids into two distinct layers
depending on their densities. The heavier
liquid forms the lower layer while the l
ighter one forms the upper layer. Remove
the stopper and open the tap to run the
lower layer into a beaker. You will be left
behind with just the upper layer in the
funnel. Collect this liquid into another
T
beaker. Figure 2.20: Separation of immiscible
Examples: Kerosene and water mixture is liquids using separating funnel
ES
separated by using separating funnel
method. This method is also used to
RT
separate oil and water.

III. Filtration:
Filtration is a process by which insoluble
solids can be removed from a liquid by
FO
using a filter paper. A filter paper is a spe-

cial type of paper which has pores that are
tiny enough to let only liquids pass through
it. If you pass a solution through filter pa-
per, any un dissolved solid particles will get
left behind on the paper whereas the liquid Figure 2.21: Filtration
will filter through. The liquid that
passes through is called the filtrate and the un dissolved solid particles are called
residue. Example: A mixture of chalk powder and water, soil and water, sand and
salt solution, etc. can be separated by this method. In practical application, filtra-
tion is a key step in the purification of the tap water you drink.
60
GRADE 7
Iv. Evaporation
Activity 2.17
Perform the following activity.
Dissolve sodium chloride (or any other
soluble salt) and water to forms a
homogeneous
mixture (solution).How can you recover
the salt again?
Figure 2.22: Evaporation of a solution
Evaporation is a method used to separate a soluble solid from a

liquid in a solution or the process. of vaporizing the solvent to
obtain the solute. It is used to separate a mixture containing a
T
non-volatile, soluble solid from its volatile, liquid solvent. We can
separate salt from a solution by evaporating the water from the solution.
ES
V. Distillation:
This method is used for the separation of a mixture
RT
containing two miscible liquids that boil without decomposing and

have a large difference between their boiling points. It also used in
obtaining pure water from salt solution. Process of conversion of
FO
a liquid into vapor by boiling, and then re-condensing the vapor

into liquid is called distillation. In simple distillation, a mixture is
heated and the most volatile component vaporizes at the lowest
temperature. The vapor passes through a cooled tube (a condenser),
where it condenses back into its liquid state. The condensate that is
collected is called distillate. Figure show the simple distillation set up
Figure 2.23: simple distillation set up
61
GRADE 7
A mixture of two miscible liquids can also be separated by

simple distillation. Liquids which mix with each other to form a
solution are called miscible liquids. The mixture of alcohol and
water, benzene and oil are some examples of miscible liquids.
Consider a mixture of alcohol and water. Ethanol, which is an
alcohol boils at 78°C, and water boils at 100°C. When the mixture
is heated, the alcohol, which has the lower boiling point vaporizes
more rapidly than the water. The vapor of alcohol passes through
the condenser and then collected as a distillate in the receiver.
Activity 2.18
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your conclusion
T
to the class. The following mixtures can be separated using a
combination of separation techniques. Mention all the possible
ES
separation techniques.
i Mixture of salt, sand and water
RT
ii Mixture of common salt, iron filling and salt

iii Mixture of oil, water and sand
iv sugar and clay
FO
Is one separation method enough when salt and sand is mixed

with water? Sometimes to separate such mixture may require
combination of two or more techniques. For example,
a mixture of common salt and sand can be separated by using the
process of dissolving, filtration and evaporation. The first stage
of separation is adding water to the mixture. The salt dissolves in
water and forms a solution, but not the sand. Then by using filtration,
the sand can be separated from the salt solution. Finally evaporation
of the filtrate will cause the water to escape leaving the salt behind.
62
techniques. For example, a mixture of common salt and sand can be separated by
General
using theScience
process of dissolving, filtration and evaporation. Student TextBook
The first stage of
GRADE 7
separation is adding water to the mixture. The salt dissolves in water and forms a
solution, but not the sand. Then by using filtration, the sand can be separated from
the salt solution. Finally evaporation of the filtrate will cause the water to escape
leaving the salt behind.
Activity 2.19
2.5.2. Application of separation techniques.
Perform the following tasks by asking your parents/guardians /grandparents/
Activity 2.19
elders in the neighborhood on the separation techniques used in daily lives.
Perform the following tasks by asking your parents/guardians
Prepare a table of such activities of daily life in which sedimentation,
/grandparents/elders in the neighborhood on the separation techniques used in
decantation, filtration and evaporation are used/occurs. Then present your
daily lives. Prepare a table of such activities of daily life in which sedimentation,
findings to the whole class.
decantation, filtration and evaporation are used/occurs. Then present your
findings 2.5.2.
to the whole class.
Application of separation techniques.
Table 2.5 application of various separation techniques
No. Physical process Application

Filtration
T  River water is potable
ES
 Separation of honey from its comb
Evaporation  Common salt is obtained from sea
RT
water on large scale.

Distillation  Alcoholic beverage such as
whisky, gin, brandy, areki are
manufactured.
FO
Magnetic separation  To separate iron and steel from non

–magnetic objects such as, glass,
plastic, aluminum, etc.
Sedimentation followed by  Drink homemade coffee, tella
decantation
62
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GRADE 7
Project Work
Separation of mixtures using local materials
There is a mixture of table salt, sulfur powder and iron filing inside
a beaker.
By using any local materials that are found around you, try to sepa-
rate this mixture into their components.
Hint: Both sulfur powder and iron filing are insoluble in water
whereas sodium chloride (table salt) is soluble in water.
Write a group report: In your report indicate the separation tech-

niques and the materials used during the separation processes
T
ES
Exercise 2.8
I. Give short answers.
1. How would you separate the following?
RT
a. salt solution b. Common salt and sand

c. iron and charcoal d. Oil, water and sand
e. nitrogen and oxygen
FO
2. Name the separation technique shown in the diagram
A B C
D E F
64
GRADE 7
Unit Review
Check List Competencies given below are expected to be achieved in this unit by
students. You are required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√) mark
under ―Yes‖ column if you are able to perform the competency or under ―No‖
column if you are unable to perform the competency. This would help to evaluate
yourself and you can revise the parts of topics for which the competencies are not
met.
No. Can I Yes No
1. Define matter with examples from day today life.
2 Demonstrate that matter made up of tiny particles.
3 State the postulates of the particle theory of matter
5
T
Infer the particulate nature of matter from demonstration/investigation.
Apply particle nature of matter in explaining diffusion and every day effect
ES
of diffusion.
6 Describe and/or make a representation of the arrangement, relative spacing,

RT
and relative motion of the particles in each of the three states of matter
7 Describe and explain compression in terms of distance between particles
8 Use the terms melting, condensing, and freezing/solidification to describe

changes of stat
FO
9 Use the particulate nature of matter to explain: Melting, Freezing/

solidification, Evaporation, Condensation
10 Describe physical Properties
11 Use physical properties of matter to identify substances
12 Conduct experiments to identify properties of substances and make group

report.
64
65
GRADE 7
13 Identify chemical properties
14 Distinguish between physical and chemical properties.
15 Use the particle theory to describe the difference between pure substances
and mixtures
16 Differentiate between elements and compounds
17 Classify common elements into metals and non-metal
18 Investigate the properties of metals and compile a list of general properties
19 Investigate the properties of non -metals and compile a list of general

properties.
20 Describe and classify mixtures into homogenous and heterogeneous.
21 Use models/ particles diagram to show differences between homogenous

T
and heterogeneous.
ES
22 Describe the relationship among elements, compounds, mixtures,
homogenous mixture and heterogeneous mixture.
23 Describe physical and chemical change.

RT
24 Distinguish the physical and chemical changes using their characteristics.
25 Conduct some simple activities to show physical and chemical changes and
write group report.
FO
26 Observe and describe physical chemical changes that are important in

everyday life.
27 Identify useful and harmful changes
28 List methods of separation of mixture
29 Give some specific examples of mixtures that can be separated by filtration,

decantation, simple distillation, magnetic separation and using separator
funnel
65
66
GRADE 7
30 Name apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple distillation, using

separator funnel.
31 Assemble apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple distillation,

separator funnel.
32 Conduct and report on an investigation that uses physical means such as

particle size, density, boiling point, solubility and magnetism to separation
33 Perform simple activities in group to carry out the separation of mixtures

using local materials and write a group report
34 Compare and evaluate the different ways of separating mixtures from

products in community
Key terms
T
ES
Matter Magnetic separation Physical changes
Particle theory Decantation Compounds

RT
Diffusion Pure substance Elements
Physical property Mixture Distillation
Chemical property Non metal Evaporation

FO
Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture Filtration
Sublimation Density Freezing
Boiling point Freezing point
66
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GRADE 7
Unit Summary
 Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It can exist in three
states: solid, liquid, and gas.
 The idea that matter is made up of tiny particles is called the Particulate
nature of matter.
 Particle theory of matter tell us the particles of matter are always moving.
 Diffusion is the mixing and spreading out of a substance with another
substance due to the movement or motion of its particles.
 The three states of matter (solids, liquids and gases) can be interconverted
without changing the composition of the substance. To change a substance
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from one state to another, energy must be added or removed. Melting,
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freezing, evaporation, and condensation are all changes of state.
 A physical property can be measured and observed without changing the
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composition or identity of a substance.

 A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that describes the way
the substance undergoes or resists change to form a new substance.
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 Matter can be classified in terms of its chemical composition into two broad
categories: pure substances and mixtures pure substances.
 A pure substance is a single kind of matter that cannot be separated into
other kinds of matter by any physical means.
 Pure substances are classified as elements and compounds.
 An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by ordinary chemical means.
 A compound is a pure substance composed of two or more elements that are
combined chemically in a definite proportion by mass.
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 A mixture is a physical combination of two or more pure substances in

which each substance retains its own properties.
 A homogeneous mixture (also known as solution) has a uniform
composition and properties throughout.
 Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that does not have a uniform
composition throughout.
 Changes are classified as either physical or chemical changes.
 A physical change is a process in which a substance changes its physical
appearance but not its chemical composition.
 A chemical change is a process in which a substance undergoes a change in
chemical composition. T
 Mixtures can be separated using a variety of techniques. The process of
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separating the constituent substances of a mixture by physical methods,
taking advantage of the differences in their physical properties is called
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separation process.
 Some of the methods used to separate mixtures are Separation by hand,
Sieving Filtration, evaporation, magnetic separation, decantation and
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distillation.
Review Exercise
Part I. Write „True‟ for the correct statements and „False‟ for the wrong
statements.
1. Depending upon the temperature, water can exist in solid, liquid or gas states.
2. A gas has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape.
3. Dust, smoke, bacteria, air born viral particles are component of particulate matter.
4. Elements can be further decomposed by ordinary chemical means.
5. Heterogeneous mixture contains one phase.
Part II: Choose the best answers for the following questions
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1. All of the followings are matter except
A. plant B. stone C. air D. sound
2. Which of the following decrease during the phase (state) changes of
Solids liquids gases
A. Degree of order among particles
B. Energies of particles
C. Speed of particles
D. Distance among particles
3. Which of the following is not the property of solids
A. Solids have little tendency to diffuse
B. Solids are extremely difficult to compress
C. Solids are fluids
D. Solids have definite volume and definite shapes
4. The particular physical state of substance depends on _
A. Temperature B. pressure D. strength of intermolecular force D. all
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5. Which of the following has no definite shape and volume?
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A. Water B. carbon dioxide C. iron D. gold
6. The interaction of substance with light results
A. Taste B. odor C. color D. texture
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7. Which of the following is not a physical change?

A. Sublimation of iodine C. tearing a piece of cloth
B. Burning of wax in a candle D. dissolving sugar in a tea
8. All of the following are heterogeneous mixtures except
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A Soil B. mixture of water and oil C. salt solution D. blood

9. Which of the following is not metal
A. iron B. Sulfur C. copper D. sodium
10.Which of the following has variable composition?
A. Water B. salt C. milk D. silver
11.A mixture of sand and sugar can be separated by
A. Evaporation followed by distillation
B. Filtration followed by evaporation
C. Dissolution followed by filtration and evaporation
D. Dissolution followed by evaporation and filtration.
12.The conversion of a vapor directly to solid without passing through a liquid state is
called___________
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A. Fusion B. evaporation C. sublimation D. deposition

13.Distillation is used in the process of preparation of
A. Coffee B. areki C.Tella D. honey
14. Identify the heterogeneous mixture among the following
A. Sea water B. blood C. bronze D. air
15.Grade 7 students in a certain school were given the task of separating, iron fillings,
sand and salt. Which of the following process is the most appropriate order?
A. Evaporation-Dissolution - filtration- magnetic separation
B. Dissolution –magnetic separation - filtration_ evaporation
C. Magnetic separation -Dissolution - filtration –evaporation
D. Magnetic separation - Dissolution – evaporation- filtration
16. I. Physical changes are easily reversible.
II. Physical change do not produce new substance
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III. Physical change do not involve change in mass.
Which of the above statement are correct?
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A.I B I and III C.II and III D. I, II and III
17. Which two state of matter are fluids?
A. Solid and liquid C. Liquid and gas
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B. Solid and gas D. Plasma and solid

18. All of the following are same process. EXCEPT
A. Condensation C. Crystallization
B. Freezing D. Solidification
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Part III Match the items in column „A‟ with items in column 'B'
AA B
B
1. Melting (fusion)
1. Melting (fusion) A. A.process of changing
process of changingliquidliquid
to gasto gas
2. Evaporation
2. Evaporation B. process of changing liquid
B. process of changing liquid to solid
to solid
3. Sublimation
3. Sublimation C. Process of changing solid to
C. Process of changing solid to gasgas
4. Freezing
4. Freezing D. D.Process of changing
Process gas togas
of changing solid
to solid
5. Deposition
5. Deposition E. process of changing gas to liquid
E. process of changing gas to liquid
6. Condensation
6. Condensation F. Process
F. Process of of changingsolid
changing solidtotoliquid
liquid
Part IV; Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms.
1. Immiscible
Part IV; Fillliquids
in thecan be separated
blanks by using_________
with appropriate terms.
2. Separating a solid from a solution by cooling is______
3. The separation technique
1. Immiscible liquids canthat
beinvolves
separatedheating a solution until the liquid changes
by using_________
into a gaseous state, leaving behind a solid is known
2. Separating a solid from a solution by cooling is______ as____
3. The separation technique that involves
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heating a solution until the liquid
changes into a gaseous state, leaving behind a solid is known as____
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4. When rain falls, this is because the water vapor in the clouds is condensing into
liquid _________?
5. I put dirty water into a funnel with a paper lining. Clean water comes out of the
funnel into my beaker and solid dirt gets left behind on the paper. This is an
example of___________
Part V: Give short answer to the following questions
1. What is diffusion?
2. Why do solids have fixed shape and volume?
3. Write the difference between extensive and intensive physical properties.
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Unit 3 Elements,compound and

Chemical Reaction
Learning Outcome
At the end of this unit, you will able to:
• Compare elements to compounds and how they are

represented by symbols and formulae.
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• Identify and write symbols of common elements
ES
or compounds.
• Name compounds given their formula and write
formula given.the name of the compound
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• Use symbols and chemical formulae as a way of

communicating information about elements and
compounds.
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• State and apply the Law of Mass conservation to

writing balanced equations.
• Interpret chemical formulae of,compounds in terms
of the elements present and the ratios of their atoms.
Main Contents
3.1. Elements and their representation

3.2 Compounds and their representation
3.3 Simple chemical reactions and equations
3.4 Uses of Chemical Reactions in Every Day Situation
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Introduction
Pure substance, whether an element or compound, has its own
unique name, symbol or formula. Scientists use chemical symbols in
place of the names of the elements because it helps for scientists in
writing chemical formulas and equations. The symbols and
formulas are designed in such a way that they are internationally
accepted.Therefore,they enable all scientists in the world to communicate
easily. Symbols and formulas of elements or compounds are used in
certain combination-ratios as a short hand representation of chemical
reaction and these short hand languages is known as chemical equation.
3.1. Elements and their representation
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After completing this section, you will be able to:
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• Define element.
• Identify symbols of some common elements.
• Write chemical symbols for common elements
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Activity 3.1
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1. From your previous knowledge, what is an element?
2. List some common elements you are familiar with. Try to
classify them as
a. metal b. non -metal
3.1.1. Common elements

An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. An element is
composed of only one kind of matter (atoms).There are 118 known
elements.92 out of 118 elements naturally occurring elements.
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As you have learnt in unit two, elements classified as metal and nonmetals.
Oxygen, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, hydrogen,
nitrogen, gold, silver, copper, sulfur, and chlorine are some common elements.
3.1.2. Chemical
3.1.2 Chemical symbols
symbols
Activity 3.2
Activity 3.2
Perform the following activities in group. Then present your opinion to the
Perform the following activities in group. Then present your opinion to the
whole class
whole class
1.1.What
Whatisisatomic
atomicsymbol?
symbol?
2. Explain why some symbols for examples He, Cl and Si-have two letters
2. Explain why some symbols for examples He, Cl and Si-have two letters
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Scientists use symbols as abbreviation of names of an elements. An atomic symbol
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is defined as shorthand way of representing elements or atoms of an element. .
Every element has its own symbol. No two elements can have the same symbol.
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How to write symbols of elements?

Chemists use chemical symbols in place of the names of the elements because they
are much easier and quicker to write symbol. A symbol for element is taken from
the first letter or the firs letter plus another letters of the common name or
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Latin/Greek name of the element. If a symbol has one letter it is written in capital
letter and if it has two letters the first is in capital and the second is in small letter.
For example S stands for sulfur, O stands for oxygen and K represents potassium.
In the case of potassium, the symbol is derived from the Latin name, Kalium.
Why are not all elements symbolized by the first letter of their names?
The names of some elements such as carbon and calcium begin with the same letter
―C‖. Therefore we cannot use the letter ―C‖ as a symbol for both elements. Hence two
letters are used for other elements except one. The first letter ―C‖ is assigned as a
symbol for carbon. The other element calcium is represented by two letter symbols Ca
The same things true for hydrogen and helium. The first letter “H” is
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assigned as a symbol for hydrogen while “He” symbol stands for element helium.
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.The same things true for hydrogen and helium. The first letter ―H‖ is assigned as a
symbol for hydrogen while ―He‖ symbol stands for element helium.
Table 3.1: Name and symbols of some elements
Name of elements Symbol Name of Symbol
elements
Hydrogen H Magnesium Mg
Helium. He Aluminum Al
Lithium Li Silicon Si
Beryllium Be Phosphorus P
Boron B Sulfur S
Carbon C Chlorine Cl
Nitrogen N Argon Ar
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Oxygen O Calcium Ca
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Fluorine F Zinc Zn
Neon Ne Bromine Br
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Magnesium Mg Iodine I
Symbols of element derived from their Latin names are listed below.
Symbols of 3.2:
Table element derived
Symbols from
of element theirfrom
derived Latin names
Latin names are listed below.
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Table 3.2: Symbols

English name of element
Latin namederived from Latin names
Symbol
Sodium
English name Natrium
Latin name Na Symbol
Potassium Kalium K
Sodium Natrium Na
Iron
Potassium FerrumKalium Fe K
Iron
Copper CuprumFerrum Cu Fe
Copper Cuprum Cu
Silver Argentum Ag
Silver Argentum Ag
Gold Aurum Au
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Lead Plumbum Pb
Tin Stannum Sn
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
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Exercise 3.1
I. Write true for correct statement and false for wrong statement
1.Ca is the symbol of sodium.
2.Water is not an element.
3.Elements are pure substance.
II. Multiple choice questions

4.Which of the following is the correct chemical symbol for silicon?
A. S B. Si C. SI D. Sl
5.“C” stands for_____
A. calcium B. Chlorine C. Carbon D. Copper
6.Fill the missing symbols and names of the elements in the
following table
T
ES
Name of element Symbol Name of element Symbol
Potassium Iodine
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He B
Chlorine calcium
Cu Nikel
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Gold H
Li silver
3.2. Compounds and their representation

• Define compound as a substance formed when two or more
elements chemically combined together.
• Define valence numbers as the combining power of an atom
• Write the formulae of simple binary compounds using symbols
and valences
• Name binary compounds
• Describe polyatomic ion
• Write the chemical formulas of common compounds that
contain polyatomic ions
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GRADE 7
• Name compounds containing polyatomic ions.
• Identify the elements and number of atoms, given a chemical
formula
3.2.1. Compounds
Activity 3.3
1. From your previous knowledge, what is a compound?
2. Copy the table on your exercise book and classify the
substance as element and compound.
Substance Element Compounds

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Sodium chloride
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(table salt)
Water
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Gold
As you have learnt in unit two, a compound is a pure

substance consists of two or more elements which have been
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chemically combined. For example, water is a compound of

hydrogen and oxygen. Each of its molecules contains two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. There are many different
compounds. Some examples of compounds are sodium chloride, iron
sulfide, carbon dioxide, sugar, calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, etc.
3.2.2. Chemical formulas
It is the symbolic representationof an element or a compound.
Chemical formulas can be classified as formulas of elements and
formulas of compounds.
Formulas of elements
The formula of an element consists of one kind of symbol.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that
has a stable,independent existence.
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The elements helium,neon,argon,krypton,xenon and radon are collectively known

as noble gas.Because they exist uncombined as single atoms,they are also known
as monoatomic gases. Their formula are the same as their symbols.Example He for
Helium, Ne for Neon Ar for Argon.
Some nonmetallic elements exist as molecules containing two, four, or eight
atoms. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are
found as diatomic molecules.
Table 3.3 symbols and formulas of diatomic elements.
Name Symbol Formula
Hydrogen H H2
Nitrogen
Oxygen
N
O
T N2
O2
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Fluorine F F2
Chlorine Cl Cl2
Bromine Br Br2
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Iodine I I2
Elemental formula also found in homo polyatomic molecules that contain more
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than two atoms. Examples

Ozone-O3, Phosphorus-P4 and Sulfur-S8
Formulas of compound
Elements combine to form compounds. Just as symbol is a shorthand way of
representing element, a chemical formula comprising two or more different
symbols, is a short hand representation of a compound. In formulas of compound,
the following points are noticed.
 In each formula, the symbol of elements which form the compound are given. Each
symbol is immediately followed by a subscript showing the number of atoms of
that element.
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 Chemical formulas indicate the relative number of atoms of each element present
in the compound.
 For example, water (H2O) is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. Each of its
molecules contains two hydrogen atoms (2H) and one oxygen atom (O).
Exercise 3.2
I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternative.
1. Elements exists as a diatomic and polyatomic molecular form except?
A. Phosphorus B Nitrogen C Oxygen D Neon
2. For which of the following do the atom and molecule have different formula?
A. Helium B. Argon C. Nitrogen D. Neon
3.2.3. Valence
3.2.3. Valencenumber
number
T
Activity 3.4
Activity 3.4
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Discuss iningroups
Discuss groupsand share
and your
share ideas
your to the
ideas toclass
the class
What
Whatisisvalence
valencenumber?
number?
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Elements combine in accordance to the laws of nature at atomic levels. Each

element in a formula of a compound has a combining power. The combining
power of an element is called valence. If we know the combining power (valence
FO
number) of the elements, it is easy to write the formula of a compound. Most

common elements have valence 1, 2, or 3.
Some elements have more than one valence number, which is different combining
powers under different conditions. Common examples of these elements that have
variable valence are iron, copper, lead and tin.
Ions are atoms that have positive or negative charge. The number of negative or
positive charge an ions carries is equal to the valence number of the ion.Thus, the
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GRADE 7
valences of of Cl-, O2- and Al3+= are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The following table
shows the combining power of some common elements.
Table 3.4: valences of some common elements.
Elements Valence 1 Valence 2 Valence 3
Name symbol Name symbol Name symbol
Metals Lithium Li Magnesium Mg Aluminum Al
Sodium Na Calcium Ca Iron(III) Fe
Potassium K Iron(II) Fe
Copper(I) Cu Zinc Zn
Silver Ag Lead(II) Pb
Non-metal Chlorine Cl Oxygen O Nitrogen N
Bromine Br Sulfur S
Iodine
Fluorine
I
F
T
ES
3.2.4.Formulas
3.2.4. Formulasof of Binary
Binary Compounds
Compounds
Binary compounds are compounds formed from two different types of elements.
RT
To write formulas of binary compounds, follow the following simple rule

i. Write the symbol of the elements
ii. Write the valence number above the symbol
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iii. Criss-cross the valence numbers to conserve charge or to become the compound
electrically neutral and write below the symbols. If the valence number is one omit
the subscript.
Examples write the formula for
a. Write the chemical formula for Potassium iodide
Solution
Step 1: K I
1 1
Step 2: K I
1 1
Step 3: K I = K1I1
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GRADE 7
Since the subscript is 1 we omit and the chemical formula for Potassium iodide is
KI.
b. Write the chemical formula for calcium chloride
Solution
Step 1 Ca Cl
2 1
Step 2: Ca Cl
1
2
Step 3 = CaCl2
Ca Cl
Therefore, the chemical formula for of
Therefore,
calciumthe chemical
chloride formula
is CaCl 2
for of calcium chloride is CaCl2
Exercise 3.3
Exercise 3.3
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1. Write the chemical formula for
1. Write the chemical formula for
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A .Copper (II) oxide B. Magnesium nitride C. sodium chloride
A .Copper (II) oxide
D. Aluminum Oxide E. Iron (III) Oxide
B. Magnesium nitride
F. Iron (II) bromide G. Silver Oxide H. Calcium fluoride
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C. sodium chloride
D. Aluminum
2. Write the Oxide
chemical name for
E. IronA.(III)
MgOOxide B. FeS C. AgCl
F.II.Iron (II)
Choose thebromide
correct answer from the given alternative
FO
G. Silver Oxide
3. Which of the following is the chemical formula of aluminum nitride
H. Calcium
A. Al5N3 fluoride B. Al3N2 C. AlN3 D. AlN
2. Write the chemical name for
4. How many valence number for aluminum? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D.5
A.
3.2.5.Naming
3.2.5.
MgOBinary
Naming B. Compounds
Binary FeS C. AgCl
Compounds
II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternative
Activity:3.5
3. Which
Perform ofthethe following
following is the chemical formula of aluminum
activities.
nitride?
A student wrote this name for a compound made of calcium and sulfur: Sulfur
A.calcium.
Al5N3 What B.is Al wrong
N withC.this
3 2
AlNname?
3
Write
D. AlNthe correct name for the
compound.2.
4. How many valence number for aluminum?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D.5
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3.2.5. Naming Binary Compounds
Activity:3.5
A student wrote this name for a compound made of calcium and
sulfur: Sulfur calcium. What is wrong with this name? Write the
correct name for the compound.
In naming a compound, the positive ion (metal) mention first

followed by the negative ion (nonmetal). Binary compound is a
compound
In naming that is made the
a compound, of only
positivetwo
ion different elements
(metal) mention in a certain
first followed by the
whole number
negative ratio. Binary compound is a compound that is made of only two
ion (nonmetal).
Rules for naming

different elements insimple
a certain binary compounds.
whole number ratio.
1.If the
name
Rules
If of
binary
the the
compounds
for naming
metal named
T
simple binaryconsists
compounds.
by its
of metal and non -metal, the
elemental namethe while
name the
of theletters of
ES
1. binary compounds consists of metal and non -metal, metal named
the non-metal
by its elementalis name
replaced byletters
while the the suffix-ide.
of the non-metal is replaced by the suffix-ide.
Table3.63.6
Table Names
Names of nonmetallic
of nonmetallic elements
elements in binaryin binary compounds
compounds
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Nonmetallic Name in Non-metallic Name in

Element Binary Element Binary
Nitrogen Nitride Bromine Bromide
Oxygen Oxide Iodine Iodide
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Fluorine Fluoride Phosphorous Phosphide

Chlorine Chloride Sulfur Sulfide
2. There arearemetals
2. There metals thatthatform form
moremore than
than one oneions.
positive positive
In naming ions. In
compounds
naming compounds
of metals with more than of metals with
one valence more
number, statethan one
valence valence
with number,
Roman number
state invalence
bracket towith
indicate Roman
positive number inFebracket
charge. Thus 2+ to (read
is Iron (II) indicate positive
as ‗‘ iron two ‗‘)
charge. Thus
3+ Fe 2+
is Iron (II) (read
and Fe is iron (III) (read as ―iron three‖) as ‘’ iron two ‘’) and Fe 3+
is iron
(III) Example:
(read as FeCl “iron3
three”)
Iron (III) chloride and FeO Iron (II) oxide
Example: FeCl
3.2.6. Polyatomic Ions3 Iron (III) chloride and FeO Iron (II) oxide
3.2.6.IonsPolyatomic Ions
are atoms or a group of atoms that have positive or negative charges. They
Ions canarebeatoms or a group of atoms that have positive or negative
simple ions as Cl-, O2- and Al3+ or polyatomic ions as NH4+,OH-,NO3-,SO42-
charges. They can be simple ions as Cl-, O2- and Al3+ or polyatomic
And PO43-
ions Aaspolyatomic
NH4+,OHion, -
,NO -
, SO 2- and PO 3-
also3 called 4compound ion4 is positively or negatively charged
A polyatomic ion, also called compound ion is positively or
group of atoms. The following tables give the valence number of some polyatomic
negatively charged group of atoms. The following tables give the
ions. Table 3.5some common valence of polyatomic ions
valence number of some polyatomic ions.
Valence 1 Valence 2 Valence 3
Ammonium ion (NH4+) Sulfate ion(SO42-) Phosphate ion (PO43-)
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Ions are atoms or a group of atoms that have positive or negative charges. They
General Science
ions as Cl-, O2- and Al3+ or polyatomic ions as NHStudent
+ - -TextBook
2-
can be simple
And PO43-
GRADE 7 4 ,OH ,NO3 ,SO4
A polyatomic ion, also called compound ion is positively or negatively charged

group of atoms. The following tables give the valence number of some polyatomic
Table
ions. 3.5some common
Table 3.5some valence
common ofofpolyatomic
valence ions
polyatomic ions
Valence 1 Valence 2 Valence 3
+ 2-
Ammonium ion (NH4 ) Sulfate ion(SO4 ) Phosphate ion (PO43-)
Hydroxide ion (OH-) Carbonate ion(CO32-) Phosphite (PO33-)
2-
Nitrate ion (NO3-) Sulfite ion
82 (SO3 )
Nitrite (NO2-)
Hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-)
Hydrogen sulfate ion(HSO4-)
In writing chemical formulas of compounds that contain polyatomic ions, follow

the same steps you used for writing formulas of binary compounds and use bracket
T
if the valence number is different from 1 and not simplified.
ES
Examples
1. Write the formula for ammonium chloride
Step 1 NH4+ Cl-
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Step 2 NH4+ Cl-

Step 3 NH4+ Cl-
So the molecular formula for ammonium chloride is =NH4Cl
FO
2. write the formula ammonium sulfate

Step 1 NH4+ SO42-
Step 2 NH4+ SO42-
Step 3 NH4+ SO42-

So the molecular formula for ammonium sulfate is (NH4)2SO4
In naming compounds containing polyatomic ions, the name of metals and
ammonium ion are written first followed by the name of the polyatomic ions.
Examples: NH4Cl (ammonium chloride), Al2(SO4)3 (aluminum sulfate) and
Fe(Cl)3 Iron (III)chloride,
Exercise 3.4
1. Fill in the blank by writing the formula of a compound
Ions Nitrate Sulfate Carbonate Phosphate
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Exercise 3.4
1. Fill in the blank by writing the formula of a compound using the following
Ions.
Nitrate Sulfate Carbonate Phosphate
Na+ _________ ________ __________ ___________
Ca2+ _________ ________ __________ ___________
3+
Al _________ ________ __________ ___________
+
NH4 _________ ________ __________ ___________
Fe3+ _________ ________ __________ ___________
2. Name the following compounds.
A. NH4Cl C. NaHCO3
B. Cu(NO3)2 D. FePO4
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3. Which three elements are combine in magnesium carbonate
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4. Which four elements are combine in ammonium sulfate.
3.2.7. Interpreting
3.2.7 Interpreting formula
formula
RT
Activity
Activity 3.63.6 Perform the
Perform the following
followingactivities.
activities.
1. What information
1. What is obtained
information is obtainedfrom
fromthe
thecoefficient
coefficient and
and subscript in aa
subscript in
formula?
formula?
When a formula is interpreted, it will give qualitative and quantitative meanings.
FO
Chemical symbols and formulas with numbers around them at particular positions
give specific information. Thus, symbols and formulas of elements have qualitative
and quantitative meaning.
Qualitatively : A symbol represents the identity (kind) of the element.
For example:
 Cl2 qualitatively the subscript 2 shows a chlorine molecule.
 The symbol O represents an atom of oxygen. No other element can be
represented by the symbol O.
 Fe stands for iron metal
 CaO is qualitatively stands for calcium oxide made from one atom of
calcium and one atom of oxygen.
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GRADE 7
 Ca (NO3)2 qualitatively stands for calcium nitrate made from one atom of
calcium and two nitrate groups.
Quantitatively: a symbol represents the number of atoms of the elements.
In Cl2 quantitatively 2 shows there are two atoms in chlorine molecule
 Number preceding symbols, called coefficient, indicates the number of atoms of
the element in a formula.
2Fe stands for two atoms of iron (The number 2gives a quantitative meaning while
Fe itself gives a qualitative meaning.
 A subscript written after a symbol (to the right) indicates that the element is in
molecular form. For example, Cl2 a chlorine molecule and O2 is oxygen molecule
 The coefficient of a molecule or formula unit indicates the number of molecules or
T
formula unit of that substance.
 3H2O;the coefficient three shows that there are 3 molecules of water
ES
2CO2 the coefficient 2 shows that there are 2 molecules of carbon dioxide
4NaCl the coefficient 4 shows that there are 4 formula unit of sodium chloride.
RT
CaO quantitatively it shows one formula unit of CaO

Ca(NO3)2 quantitatively it shows one formula unit of Ca(NO3)2
Exercise 3.5
FO
1. What does 3H2O represents?

A.3H2O atoms B. 6 H molecule
C.3 H2O molecule D. 3O molecule
2 write the qualitative meaning for
A. 2Fe B. CO2 C. O2
3. Write the quantitative meaning
A. 3H2 B. 4H2O C. 2NaCl
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Project Work
Writing and interpret formulae of common compounds
By using reference materials, such as a Science books and/or the Internet, try to
discover the formulae of common compounds such as baking soda, Vinegar
(acetic acid), lime ,sugar(sucrose),chalk, milk of magnesia etc. and interpret
them in terms of the elements present and the ratios of their atoms
3.3. Simple
3.3. Simple chemicalreactions
chemical reactions and
andequations
equations
 Define chemical reaction and give examples
 Describe evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred.
T
 State the law of conservation of mass
 Conduct an experiment in group to show simple chemical reaction.
ES
 Write a chemical equation
 Balance simple chemical equation by inspection
RT
 Create and use models of particles to demonstrate balanced equations.

3.3.1.
3.3.1. Simple chemicalReaction
Simple chemical Reaction
Activity 3.7
Activity 3.7
FO
Discuss in groups and share your ideas with the rest of the class
Discuss
1. Give some in groups
examplesandofshare your ideas
chemical with
changes that thetakes
rest of the class
place in your home or
1. Give some examples of chemical changes that takes place
school.
in your home or school.
2. 2.What
Whatkind of chemical
kind of chemicalchanges
changes occurred
occurred when you whencookyou cook food?
food?
3. Imagine
Imaginethat that you
youdrop
drop aa glass
glassbeaker
beaker and
and itit breaks
breaks down.
down.
a.
a. Does
Does aa newnewsubstance
substanceformed?
formed?
b. Is this
b. Is this aa physical
physicalchange
changeororchemical
chemical change?
change?
A chemical reaction is a process in which some substances is changed into one or
more different new substances.
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The starting materials in chemical reaction called reactants, react
alone or with each other to produce one or more new substances,
called products.
A chemical reaction involves the transformation of reactants
into products.
Reactants Products
An arrow ( ) separates the two side and can be read as ‘produce’,
‘give’,form’,’yield’.
Reactants are always written on the left hand side of the arrow while
product is written on the right hand side by putting “+” sign if there
are two or more products. The “+” sign means “combines with” or
“reacts with”. For example when magnesium is in its metal form it
will burn very easily in air. In burning of magnesium, the reactants
T
are magnesium and oxygen while the product is the white ash known
as magnesium oxide.
ES
2Mg + O2 2MgO
RT
Similarly in the reaction between iron and sulfur, the iron and sulfur
atoms are reactants where as the formed new substance Iron sulfide
is the product.
FO
By chemical reaction, some of the common examples of changes

brought about include Rusting of iron, Fermentation and Digestion
of food.
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3.3.2 Evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred

Activity 3.8
Activity 3.8
Form a group and perform the following activity.Then present your finding to the
rest of the class.
Record and describe the various chemical changes that occur in your daily lives (e.g
cooking food, etc.) and describe the evidence you use to determine that chemical
Form a group
reaction and perform the following activity.Then present your finding to the rest of the class.
occurred.
Record and describe
In a chemical the various
reaction, newchemical changes
products arethat occur in
formed your the
from dailyreactants.
lives (e.g cooking
How canfood,
youand
etc.) telldescribe
this happened?
the evidenceThere
you useare few signs
to determine thatthat indicate
chemical a chemical
reaction occurred. reaction
has occurred. These
In a chemical are:new products are formed from the reactants. How can you
reaction,
1. color changes
tell this happened? There are few signs that indicate a chemical reaction has
Gently heating black copper oxide with sulfuric acid produce a blue solution
occurred. These are: A color changes
of copper sulfate.
Gently heating black copper oxide with sulfuric acid produce a blue solution of
Copper oxide + sulfuric acid copper sulfate + water
copper
(Black) sulfate. T (Blue)
ES
Copper oxide + sulfuric acid copper sulfate + water
(Black) (Blue)
RT
Figure 3.1: blue copper sulfate solution

FO
Figure 3.1: blue copper sulfate solution

2. Evolution of a gas (formation of bubbles)
When magnesium is placed in hydrochloric acid, bubble of hydrogen gas are given off.
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium oxide + hydrogen
3. Change of temperature (heat change):-either endothermic or exothermic
When potassium is placed in water, hydrogen gas is given off. The reaction
produces so much heat the gas burns.
Potassium + water potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
4. Precipitate (formation of a solid)
If you mix solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride, a chemical reaction
takes place. In the reaction insoluble solids is formed. This is called a precipitate.
The solid is silver chloride.
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GRADE 7
Silver nitrate + sodium chloride silver chloride + sodium nitrat
Figure 3.2 white precipitate of AgCl

3.3.3.Law
3.3.3. Law of Conservation
of Conservation of mass of mass
Activity.3.9
Activity.3.9
Form a group and perform the following activity. Then present your opinion to
Form
the a group and perform the following activity. Then present your
class.
opinion to the class.
When we burn something it gets lighter or, in other words, it loses mass. For
T
When we burn something it gets lighter or, in other words, it loses mass. For
example when paper burn, the solid ash leftover lighter than the original paper.
example when paper burn, the solid ash leftover lighter than the
ES
Does it mean
original paper.that
Doesmass is not
it mean thatconserved?
mass is notDiscuss in groups
conserved? andin present
Discuss your
groups and
ideas to the
present yourwhole
ideasclass?
to the whole class?
RT
In chemical reactions the elements you begin the reaction with are the ones you
end the reaction with. Nothing is added or taken away. The mass you begin with is
FO
the mass you end with. This important idea is called law of conservation of mass.
The law of conservation of mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed
during a chemical reaction. It means that the mass of reactants is exactly equal to
the mass of the products.
3.3.4. Investigating Chemical Reaction
Expriment 3.1
Title: burning of Magnesium ribbon
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3.3.4. Investing Chemical Reaction

Expriment 3.1
Title: burning of Magnesium ribbon
Objective: to investigate the chemical reaction
Apparatus: Burner, crucible, a pair of tongs
Chemicals: Magnesium ribbon
Procedure
1. Take about 5 cm of magnesium ribbon. Rub its surface gently
with an abrasive. Notice its color and hardness.
2. Hold it by a pair of tongs and burn it.
Hazards!!!
In addition to being extremely bright, burning magnesium pro-
T
duces some ultraviolet light; avoid looking directly at it. The
ES
burning magnesium is very hot; do not touch it or let it come in
contact with other flammable materials.
RT
FO
Figure 3.3: burning of magnesium

Collect the substance formed .Then add in a crucible and examine it carefully. Feel it.
Notice its color.
After you complete the experiment, answer the following questions
1. What is the reactant materials?
2. Does it bend? It is shiny? Will it burn if heated again? Does it have any
resemblance to the magnesium ribbon you started with?
3. Is chemical (change) reaction occur?
3.3.5. Writing and balancing simple chemical equation
Writing chemical equation
91
Activity 3.10 Perform the following activity
1. What is chemical equation?
After you complete the experiment, answer the following questions
General Science
1. What is the reactant materials? Student TextBook
GRADE 7
2. Does it bend? It is shiny? Will it burn if heated again? Does it have any
resemblance to the magnesium ribbon you started with?
3. Is chemical (change) reaction occur?
3.3.5.
3.3.5. Writing
Writing and
and balancingsimple
balancing simple chemical
chemical equation
equation
Writing chemical equation
Activity 3.103.10
Activity Perform thethe
Perform following activity
following activity
1. What is chemical
1. What is chemical equation?equation?
A chemical equation is shorthand expression of a chemical changes (chemical
reaction) through symbols and formulas.
In order to write a correct chemical equation, we look first for the experimental
data to check that the reaction really takes place, and then identify the reactant and
products involved in the reaction. We can then proceed to writing a word equation
to represent the reaction. For example the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
to give water
1. Hydrogen + Oxygen water
T
The next step is to represent each substance by its correct symbol and formula. The
elements Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are
ES
represented by the formulas H2, N2 ,O2, F2, Cl2 Br2, I2. Because they found as
diatomic molecules. Thus we have
RT
2. H2 + O2 H2O
The law of conservation of mass requires that the number of atoms of each element
should be the same as before and after the reaction, i.e. the atoms on both side of
FO
the equation must be balanced.

3. 2 H2, + O2 2 H2O
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In the equation the coefficient and subscript give information when two molecule
of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen give two molecule of water. In
general, to write a chemical equation for a given reaction one can follow the
following three steps.
Step 1: Write a word equation for the reaction.
Step 2: Change the word equation to a chemical equation i.e., write the correct
symbol or formula for each reactant and product.
Step 3: Balance the equation so that it obeys the law of conservation of mass.
3.3.6.Balancing
3.3.6. BalancingChemical
Chemicalequation
equation
Activity 3.11
Activity 3.11
Perform the followingactivity
Perform the following activity
Why should the chemical T
equationbebebalanced?
Why should the chemical equation balanced?
ES
Chemical equation is balanced in order to obey the law of conservation of mass.So
a balanced chemical equation is an equation in which the total number of atoms on
RT
the left hand side is equal to the total number of atoms on the right hand side.
When we balance a Chemical equation, we have to change the coefficients not
subscripts. This is because, changing subscripts changes the identity of substances.
FO
In balanced chemical equation:

Mass reactants=mass of products
Number of atoms in reactant side= Number of atoms in product side
There are many methods of balancing chemical equations. Only 2 methods of
balancing chemical equations are discussed in this book, namely
1. The inspection method
2. Least common multiple (LCM) method
1. The inspection method-is trial and error method. It involves examining the
equation and adjusting the coefficients until each kind of atoms are equal on the
reactant and product sides.
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For example, to balance the equation when nitrogen react with hydrogen to give ammonia
N2 + H2 NH3
Balance nitrogen by placing 2 before ammonia
N2 + H2 2NH3
Now you have 6 hydrogen atoms on the product side. To balance hydrogen write a
coefficient 3 before H2
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3
Finally check whether the equation balanced or not
Reactants Products
N (2) N (2)
H (6) H (6)
Therefore, the equation is balanced.
T
2. Least common multiple (LCM) method
The steps used in this method are shown by the following examples.
ES
Consider the reaction between aluminum and oxygen to form aluminum oxide.
Step 1: represent the reaction by word equation
RT
Aluminum + oxygen aluminum oxide

Step 2: Write the correct formula for each of the reactants and products
Al + O Al2O3
FO
Step 3: Find the total valence number (subscript time‘s valence number) and place
3 4 6 6
Al + O2 Al2O3
above each symbol and formula
Step: 4 Find the total valence number and place it above the arrow. The LCM of 3, 4, and
6 is 12
3 4 12 6 6
Al + O2 Al2O3
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Step 5: Divide the LCM by each total valence number to obtain the
coefficients for each of the reactants and products. Place the
coefficients thus obtained in front of the respective formula.
4Al + 3O2 2 Al2O3
Check
Reactants Products
Al (4) Al (4
O (6) O (6)
So the equation is balanced
Exercise 3.6
T
1. Balance the following by inspection
ES
a. CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
b. H2 + I2 HI
RT
c. C2H2(g)+O2(g) CO2(g)+H2O(l)
d. Ca + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
e. Fe2O3 +CO Fe + CO2
FO
2. Balance the following by LCM

a. Fe + O2 Fe2 O3
b. Cu + H2SO4 CuSO4 +SO2 + H2O
3.4. Use of Chemical Reactions in Every Day Situation
• Describe the uses of chemical reactions in everyday situations
Activity 3.12
Discuss in groups and share your ideas with the rest of the class.
1. How do the local people in Ethiopia prepare alcoholic beverages like
“Tella”? What raw materials? Is the process a chemical change?
2. Give some examples of useful chemical reactions such as fermentation
in brewing which produces carbon dioxide and ethanol/ alcohol and other
indigenous knowledge.
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3.4.1. Uses of chemical reaction

Chemical reaction happen everywhere. It happen inside your body to keep you alive-
For example, reactions to digest food i.e. the breakdown of large molecules (protein,
starch and fats) into smaller ones, so that they can be absorbed. Chemical reactions are
an integral part of technology, of culture, and indeed of life itself. Burning
fuels, smelting iron, making glass and pottery, brewing beer, and
making wine and cheese are among many examples of activities incorporating
chemical reactions that have been known.
Some Important Chemical Reactions
1. Synthesis of ammonia: Reaction: 3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g)
Hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas are combined in the presence of a catalyst at high
temperature and pressure to produce ammonia gas.
T
Significance: Synthesis of ammonia leads to the production of fertilizer (ammonium
ES
nitrate) and to the production of ammunitions.
2. Combustion of hydrogen
RT
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

Hydrogen gas and oxygen combine to produce liquid water.
Significance: In the forward direction this is a spontaneous reaction that explosively
oxidized hydrogen to water.
FO
3. Combustion of methane (hydrocarbons)

Reaction:CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Methane gas and oxygen gas combine exothermically to produce carbon dioxide gas and
water vapor.
Significance: Methane is the simplest of the hydrocarbons, all of which combine with
oxygen and undergo oxidation. If the oxidation is complete the products are carbon
dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and water.
4. Photosynthesis
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waterScience
vapor. Student TextBook
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Significance: Methane is the simplest of the hydrocarbons, all of which combine with
oxygen and undergo oxidation. If the oxidation is complete the products are carbon
dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and water.
4. Photosynthesis
Reaction: CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) 6O2(g) + C6H12O6(aq)
Carbon dioxide and water combine in the presence
95 of sunlight (and many biologically
catalyzed reactions) to produce oxygen and glucose (sugar). Significance: Our
atmosphere is 21% oxygen - in spite of the tendency of oxygen to react with so many
substances. The constant level of oxygen is maintained by the many plants that inhabit
our planet through the reaction of photosynthesis. This is truly solar energy at its most
efficient and productive!
5. Synthesis of sulfuric acid Reaction:
2S(s) +3O2(g) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)
Sulfur is first oxidized to sulfur dioxide and then to sulfur trioxide. This gas is
bubbled through water to produce sulfuric acid.
T
Significance: Sulfuric acid is a very important chemical and an indicator of a nation's
ES
industrial strength.
RT
Unit Review
FO
students. You are required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√) mark under
―Yes‖ column if you are able to perform the competency or under ―No‖ column if you
are unable to perform the competency. This would help to evaluate yourself and you
can revise the parts of topics for which the competencies are not met.
No. Can I Yes No
1. Define element
2 Identify symbols of some common elements
3 Write chemical symbols for common elements
4 Define compound as a substance formed when two or more elements
chemically combined together.
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industrial strength. Student TextBook
GRADE 7
Unit Review
No. Can I Yes No
1. Define element
2 Identify symbols of some common elements
3 Write chemical symbols for common elements
4 Define compound as a substance formed when two or more elements
5 chemically
Define combined
valence numberstogether.
as the combining power of an atom
6 Write the formulae of simple binary96compounds using symbols and
valences.
T
7 Name binary compounds
ES
8 Describe polyatomic io
9 Write the chemical formulas of common compounds that contain
polyatomic ions
10 Name compounds containing polyatomic ions.
RT
11 Identify the elements and number of atoms, given a chemical formula

12 Define chemical reaction and give examples.
13 Describe evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred.
14 State the law of conservation of mass.
FO
15 Conduct an experiment in group to show simple chemical reaction.

16 Write a chemical equation.
17 Balance simple chemical simple chemical equation by inspection
18 Create and use models of particles to demonstrate balanced equations.
19 Describe the uses of chemical reactions in everyday situations.
Key terms
Element Balanced chemical equation
Reactants
Key terms Chemical symbol
Valence
Element
Products
Balanced chemical equation Reactants
Chemical formula Binary compounds
Chemical equation
Chemical symbol Valence Molecule
Products
Poly atomic ion
Chemical formula Binary compounds
Law ofChemical
conservation
equation
of mass
Chemical reaction Inspection method
LCM method
Molecule Poly atomic ion Law of conservation of mass
Chemical reaction Inspection method LCM method
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Unit summary Unit summary

An atomic symbol is defined as shorthand way of representing elements or atoms of
an element.
A compound is a pure substance consists of two or more elements which have been
chemically combined.
Chemical formula is the symbolic representation of an element or a compound.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that has a stable,
independent existence.
The combining power of an element is called valence. Most common elements have
valence 1, 2, or 3.
T
Binary compounds are compounds formed from two different types of elements. In
naming a compound, the positive ion (metal) mention first followed by the negative
ES
ion (nonmetal).
A polyatomic ion, also called compound ion is positively or negatively charged group
RT
of atoms.
A chemical reaction is a process in which some substances is changed into one or
more different new substances. The starting materials in chemical reaction called
FO
reactants, react alone or with each other to produce one or more new substances,
called products.
There are few signs that indicate a chemical reaction has occurred. These are: color
change, evolution of gas, heat change and formation of precipitate.
The law of conservation of mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed
during a chemical reaction.
A chemical equation is shorthand expression of a chemical changes (chemical
reaction) through symbols and formulas.
There are many methods of balancing chemical equations. Some of them are
inspection method, Least common multiple (LCM) method.
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Review Exercise
I Write ‗True‘ for the Correct Statements and ‗False‘ for the Wrong Statements.
1. A compound is pure substance.
2. In a chemical reaction atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
3. O2 and 2O have the same meaning.
4. The symbol copper denoted by Co.
5. When we balance chemical equation, we change the subscript but not the coefficient.
6. Respiration is a chemical change (chemical reaction).
7. The combining power of an element is called valence.
8. The formula and symbol of nitrogen is the same.
9. A number in front of a symbol or formula is coefficient
T
10.A chemical symbol is a short hand notation for the chemical name of an element.
ES
II. Choose the Correct Answer from the Given Alternatives.
11.The Latin name of silver is
A. Argentum B. Kalium C. Natrium D. Cuprum
RT
12.In 4O3 the coefficient and subscript respectively

A.3, 4 B.4,3 C.7,3 D.3,7
13.The formula of nitrate ion is
FO
A. NO B. NO3- C. NO2- D. N2-

14.All of the following elements can exist as diatomic molecules EXCEPT
A Hydrogen B Oxygen C Sodium D Chlorine
15.What is the chemical formula for Iron (III) chloride?
A. FeCl2 B.FeCl C.FeCl3 D. Fe2Cl3
16.The chemical symbol for Helium is
A. H B. Hl C. He D.HE
17.Which of the following is the correct name of MgO?
A. Magnesium oxygen B. oxygen magnesium
C. Magnesium oxide D. molybdenum oxide
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A. Magnesium oxygen B. oxygen magnesium C. Magnesium oxide
D. molybdenum oxide
III. Give short answers
18.Write the symbol of
a. Zinc b. phosphorous c. Mercury d. calcium e. Tin
19.Balance the following chemical equations
a. Al(OH)3 Al2O3 +H2O
b. NH3 + O2 NO +H2O
c. Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 +H2O
20.Write chemical equations for the following reactions and balance them.
a. Aluminum + bromine
T Aluminum bromide
ES
b. Sodium + Nitrogen Sodium nitride
c. Potassium + Water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen
RT
FO
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Unit 4 CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE

Learning Outcome
Learning Outcomes
• Define a microscope
• Explain the use of a microscope
• Distinguish the different types of microscopes
• Describe the basic parts and functions of a microscope
• Use a microscope to view objects
• Define a cell
• Explain how cell was discovered and who discovered it
T
• Draw a cell and label its major parts
• Describe the functions of the major structural parts of a cell
ES
• Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms
• Give examples of cell shape
RT
• Explain why cell shape and structure vary

• Discuss the differences of cell, tissue, organ and organ system
• Define respiration and write its chemical equation
• Define photosynthesis and write its chemical
FO
Introduction 4.2.2. Structure of a cell

4.1. Microscope 4.2.3. Cell shape and size
4.1.1. Purpose and invention 4.2.4. Unicellular organisms
of Microscope 4.2.5. Multicellular organisms
4.1.2. Types of microscope 4.2.6. Cell, Tissue, Organ, and
4.1.3. Basic parts of light Organ system
microscope 4.2.7. Respiration and
4.2. Cell Mitochondria
4.2.1. The discovery and 4.2.8. Photosynthesis and
definition of a Cell Chloroplast
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Introduction
Introduction
These units deals about cell as the basis of life and organized in to two sub units. The
first deals about the purpose and types of microscope. And the second parts deals
about the cell, this section focuses on discover and definition of cell, structures of cell
T
and function, types of organism, and level of organization of organism will be
ES
discussed.
A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so small that they cannot be viewed
RT
with the naked eye. Therefore, scientists must use microscopes (magnifying)
instrument to study cells.
4.1.
4.1. Microscope
Microscope
FO
Learning competencies: At the end of this section, learners will able to:
 Identify the major parts and functions of a basic microscope
 Use a microscope to view objects
 Discuss the role of a microscope
 Differentiate between simple and light microscope
 Draw diagram of a microscope and label the major parts
 Build microscope from locally available materials
Introduction
Microscope have opened up a whole new dimension in science, by using microscope
scientists were able to discover the existence of the microorganisms, study the
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Activity 4.1: discuss

Activity in group
4.1: discuss andand
in group share
shareyour ideas
your ideas
 What kind of organisms found in your environment?

What kind of organisms found in your environment?
 How can you observe those cannot see by your naked eye?
How can you observe those cannot see by your naked eye?
structure of cell, and see the smallest parts of plants, animals, and fungi. Cells are
the smallest units from which all life forms are made.
4.1.1 Purpose and
4.1.1. and invention
inventionof
ofmicroscope
microscope
What is a microscope?
A microscope is an instrument that is used to observe objects too small to be seen
clearly with the naked eye. Microscope uses lenses or system of lenses to produce a
T
magnified image of an object under study. Microscopic means invisible to the eye
ES
unless aided by a microscope. The science of investigating small objects using such an
instrument is called microscopy.
WordRoots
Rootsand
and Origins
RT
Word Origins
The word microscope isisderived
The word microscope derivedfrom
fromtwo
twoGreek
Greekwords
words “Micro” meaning
tiny and meaning
―Micro‖ “scope” meaning to view or
tiny and ―scope‖ look atto view or look at
meaning
What is the use of microscope?
Microscope enlarges/ magnifies the size of the object observed so that it looks bigger
FO
than its actual size. This offers a chance to closely study and learn more about smaller
organisms like cell and microorganism.
 Who invented a compound microscope and when?
Grinding glass to use for spectacles and magnifying glasses was common place during
the 13th century. In the late 16th century several Dutch lens makers designed devices
that magnified objects.
Dutch spectacle makers Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey (1595) are noted as
the first men to develop the concept of the compound microscope by placing different
types and sizes of lenses in opposite ends of tubes.
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In 1665 Robert Hooke an English scientists built compound microscopes, which have
multiple lenses. However, his microscope is a compound microscope, the lenses are
not very good and magnifications of more than 30x are very blurred and do not show
much detail.
Later in the 1674 century, Anton van Leeuwenhoek Dutch merchant began polishing
and grinding lenses when he discovered that certain shaped lenses increased an
image‘s size. The glass lenses that he created could enlarge an object many times. The
quality of his lenses allowed him, for the first in history, to see the many microscopic
animals, bacteria and intricate detail of common objects. Leeuwenhoek is considered
the founder of the study of microscopy and played a vital role in the development of
cell theory. T
ES
4.1.2. Types
Types of
of microscope
microscope
There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways.
RT
According to the type of radiation they use for observation microscopes grouped into
two main types of microscopes these are the light microscope and the electron
microscope. The light microscope uses a beam light to form the image of an object,
while the electron microscope uses the beam of electron to form the image.
FO
Based on the number of lenses it has and uses the light microscopes are categorized
into two simple microscope and compound microscope.
Simple light microscope
A simple microscope consists of a single convex lens that is capable of magnifying an
object. A hand lens (magnifying glass) and reading lens an example of simple
microscope. They can magnify about ten times (10X) to twenty (20X). Single lensed
simple microscope can magnify up to 300X.
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KEY TERMS
KEY TERMS
Microscope: an optical
Microscope: an optical
instrument used to observe very
instrument used to
small objects.
observe very small objects.
Microscopic: very small objects
Microscopic: very small
which are only viewed with
Figure: 4.1 types of simple light microscope objects which are only
microscope.
viewed with microscope.
Compound light microscope
Magnifications:
Magnifications: increasing
increasingthe
Compound microscope is a microscope that
image of an of
the image object
an object
uses multiple lens systems at the same time to
Lens:
Lens: a piece glass
a piece of usedused
of glass to to
improve magnification and resolution. The two
converge
convergeorordiverge
divergelight andand
light
lens systems are the eyepiece (ocular) lens and
T
form
formoptical
opticalimages.
images.
the objective lenses. The objective lenses
ES
Resolution
Resolutionis is
ability of the
ability of the
include:
microscope to show detailed
microscope to show the the
 Lower power objective(4x)
detailed
or or thepart
the scattered scattered
of an object.
RT
 Middle power objective(10x)

part of an object.
 High power objectives(40)
 Oil immersion lenses(100x)
Microscope has two major abilities: magnification and resolution
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1. Magnification is increasing the size of an object to be viewed.

2. Resolution is ability of the microscope to show the detailed or the scattered part
of an object. It helps us to distinguish between two separate points.
Key Terms
Key Terms
Monocular compound microscope: A compound microscope with single eyepiece
lens.
Monocular compound microscope: A compound microscope
Binocular compound microscope: compound microscope with two eye piece lens
with
single eyepiece lens.
Binocular compound microscope: compound microscope with
two eye piece lens
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Figure 4.2 Parts of compound monocular microscope
Figure 4.2 Parts of compound monocular microscope
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N.B: Your teacher will provide you with a microscope so that you can identify the
parts and their functions
4.1.3
4.1.3. Basic
Basic parts of
of compound
compound light
lightmicroscope
microscope
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Table 4.1 parts of compound microscope and their function.
Parts Function
Base Support the microscope
Arm Used to carry the microscope
Stages Supports the glass slide and contains the specimen being Observed.
Stage clips Holds the slide in place on the stages

Eyepiece Magnifies image for the viewer
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Objective lens Low, medium and high power lenses that magnifies the specimen
Course Large knob used for focusing the images under low power
adjustment
Fine Smaller knob used for focusing the image with high power
adjustment objectives
Diaphragm Controls the amount of light that pass through the specimen
Light course Provide light for viewing the specimen
Body tube Separates the objective and the eyepiece and assures continuous
alignment of the optics.
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Activity 4.2:
Based on figure
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4.3 label each parts of a microscope and relates your answare to
the actual parts of microscope.
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Activity 4.3 work a group

• What component of microscope uses to magnify an object and in witch
parts of microscope it is located?
• Discuss the total magnification of a compound microscope.
The eyepiece lens usually magnifies ten times and is labeled 10X.
The objective lenses magnify four to hundred times. The total
magnification of an object is calculated by multiplying the
magnification of the objective lens by the magnification of the ocular lens.
For example, if the magnification of the eye lens is 10X and the
magnification of the objective lens is 4X, then the total magnification is
40X. Because two lenses are used, compound microscopes are capable of
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higher magnifications than simple microscopes, which use only one lens
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key terms
Mounting: is preparing a specimen for observation under a

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microscope.
Focusing: is adjustment of focus to observe specimen clearly.
Specimen: a sample of a substance or material for examination
or study
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Experiment 4.1
Practicing mounting and focusing
Materials you require:
• Clean slide and cover slip
• Very fine fiber
• Dropper with nipple
• Forceps
• Water in a beaker
• Compound light microscope
Procedure:
1.Lay down the very fine fiber on a clean microscope slide as
shown in the figure 4:4
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Add a drop of Place the specimen Place the edge of a coverslip slowly lower the coverslip
water to a slide in the water on the slide so that it touches to prevent forming and
the edge of the water trapping air bubble
2. Place one drop of water directly over the specimen and cover it with a cover
slip.
3. If you put too much water over the specimen, cover slip will float on top of
he water. This makes it harder to observe the specimen! This process, if done
tcorrectly, there should be no air bubble trapped in the water between the
slide and the cover slip.
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• Air bubbles confuse the observer.
• Cover slips protect objective lens and keep the specimen in
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position
4. Place the slide on the microscope stage, with the specimen directly over the
center of the glass circle on the stage (directly over the light).
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5. Always start and end with Low Power objective. Lower the objective lens to
the lowest point, then focus using first the coarse knob, then with the
fine focus knob.
6. Adjust the Diaphragm as you look through the Eyepiece, and you will see that
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more detail is visible when you allow in less light! Too much light will give
the specimen a washed-out appearance. Try it out!!
7. Once you have found the specimen on low power, then, without changing the
focus knobs, switch it to medium power. Move the object or the hand lens
until you are able to see clearly through the lens.
8. Once you have it on Medium and High Power remember that you only use
the fine focus knob! (Never use the oil immersion lens).
9. Click the high power objective lens in position and only use the fine
adjustment knob to focus on specimen. At this point, if the specimen is too
light or too dark, try adjusting the diaphragm.
10. Then, focus using the fine adjustment for sharp focusing. Do not use the
coarse adjustment
11. Explain what change you have observed. Is the fine fiber compact or
relaxed? Draw it.
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Activity
Activity 4.44.4 Project
Project workwork
Construct
Construct a amodel
model of light
of light microscope
microscope fromavailable
from locally locallymaterials
availablein mate-
rials
groupinof group of five
five students andstudents
submit itand submit
to your it to your teacher.
teacher.
Exercise 4.1
Choose the best answer from a given alternatives option
1. From the follow lists chose the correct order in which light passes through it.
A. mirror----objective------ lens----eyepiece --- lens
B. mirror-----slide-----------objective lens-----eye piece
C. Lens-------slide------------eyepiece lens-------objective lens
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D. Eye piece-----objective lens----slide------mirror
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2. Which parts of microscope combined to give magnified view of specimen?
A. Light source and objective lens B. eye piece and objective lens
C. Stages and eyepiece D. eye piece and focus knob
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3. To focus on specimen is the best to start with which objective lens?

A. lower magnification C. intermediate magnification e
B. High magnification D. Oil emersion
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4. To which parts of microscope do you look through to see an object magnified?

A. Eyepiece B. Stage C. Focus knob D. objective lens
5. One of the following is not the function of a microscope.
A. magnifying the image of the sample
B. Showing the details of the sample.
C. Enabling one to observe something seen with naked eye.
D. Enlarging the size of the sample.
6. Magnification power of a microscope is related to its ability to:
A. Increase the size of the image.
B. showing the fine details of the sample.
C. resolving the image. D. all of the above
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4.2.
4.2. Cell
Cell
Learning Outcomes: At the end of this section, learners will able to:
 Explain how cell was discovered
 Draw a cell
 Label the basic structures and functions of a cell (cell membrane, cell wall,
cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, vacuole, and endoplasmic
reticulum)
 Explain why cell shape and structure vary
 Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms
 Differentiate among cell, tissue, organ and organ system with examples
T
 Examine the importance of cellular respiration and photosynthesis
Introduction
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In the previous section you have already learnt that about microscope; the instrument
that magnifies the images of an object. This enables scientists to look at and study
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smaller things like cells which are not seen by naked eye. In this sub unit, you shall
learn about the basic structural unit of organ, which is the cell; cell may be compared
to bricks. Bricks are assembled to make a house, similarly cells assembled to make the
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body of organism.
WordRoots
Word Rootsandand Origins
Origins
Word cell comes from
Word cell comes from thethe
Latin ―cellula”
Latin meaning
“cellula” a small
meaning roomroom
a small
4.2.1. The discovery
4.2.1 The discovery and and the definition
the definition of cell of cell
Many biologists and other scientists contributed to the discovery of cells. Among this
the English scientists Robert Hooke (1665) was he first to use the cell for he
observed at very tiny slice of cork through his microscope he noticed that the cork was
porous and comprised of many tiny square boxes that remained him of the small
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rooms in monastery. Hence, the word cell comes from the Latin cellula meaning ―a
small room‖
Soon after Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674)
made his own simple microscope with only one lens. However, van Leeuwenhoek is
very skilled at grinding lenses and so his microscope can achieve magnifications of
300X. He was the first person sees living, moving unicellular organisms (Protista) in a
drop of water. He calls the moving organisms ‗animalcules‘. He also sees bacteria
(from his teeth), which he also calls ‗tiny animalcules‘.
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann
were studying tissues and proposed the unified cell theory, which states that all living
things are composed of one or more cells, that the cell is the basic unit of life, and that
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all new cells arise from existing cells.
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What is a cell?
Cells Are the Basic Units of Living Organisms which responsible to carry out basic
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structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms.

Cells are the building blocks of all living beings provide structure to the body.
Organisms may be made up of a single cell or many cells. Cells are complex and their
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components perform various functions in an organism. It comprises several cell

organelles that perform specialized functions to carry out life processes.
4.2.2.Structure
4.2.2. Structureof of a cell
a cell
Cells are the tiny structural units of life, are made up of different parts. The parts of
cells are known as sub-cellular structures or organelles. Different sub-cellular
structures carry out different functions in cells. When observed under compound or
electron microscope, all cells share four common components:
1) A plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell‘s interior from its
surrounding environment;
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2) Cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the cell in which other cellular
components (organelles) are found
3) DNA (nucleus) the genetic material of the cell and
4) Ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins.
Animal and plant cells share some common features like the cell membrane, nucleus
and cytoplasm.
There are several types of organelles within organism cell. The sub cellular structures
found in cells are cell wall, cell membrane, mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes,
nucleus, Golgi apparatus, lysozyme, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles and others.
Organelles are adapted or specialized for carrying out one or more vital function.
T
ES
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FO
Figure 4.5: Basic structure of animal and plant cell

Table 4.2 Summary of the common and difference parts of animal and plant cell
Name of Description Function
part
Cytopla jelly-like, with contains the cell organelles, e.g.
and plant
Animal
sm
particles and mitochondria, nucleus, site of chemical
cell
Figureorganelles
4.5: Basicin structurereactions
of animal and plant cell
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Figure 4.5: Basic structure of animal and plant cell
Table 4.2 Summary of the common and difference parts of animal and plant cell
Name of Description Function
part
Cytopla jelly-like, with contains the cell organelles, e.g.
and
and plant
Animal
sm
cell
particles and mitochondria, nucleus, site of chemical

cell
Animal
plant
organelles in reactions
cell a partially permeable prevents cell contents from escaping
membra
layer that forms a controls what substances enter and leave
ne 113
boundary around the the cell
cytoplasm
nucleus a circular or oval controls cell activities
structure containing controls cell division
DNA (genetic
material)
T controls cell development
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cell wall a tough, non-living prevents plant cells from bursting allows
layer made of water and salts to pass through (freely
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cellulose surrounding permeable)

the cell membrane
Plant cells only
Vacuole a fluid-filled space contains salts and sugars

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surrounded by a helps to keep plant cells firm

membrane
Chlorop an organelle traps light energy for photosynthesis
last
containing
chlorophyll
Exercise 4.2
1. Compare and contrast animal cell with plant cell.
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Structures and functions of organelles

Cell wall: The outer covering of cells that surrounds the cell membrane in plant cell.
The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell; plant cell needs protection
against variation in temperature, high wind speed, atmospheric moisture, etc. They
are exposed to this variation because they cannot move.
Cell membrane: Is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the content of
the cell from its external environment. It Controls materials that get in and out of the
cell.
Nucleus: controls reproduction and the activities of the cell.
Cytoplasm: it contains different sub-cellular structures in which chemical processes
take place.
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In eukaryotes, the cytoplasm is contained all materials (organelles) located in within
the cell, excluding the nucleus. The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain any
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organelles is referred to as the cytosol.
Mitochondrion: Known as the powerhouse of the cell, the mitochondrion (plural:
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mitochondria) is the double-membrane organelle where the process of cellular

respiration takes place.
Chloroplast: Specific/unique to plant cells, chloroplasts are double-membrane
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organelles that can convert light energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O) to
carbohydrates in a process called photosynthesis.
Ribosome: Ribosomes are the sites where protein synthesis occurs. Because protein
synthesis is essential for all cells, ribosomes are found in almost in every cell,
Endoplasmic Reticulum: is a series of interconnected membranous tubules that
collectively modify proteins and synthesize lipids. Most cells contain two types of
endoplasmic reticulum: the rough and the smooth.
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The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes

attached to its cytoplasmic surface give it a studded appearance when viewed. Protein
molecules undergo modifications such as folding or addition of sugars.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has few
or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface. The SER‘s functions include synthesis of
carbohydrates, lipids (including phospholipids), and steroid hormones; detoxification
of medications and poisons; alcohol metabolism; and storage of calcium ion.
The Golgi apparatus is a series of flattened membranous sacs. The sorting, tagging,
packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins take place in the Golgi apparatus
(also called the Golgi body)
Lysosomes T
In animal cells, the lysosomes are the cell‘s ―garbage disposal.‖ Digestive enzymes
ES
within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic
acids, and even worn-out organelles. In single-celled organism lysosomes are
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important for digestion of the food they ingest and the recycling of organelles.
Vesicles and Vacuoles
Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport
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materials. The central vacuole in plant cell plays a key role in regulating the cell‘s
concentration of water in changing environmental conditions.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. They carry
out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. They also
detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. Alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes
in liver cells.
4.2.3 Cell Shape and Size
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4.2.3. Cell Shape and Size
Different cells have different shapes and their unique morphologies are directly
related to their function:
 Plant cells, in general, have rectangular, rigid walls, and distinct edges. Such
structure is contributed by the presence of cell wall that forces the cell to have a
definite shape.
 Unlike plant cells, animal cells tend to have more irregular body shapes due to
the absence of cell wall in their overall structure.
 Microorganisms like bacteria have three types of cell shape: oval (cocci), rod-
shaped (bacilli), spiral, star-shaped, and rectangular. See the difference between
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the plant cell and animal cell from figure 4.3
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Figure:
4.6 theshapes
4.6 the shapesFigure:
and
and 4.6
of the
sizes
sizes shapes
of different
different and
cell cellsizes of different cell
Like shapes, the size of cells is also linked to their functions. Depending on the
type of organism, the size of the cell greatly varies.
 In particular, egg cells are the largest cells that an organism has. This is very
much related to their function as the development of the zygote after
fertilization requires huge amounts of energy. Approximately, the human egg
cell measures 0.12 mm in diameter.
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 On the other hand, the smallest cell is that of the parasitic bacterium
Mycoplasma gallicepticum. This bacterium, which thrives in the bladder,
respiratory and reproductive tracts of mammals. This cell has an average
diameter of 0.0001 mm
4.2.4 Unicellularorganisms
4.2.4 Unicellular organisms
What is a unicellular organism?
A cell is the basic unit of life. All living organisms are composed of one (unicellular)
or more (multicellular) cells.
Unicellular organisms are those organisms composed of one cell.
They are typically microscopic in nature and cannot be seen with naked eyes.
T
Life processes such as excretion, digestion, feeding and reproduction occur in one
cell. Examples of unicellular organisms include different bacteria, most algae,
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unicellular fungi (yeast) and protozoans such as, amoeba and paramecium
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Figure: 4.7 some unicellular organisms

Experiment 4.2 Experiment 4.2
Examining
Examining different
different water
water samples
samples and and prepared
prepared slidesslides
for theforpresence
the presence of
of organisms
organisms
In the first part of this activity, you will examine prepared slides of unicellular
In the first part of this activity, you will examine prepared slides of unicellular
organisms
organisms under a compound
under a compoundmicroscope in theinsecond
microscope part ofpart
the second thisof
activity; you will
this activity;
you will
prepare prepare
a wet mounta of
wet mountculture.
amoeba of amoeba culture.
Materials you will require:
Materials you will require:
Hand lens,
Hand
Waterlens,
samples from pond, river, lake, well or standing water,
Compound
Water sampleslight
frommicroscope,
pond, river, lake, well or standing water,
Prepared slides of amoeba, euglena, paramecium, bacteria, yeast, and algae
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Procedures:
I Observation using a hand lens
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Procedures:
GRADE 7
I Observation using a hand lens
1. Collect water samples in open mouth container (beakers).
2. Observe the surface of each sample with a hand lens for the presence of living
1. organisms.
Collect water samples in open mouth container (beakers).
2. Observe the surface of each sample with a hand lens for the presence of l
3. Can you observe anything moving? Please, draw it.
iving organisms.
II Observation of prepared slides
3. Can you observe anything moving? Please, draw it.
1. Place a prepared slide of amoeba on the stage of the microscope.
II Observation
2. of prepared
With your microscope slides observe the slide.
on low power,
1.Place
3. Movea prepared
the slide slide
aroundofonamoeba
the stageonuntil
theyou
stage
findofsome
the microscope.
cells.
2. With your microscope on low power, observe the slide.
4. Now, using the medium- or high-power objective lens, focus on one cell and
3. Move the slide around on the stage until you find some cells.
observe and draw what you see.
4. Now, using the medium- or high-power objective lens, focus on one
5. Label all visible
cell and observestructures.
and draw what you see.
6.5. Repeat steps 1- 5 for prepared slides of Paramecium, euglena, yeast and
Label all visible structures.
6.bacteria.
Repeat steps 1- 5 for prepared slides of Paramecium, euglena, yeast
and bacteria.
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7. For each organism you view, be sure to include the name of the organism and
7. For each organism you view, be sure to include the name of the
the total magnification used.
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organism and the total magnification used.
After
After completingthese
completing thesepractical activities,
practical compare
activities, youryour
compare drawings with with
drawings the figures
the
given on; 4.6
figures given on; 4.6
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4.2.5 Multicellular
4.2.5 Multicellular organisms: are organisms that are made of up many cells.
organisms:
Plants and animals are examples of multi cellular organism. In multi cellular organism
cell are specialize to perform different functions. Human being are multicellular
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organism consist different types of cell like blood cells, skin cells, brain cells, heart
cells and many types of other cells. Similarly plants have different cell like stem Cells,
root cells, and many other types.
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Figure: 4.8 some different types of cells that build up human body
Cells are the basic building blocks of living things. The human body is
composed of trillions of cells, all with their own specialized function.
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4.2.6 Levels of Organization of Living Things
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(Cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organisms)
Cell: All living things are made of cells; the cell itself is the
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smallest important unit of structure and function in living organisms

it performs various metabolic functions like providing structure and
rigidity to the body, converting food into nutrients and energy, and others.
Regardless of their small size, cells are organized in a precise manner. Some cells
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contain groups of macromolecules surrounded by membranes; these are called

organelles. Organelles are small structures that exist within cells and perform
specialized functions.
At cellular level, organisms can be classified into two: single-celled organisms
(unicellular) and multiple-celled organisms (multi-cellular)
Tissue: In most multicellular organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which
are groups of similar cells carrying out the same function. For example, muscle
tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue. Like cells, tissues perform
metabolic processes that keep the organism alive.
Organs: are collections of tissues grouped together based on a common
function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. In plants,
their organs include the flowers, roots, stems, and the leaves. On the other
hand, organs of animals include the brain, heart, stomach, eyes, and many more
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include the flowers, roots, stems, and the leaves. On the other hand, organs of animals
include the brain, heart, stomach, eyes, and many more.
Figure: 4.9 Level of organization in human being

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Organ system: is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related
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(associated) organs. While each organ system in an organism works as a distinct
entity, they all function in cooperation with each other in order to help keep the
organism alive. In plants, organ systems include the root and shoot system, while
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animal organ systems include the digestive system, nervous system circulatory system,
and others.
An organism can be simply defined as any living thing that is composed of various
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organ systems that function altogether. Organisms are individual living bodies.
Exercise 4.3
Exercise 4.3
Choose the best answer for each of the following questions.
Choose the best answer for each of the following questions.
1. One of the following is true about cells.
1. One of the following is true about cells.
A. Cells are generally
A. Cells too small
are generally tootosmall
be seen with
to be thewith
seen nakedtheeye.
naked eye.
B. Cells
B. Cells are theare the structural
structural and functional
and functional units
units of all lifeof all life forms.
forms.
C. Cells
C. Cells are theare the smallest
smallest units
units that that
carry outcarry out allofprocess
all process life. of life.
D. All of the above
D. All of the above
2. One of the following is part of a cell and only found in animal cell?
2. One of the following is part of a cell and only found in animal cell?
A. Cell membrane
B. chloroplast 121
C. cell wall
D. Lysosome
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A. Cell membrane GRADE 7
B. chloroplast
C. cell wall
3. One of the followings is a unicellular organism.
D. Lysosome
3. A.
Oneamoeba B. yeast
of the followings C. bacteria
is a unicellular D. Paramecium E. all
organism.
4. Which one the following is not an organ
A. amoeba B. yeast C. bacteria D. Paramecium D. all
A. heart B. lung C. nerve D. stomach
4. Which one the following is not an organ
5. One is formed from groups of similar cells carrying out the same
A. heart B. lung C. nerve D. stomach
function.
5.A.
One is formed from
Organ groups of C.
B. tissue similar
organcellssystem
carrying out
D. the same function.
Organism
A. Organ B. tissue C. organ system D. Organism
4.2.7
4.2. 7 Respiration and
Respiration and mitochondria.
mitochondria.
Activity 4.4: Discuss in a group
 How the energy in food we eat released to our body?
 What is the role of oxygen that we inhel during breathing
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Cellular respiration is a process that occurs in the mitochondria of all organisms.
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Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are often called the ―powerhouses‖ or
―energy factories‖ of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the cell‘s main energy-carrying molecule. Mitochondria are oval-
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shaped, double-membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and DNA. Each
membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The inner layer has folds
called cristae, which increase the surface area of the inner membrane. The area
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surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix. The cristae and the matrix
have different roles in cellular respiration.
The formation of ATP from the breakdown of glucose is known as cellular respiration. In
this process, both plants and animals break down simple sugars into carbon dioxide and
water and release energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
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Cellular respiration or aerobic respiration is a series of chemical reactions which begin

with the reactants of sugar in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
water as waste products.
Cellular respiration has four stages
The first metabolic pathway during cellular respiration is glycolysis. Coming from the
Greek word ―glyk‖ which means ―sweet‖ and ―lysis‖ which means ―dissolution―,
glycolysis is the breakdown of one molecule of glucose (sugar) into two molecules of
pyruvate.
As shown in the above diagram, glycolysis takes place in the cytosol.
C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P → 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O) COOH + 2 ATP
+ 2 NADH + 2 H+
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 Glycolysis produce two ATP molecules, four molecules are actually produced
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during the entire process. However, two molecules are consumed during the
preparatory phase, hence, resulting to a net of just two ATP molecules.
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 The second stages is so-called ―link reaction” that occurs. Pyruvate from
glycolysis is oxidized (converted) to acetyl coA, one molecule of NADH
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), and one molecule of carbon dioxide.
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The third stage is called as the Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle, or simply the Citric
Acid cycle, the Krebs cycle (identified by Hans Adolf Krebs)
The Krebs cycle, which occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion, includes a series of
oxidation-reduction reactions that result in the oxidation of the acetyl group to two
carbon dioxide molecules.
 Hence, from one glucose molecule (that formed 2 pyruvate), a total of 6
NADH, 2 FADH2 and 2 ATP molecules are produced.
The forth stages is the electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative
phosphorylation which both occur in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
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 In ETC, electrons are transferred from one complex to next where the electrons
reduce oxygen to produce water. Such reactions produce the majority of ATP
during cellular respiration.
 Overall ETC produces water, NAD and FAD (which are both recycled back to
glycolysis and Krebs cycle), and up to 34 ATP per one molecule of glucose!
 In total, the resulting product of aerobic cellular respiration from a single glucose
molecule can be up to 38 ATP.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38ATP
(Glucose + 6 Oxygen → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + ATP)
What is the role of Oxygen in cellular respiration?
Oxygen is an essential molecule in cellular respiration. Basically, oxygen can be
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found at the end of the ETC (during aerobic respiration) where it accepts electrons
ES
while picking up protons in order to produce water molecules. Because of this, oxygen
is also called as the ―final electron acceptor‖. When oxygen levels are depleted,
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electrons will be simply dispersed and the electron transport chain will discontinue.
An aerobic respiration: Respiration in cells can take place anaerobically (without

oxygen), to transfer energy; it simply involves the incomplete breakdown of glucose
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into lactic acid. This occurs when the body can‘t supply enough oxygen for aerobic
respiration, such as during vigorous exercise
 In animal cells, this process is called the lactic acid fermentation. It is almost the
same with aerobic respiration except that it produces lactic acid in the process. It
can be simplified in the equation:
C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CH (OH) COOH + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP
 On the other hand, microorganisms like yeast respire without oxygen produce
ethanol and carbon dioxide. Such process is referred to as the ethanol or alcohol
fermentation.
C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP
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In both types of fermentation process, only 2 ATP are produced from a glucose
molecule
4.2.8
4.2.8 Photosynthesis andchloroplast
Photosynthesis and chloroplast
Plants make sugar by using energy from sunlight to change carbon dioxide (CO2), a
gas absorbed from the air, and water (H20) taken from the ground by roots into
glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2). This process is called photosynthesis and occurs
in the chloroplast of the plant cell.
Chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, within the space enclosed by a
chloroplast‘s inner membrane; is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled
membrane sacs called thylakoids. Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural
grana). The fluid enclosed by the inner membrane and surrounding the grana is called
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the stroma.
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The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the
energy of sunlight for photosynthesis.
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Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water
into glucose (sugar) and oxygen in the presence of sunlight.
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose (sugar) + Oxygen+ Water
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6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12 O6+6O2+6H2O
Exercise 4.5 Exercise 4.5

1. Compare the functions of the mitochondrion and chloroplast. How are they
different? How are they similar?
2. Write the chemical equations of cellular respiration and photosynthesis
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Unit Summary
 A microscope is an instrument that is used to observe objects too small to be seen clearly with the
naked eye.
 Microscopes are grouped in different type According to the type of radiation they use for
observation or image formation. The most common are light and electron microscope.
 The light microscope uses a beam light to form the image of an object, while the electron
microscope uses the beam of electron to form the image.
 A simple microscope consists of a single convex lens that is capable of magnifying an object.
 Compound microscope is a microscope that uses multiple lens systems at the same time.
 Microscope has two major abilities these magnification and resolution
 Magnification is increasing the size of an object to be viewed.
 Resolution is ability of the microscope to show the detailed or the scattered part of an object.
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 Mounting is the process preparing a specimen for observation under a microscope.
 A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. Thus, cells are the basic building blocks of all
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organisms.
 All cells commonly have cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus or DNA and ribosome
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 Unicellular organisms are those organisms that are made up of single cell.
 Multicellular organisms are those organisms that are made up of many cells.
 Multicellular organisms have different levels of organization like cell, tissue, organ, organ system,
and organisms.
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 Mitochondria and chloroplast are double membrane organelles perform cellular respiration and
Photosynthesis respectively.
 The formation of ATP (energy) from the breakdown of glucose using oxygen is known as cellular
respiration.
 Photosynthesis is food making process in green plants using CO2, water, chlorophyll pigments in
chloroplast and light from the sun.
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Review Exercise
Choose the correct answer from a given alternative options.
1. The ___________ is the basic unit of life.
A. Organism B. cell C. tissue D. organ
2. Which of these structures do all cell share?
A. nuclear envelope
B. cell walls
C. organelles
D. plasma membrane
3. which of the following scientists discover the cell
A. Robert Hooke B. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
C. Zaccharias Janssen D. Hans Lipperhey
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4. Which of the following feature will help you in distinguishing a plant cell
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from an animal cell?
A. cell wall C. mitochondria
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B. Cell membrane D. nucleus

5. Which part of the cell contains organelles?
A. cytoplasm B. Cytosol C. Cell wall D. nucleus
6. The shape and size of the cell are directly related to:
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A. The size of organism B. their functions

C. environment D. all
7. Which of the following levels of biological organization shows the correct
order from simplest to complex level?
A. Organism ------ organ system ------ organ ------ tissue ------ cell
B. Tissue ------ cell ------ organ ------ organ system ------ organism
C. Cell ------ tissue ------ organ ------ organism ------ organ system
D. Cell ------ tissue ------ organ ------ organ system ------ organism
8. Which organelles are responsible for digesting cell waste and foreign bacteria?
A. Golgi apparatus B. Cytoskeleton C. nucleus D. lysosome
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9. Which of these organelles modifies cell products and then packages
them for distribution?
A. The nucleus C. The mitochondrion
B. The cell membrane D. The Golgi apparatus
10. The ‘powerhouse’ of the cell that generates the cell’s energy-rich ATP
molecules is the:
A. Mitochondrion C. Chloroplast
B. Smooth ER D. Nucleus
Part II: Match items given in column ‘B’ with items given in
column‘A’
‘‘A’’ T ‘‘B’’
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11. Cell wall A. sorting, tagging and distribution of lipids
12. Nucleus B. provides support, and gives shape to the cell
13. Ribosome C. it direct and control cell activities
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14. Mitochondria D modify proteins and synthesize lipids

15. Chloroplast E. the power house of cell
16. Golgi apparatus F. the site were photosynthesis occur
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17. Endoplasmic reticulum G. Synthesize protein
Fill in the blank spaces with correct answer.

18. The instrument used to observe cells is ________
19. The ability of the microscope that makes the specimen appear large
is known as-----------------
20. The objective lenses of a compound microscope are------ ,---- ,-----
,and-----
21.------------- is preparing a specimen for observation under a microscope
Part IV: Give short answers for the following questions.
22. Cells consist of many organelles, yet we do not call any of these
organelles as structural and functional unit of living organisms.
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23. Explain how do you calculate the total magnification of your specimen when
using a compound light microscope?
24. Reorder the following parts of living things from larges to smallest
(Cell, organ, organism, tissue, atom, molecule, organ system, organelle)
25.Write the difference between magnification and resolution
26.The figure 4:10 given below is the structural organization of the animal cell.
Depict the organelles that is indicated by each number
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Check list
Unit Review
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No. Can I Yes No

1. identify the major parts and functions of a basic
microscope
2 Use a microscope to view objects
3 Discuss the role of a microscope
4 Differentiate between simple and light microscope
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5 Draw diagram of a microscope and label the major parts

6 Build microscope from locally available materials
7 Explain how cell was discovered
8 Draw and label the basic structures and functions of a cell
9 Explain why cell shape and structure vary
10 Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular
organisms
11 Differentiate among cell, tissue, organ and organ system
with examples
12 Examine and weigh the importance of cellular respiration
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Examine and weigh the importance of photosynthesis
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Key words
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Microscope Resolution Unicellular lens
Magnification Mounting multicellular cell
Monocular binocular cellula tissue

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Respiration photosynthesis Anaerobic Aerobic
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Unit 5 Living Things and Their Diversity

Learning Outcome
At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
• Distinguish between living and non-living things by

describing the features that characterize living
organisms
• Discuss if movement i.e. locomotion can characterize
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all living things or not
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• Define classification and its purpose
• Explain the purpose of scientific name
• List down the hierarchical levels in the classification
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of organisms
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of kingdom
Animalia, Plantae, Protista, Monera and Fungi.
• List common examples of animals, Plantae, Protista,
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Monera and Fungi

• Describe the body plan of a common animals, Plantae,
Protista, Monera and Fungi
• Describe habitats of animals, Plantae, Protista, Monera
and Fungi
5.1. Living Things 5.2. Kingdoms of Life
5.1.1. Characteristics of living things 5.2.1. Kingdom Animalia
5.1.2. Classification and 5.2.2. Kingdom Plantae
scientific names of organisms 5.2.3. Kingdom Protista
5.1.3. Hierarchy in the 5.2.4. Kingdom Monera
classification of organisms 5.2.5. Kingdom Fungi
(Kingdom to species)
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Introduction
There are at least five million different kinds of living things in the word.
These organisms are classified according similarities and differences.
The need for classifying living things is to identify them and to study their
relationship, their origin and development and to understand how life originated.
Activity: 5.1 Discuss in group and present your ideas to classmates.

• What makes living things different from non-living things?
• Consider as an example better fly and stone.
5.1. Living Things

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At the end of this section students will able to:
• Differentiate between living and non-living things
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• Organize and describe characteristics of living things

• Justify why movement or locomotion from one place to another
cannot be a defining characteristic of all organisms
• Relate diversity with classification of organisms
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• Justify why scientific names of organisms should be used in science

than the local names
• Analyze and describe the relationships of the hierarchical levels
(Kingdom to Species) in the classification of organisms.
Introduction
If you observe your environment you realize that there are millions of different
organisms living on the Earth, including animals, plants and microorganism.
In this unit you are going to learn about the characteristics of life, naming and
how to classify those organisms in to different group.
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Introduction
General Science
If you observe your environment you realize that there are millionsStudent
of different TextBook
GRADE 7
organisms living on the Earth, including animals, plants and microorganism. In this
unit you are going to learn about the characteristics of life, naming and how to classify
those organisms in to different group.
5.1.1. Characteristics
5.1.1. Characteristics of things
of living living things
Living things belong to any organism or a life form that possesses or shows the
characteristics of life or being alive. However, a living thing possesses certain
properties that help define what life is.
All groups of living organisms share several key characteristics or functions:
movements, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction and excretion. When
viewed together, these seven characteristics serve to
define life. Activity 5.2 Discuss in group
Characteristics of Living Organisms Activity 5.2 Discuss in group
and share your ideas to the
and share your ideas to the
Movement: an action by an organism or part of an class
class
organism causing a change of position or place. Most 1. Are plants categorized in
1. Are plants categorized in
living things or nonliving
single-celled creatures and animals move about as a living things or nonliving
things? Justify
things? why?
Justify why?
whole. Fungi and plants may make movements with parts
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2.2.Why
Whymovement
movement oror
of their bodies.
locomotion
locomotion from
fromoneoneplace
place to
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 Respiration: the chemical reactions that break down other other cannot
cannot bebetaken
takenas
as
defining
nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy for defining characteristics
characteristics of of all
all
living things?
metabolism living things?
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 Sensitivity: the ability to detect or sense stimuli in the

internal or external environment and to make appropriate responses. Organisms can
respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can grow toward a source of light, climb
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on fences and walls, or respond to touch. Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away
from chemicals or light. 133
 Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or
cell size or both. Non- living organisms grow by addition of new material to the out
sides surface, however living organism grow from within using food
 Reproduction: All living organisms must have the ability to reproduce. Living things
make more organisms like themselves. Whether the organism is a rabbit, or a tree, or a
bacterium, life will create more life. Reproduction is the process of making the next
generation and may be a sexual or an asexual process.
 Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of
metabolism (chemical reactions in cells including respiration) and substances in excess
of requirements Example the process of respiration produces west product, carbon
dioxides, which can be harmful in excess and must be removed
 Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants
require light, carbon dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic compounds,134
ions
and usually need water
 Excretion:Science
General the removal from organisms of toxic materials, theStudent
waste products of
TextBook
GRADE 7
metabolism (chemical reactions in cells including respiration) and substances in excess
of requirements Example the process of respiration produces west product, carbon
dioxides, which can be harmful in excess and must be removed
 Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants
require light, carbon dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic compounds, ions
and usually need water
Exercise 5.1
1. List and explain the characteristics of life.
2. Explain why movement or locomotion from one place to another cannot be a
defining characteristic of all organisms?
5.1.2. Classification
5.1.2. Classification and
and scientific
scientific names
names of organisms
of organisms
Scientists have found and describe approximately1.75million species, moreover new
species are being discovered every day. With such diversity of life on the earth how
does one go about making sense of it all? One ways to make sense of it is by
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classification. Classification is an important step in understanding the present diversity
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and past evolutionary history of life on Earth. It helps make sense of the
overwhelming diversity of living things.
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What is classification?
Classification is sorting or grouping things together on the basis common features

/defined characteristic or criteria.
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The science of classification is called taxonomy. Classification is usually a

hierarchical process. One begins with general and broad differences, and then one
systematically introduces more and more detailed and specific criteria.
Why we do we classify?
Biologist/ taxonomist classify living things because of:
 To identify those most at risk of extinction and to understand common
ancestors.
 It helps scientists to sort organisms in order and to make easy for study.
 It helps them to identify new organisms by finding out which group they fit.
Taxonomy has two branches: the naming of organism or nomenclature and Placing
of organism in to group, or systematic which is done on the basis of their similarities
and differences.
There are two ways of classifying organisms. These are artificial and natural. 135
The artificial classification based on one or a few easily observed characteristics and
 To identify those most at risk of extinction and to understand common
General Science
ancestors. Student TextBook
GRADE 7
 It helps scientists to sort organisms in order and to make easy for study.
 It helps them to identify new organisms by finding out which group they fit.
Taxonomy has two branches: the naming of organism or nomenclature and Placing
of organism in to group, or systematic which is done on the basis of their similarities
and differences.
There are two ways of classifying organisms. These are artificial and natural.
The artificial classification based on one or a few easily observed characteristics and
usually designed for practical purpose with an emphasis on convenience and
simplicity.
KEY WORDS
Taxonomy: the science of classifying and naming organisms.
Classification: sorting things based on defined characteristics or criteria
Nomenclature: naming of organism
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Genera: a group of closely related species.
Species: is the group of organism that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring
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Binomial system is an internationally agreed system in which the scientific
name of an organism is made up of two 135parts showing the genus and the species.
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Example: You could put all the animals that fly in the same group. This
group would then include birds, bats and many insects. You could put all
animals that live in water and have streamlined, fish-like
bodies in the same group. This group would then include fish and whales.
Are based on arbitrary groupings and have little meaning. Natural or
biological classification system tries to use natural relationships between
organisms it consider more evidence than artificial classifications
including internal as well as external features. It is a scientific
method of classification that groups organisms that share common fea-
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tures.
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This classification is not random, but rather it describes
evolutionary relationships. As a consequence, it is always necessarily
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hierarchical, where the important features inherited from a

common ancestor determine the group in which the organisms are placed.
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For example, humans and whales both feed their young on milk, which is
a characteristic inherited from a common ancestor. This similarity places
them under the same class, mammals, even though their habitats are
completely different.
Each organism is grouped into one of five large groups or
kingdoms, which are subdivided into smaller groups called phyla
(singular: phylum) and then smaller and smaller groups with other names.
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The smallest natural group of organisms is the species. A species can be defined as a
group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.
Scientific Naming Of Organism
The Binomial System
Organisms were first classified by a Swedish naturalist called Carl Linnaeus (1707 to
1778) in a way that allows the subdivision of living organisms into smaller and more
specialized groups. He designed a scientific system of naming organisms called
binomial nomenclature.
The binomial system of naming species is an internationally agreed system in which
the scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and the
species. Binomial means ‗two names‘; the first name gives the genus and the second
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gives the species. Carl Linnaeus named organisms in Latin using the binomial system.
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The scientific naming or binomials naming system should follow the following rules
 Should d contain two names (first and the second)
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 The first name is the name of the genus name to which group the organisms
belongs and it should begin in capital letter
 The second name is the name of species to which the organismbelongs.it is
written in small letter.
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 The scientific name must always be either written underlined or printed in

italics.
The scientific name of our human race is Homo sapiens / Homo sapiens, similarly
the scientific name of some organism listed below in the table
No Common name Scientific name
1 African elephant Loxodonta africana
2 Lion Panthera leo
3 Teff Eragrostis tef
4 Domestic cat Felis domesticus
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Activity 5.3
The activity below is not Life Sciences related, but expresses the process of
classification. Discuss in group and present the result of your discussion the
relationships among the administrative structure: Country, Region, Zone,
Wereda and correlates with biological levels of classification
An organism will always have only one scientific name even though they might
have more than one common name. Before Linnaeus, the use of common names
to refer to organisms caused confusion because there were regional differences
in these common names.
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Because of the scientific names is international agreed and universal it avoids
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the confusion of local variation in common names. For instance, every biologist
will understand that Felis catus means ‘house cat’ without resorting to the
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dictionary, no matter what language they speak.

Exercise 5.2
1. Explain the importance of scientific naming organisms.
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2. Define what is species?
5.1.3. Hierarchy in the classification of organisms

(Kingdom to species)
Linnaeus eventually extends the binomial system to include more groups than
just genus and species. These he arranged in hierarchy with largest group, the
kingdom at the top of hierarchy, the groups he proposed are still used to day
and, in descending order of size: The sequence of classification is: Kingdom,
Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species
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Figure 5.1: Diagram showing hierarchy of classification

Activity: 5.4 make you own mnemonic to
When trying to identify animals, it is
remember the sequence of the classification
system this hierarchy or ranking scheme that
This activity allows the learners to be creative.
Give the learners the freedom to choose which we follow. We start by identifying the
platform suits them best. The learners have fun
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kingdom, to which an organism be-
and learn the classification system at the same
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time. longs, then its phylum, class, family,
Instructions: Make an easy to remember
memory aid to remember the sequence of levels order, and so on.
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of the classification system. As you go through the classification

Materials: pen, paper, imagination!
Procedure: coin mnemonics using first letters hierarchy, you will see that scientists
of the levels such as-K for Kingdom, -P for
Phylum, etc. for frequent memorization easy
have used broader features to put or-
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and of the levels. Example of such mnemonic ganisms into kingdoms, which are the
as: King Philip came over for Good Spaghetti
(KPCOFGS) rehearse this mnemonic at the largest groups of organisms. When
beginning of your class until this unit is
you move down towards the species,
completed.
which are the smallest groups of organisms, features are becoming specific. In
other words, two organisms that belong to the same species share more features
than those in the same kingdom but in different species.
KEY WORD
Kingdom: are grouped of related phyla or divisions
Phylum or Division: a group of related classes
Class: a group of related orders
Order: a group of related families Genus: a group of closely related species.
Family: a group of related genera Species: basic unit of classification or taxonomy
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Taxon Dog Tiger Maize

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae
Phylum Chordata Chorodata Magnoliop
hyta
Class Mamalia Mammalia Liliopsida
Order Carnivora Carnivora Poales
Family Canidae Felidea Poaceae
Genus Canis Felis Zea
Species Familiaris Tigris Mays
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Table5.1 The taxonomic breakdown of a few familiar animals and plant
Exercise 5.3
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1. Writes the classification hierarchy for human being from kingdom to species
A species can be defined as a group of organisms with similar features and these
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organisms are capable of breeding and produce fertile offspring. You are probably
aware of the fact that horses and donkeys belong to the same kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family as well as genus but they are from different species. Therefore, if a
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donkey and the horse happen to breed, they produce an offspring called a mule. The
mule is infertile, meaning that it cannot reproduce offspring because it is a product of
organisms of different species.
Classification hierarchy has many uses. First, it helps scientists to sort organisms in
order. Second, it helps them to identify new organisms by finding out which group
they fit. Third, it is easier to study organisms when they are sorted in groups.
Exercises 5.4
I. Choose the best answer from a given alternative option
1. The Swedish scientists who create the binomial naming system
A. Robert Hook B. Carlous Linnaeus C. Robert H. Whittaker Charles Darwin
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2. Which of the following in the classification system is the smallest?

A. Kingdom B. species C. Genus D. class
3. Excretion, irritability and reproduction are characteristics of:
A. all animals and plants C. plants only
B. animals only D. some animals and some plants only
Figure: 5 .2 below shows how fish react when the glass on one side of an aquarium
tank is tapped with a finger.
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4. What characteristics of living organisms does this demonstrate?
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A. Excretion and movement C. growth and irritability
B. excretion and nutrition D. irritability and movement
5. The scientific name of human being is Homo sapiens, the second parts of the
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scientific name represent-------

A. . genera name B. kingdom name C. species named D. family name
II. Complete the passage below by choosing the words from list
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List: excretion, growth, Sensitivity, movement, nutrition, organisms, reproduction,

respiration
A. Living things are often called ______________.
B. All living things release energy from their food in a process called
______________, which happens inside their cells
C. Some of the energy is used for ________________, which usually happens more
quickly in animals than in plants.
D. The food from which the energy is released is taken into the body in a process
called ________________.
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E. All living things get bigger as they get older. This process is called _____
F. The production of young is called ____________________.
G. Waste substances are removed from organisms by the process of _______
5.2. The kingdom

H. The seventh characteristic of life
shown by all living organisms is
____________________, which means that they are sensitive to things around them.
At the end of this section students will able to:
5.2. The kingdom of life
• Compare the five Kingdoms of living things by describing their distinguishing
 Compare the five Kingdoms of living things by describing their distinguishing
characteristics
characteristics
• Summarize the commonest examples of organisms belonging to each Kingdom
Summarize
• Describe the body
 the commonest
plans ofexamples
insectsofsuch
organisms belongingamphibians
as butterfly, to each Kingdomsuch as frogs,
mosses, liverworts,
 Describe ferns,
the body plans of conifers such
insects such as junipers,
as butterfly, flowering
amphibians such asplants,
frogs, mosses,
Paramecium, Algae,
liverworts, ferns, and Mushroom
conifers such as junipers, flowering plants, Paramecium, Algae, and
• Relate T
each Kingdom of organisms to their major habitat types as aquatic,
Mushroom
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• terrestrial or moist.
 Relate each Kingdom of organisms to their major habitat types as aquatic, terrestrial or moist.
Activity:
Activity: 5. 5 Brain
5. 5 Brain storming
storming
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Have
Have youyou
everever thought
thought of multitudes
of multitudes of life
of life forms thatforms thatassurround
surround as and
and can you can if them
list same
you list5.6same
Activity: Makeifgroups
them of five, and then categorize the following organisms given in the
Activity:
following 5.6 in
charts Make groups
to some ofgroup
named five, and
andpresent
then categorize the
the results of following
your discussionorganisms
for the class.
given in the following charts in to some named group and present the results
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of your discussion for the class.
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Figure: 5.3: Same diversity of life on planet earth
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Figure: 5.3 same diversity of life on planet earth.
The five kingdom system is the most common way of grouping living things based on
simple distinctive characteristics. The five-kingdom system
was developed by Robert H. Whittaker in 1969 and was built Activity5. 7
on the work of previous biologists such as Carolus Linnaeus. Activity5. the
Categorize 7 organ-
Living things can be classified into five major kingdoms: Categorize the
ismorganism
listed inlisted
figure
in 5.1
 Kingdom Animalia above
figurebased on the
5.1 above five
based
 Kingdom Plantae on the five
kingdom kingdom
of life and of
Kingdom Fungi life and explain your
 explain your reason to
reason to classify
Kingdom Protista classify
under under any of

any of the
 Kingdom Monera (Bacteria) thekingdom?
kingdom?
5.2.1.Kingdom
5.2.1. Kingdom Animalia
Animalia
Major characteristics of animals
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Members of the animal kingdom are eukaryotic and multicellular but have no cell wall
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or photosynthetic pigments. They are mostly motile and they are heterotrophic, which
means they must feed on other organisms and cannot make their own food. They
reproduce sexually or asexually. Animals store
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carbon as glycogen and fat.

Major groups of animal and their habitats
Invertebrates
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Insects (Arthropods)
The insects form a very large class of arthropods.
Insects live in every possible environment on Earth
and are among the most highly adapted of all animal
species
Figure: 5.4 the body structure of

Figure: 5.4: the body
insects
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structure of insect
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GRADE 7
Bees, butterflies, mosquitoes, houseflies, earwigs, greenfly and beetles are just a few
of the subgroups in this class.
Insects have segmented bodies with a firm exoskeleton, three pairs of jointed legs,
compound eyes and, typically, two pairs of wings. The body is divided into three
parts: head, thorax and abdomen regions. Insects have only one pair of antennae and
only three pairs of legs and have no limbs on the abdominal segment.
KEY TERMS
Heterotrophs: heterotrophs are organisms that cannot produce their own food.
Multicellular: an organism composed of many cells.
Exoskeleton: is the external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body.
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Worm: Worms are members of several invertebrate phyla, animals that typically have
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a long cylindrical tube-like, flattened, or leaf like shaped body, no limbs, and no eyes.
It includes Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Annelida (segmented worms), Nemertea
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(ribbon worms), nematode (roundworms, pinworms) etc. They vary in size from less
than 1 mm (0.04 inch) in certain nematodes to more than 30 m (100)
They live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats. Some types of worms are
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parasitic, others are free-living.
Figure: 5.5 different worms of phylum Annelida

Activity: 5.8
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Activity: 5.8
Collecting and examining flatworms and insects
Materials you require: A. containers, nets, hand lenses, alcohol solution
Procedure: 1.You may need to use nets to catch some of the organisms. Take care
handling any organisms which may sting or bite. Keep different types of specimen
you collected (butterfly, grasshopper, spider, Bees, mosquitoes) in appropriate
container and examine as the following
2. What features the specimens have in common?
3. Examine their characteristic features, i.e. number of limbs, presence and number of
antennae and number of body parts, presence and number of wings.
4. You should then make a table of characteristic features like in the following tables
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5. Make large well-labeled drawings of each of their specimens
Specimen Number of body Number of limbs Antenna wings
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parts
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Butterfly
Grasshopper
B. Looking at Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

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Material used: preserved or fresh specimens of Platyhelminthes (flat worm) hand

lenses. Observe, draw and label specimens of these invertebrate phyla
Activity: 5. 9 collecting and examining amphibian (frog)
Material you require: transparent container or cage, pairs of forceps, pairs of gloves.
Procedure: 1.Collect live or freshly killed toads or frogs keep in transparent container
or cage.
2. Examine the head and trunk regions of the toad. You should note and identify the
following characteristic features: Mouth, Nostrils, Eyes Ear, Trunk, limbs.
3. Does the toad/frog have a tail?
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4. Make a large well-labelled drawing of the toad/frog as seen from the slide
Vertebrates (fish, amphibian, reptiles, birds & mammals). Vertebrates are animals
which have a vertebral column. The vertebral column is sometimes called the spinal
column consists of a chain of cylindrical bones (vertebrae) joined end to end.
Table 5.3 major groups of animals and their characteristics
Class Main features Examples
 Poikilothermic (cold blooded) vertebrates.

 Many of them have a smooth, wet scales
on skin, streamlined shape
 Breath by gills, reproduce sexually
fertilization external
 Fins (also used for balance) T
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 Live only in water (aquatic environment)
FISH
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 Poikilothermic (cold blooded)

 Have moist skins with a good supply of
Capillaries
 Have lungs and skin for breathing
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 Fertilization external, produce jelly-

covered eggs in water
AMPHIBIAN
 Four limbs, back feet are often webbed to

make swimming more efficient
 Live both in water and on land.
 Poikilothermic (cold blooded)

 dry skin, with scales
 four legs (apart from snakes)
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 produce eggs with a rubbery, waterproof
REPTILES
shell; laid on land

 Have lungs for breathing
 Most reptiles live in warm habitats
 are homoeothermic (warm blooded

 feathers, with scales on legs
 two wings and two legs
 produce eggs with a
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 hard shell, laid on land
Vertebrates
 four legs(fish,
(apartamphibian, reptiles, birds & mammals). Vertebrates are animals
from snakes)
which have a vertebral
 produce
column
eggs withcolumn.
consists of land
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The vertebral
a rubbery, column is sometimes called the spinal
waterproof
a chain of cylindrical bones (vertebrae) joined end to end.
REPTILES
shell; laid on
Table 5.3 major
 Have lungsgroups of animals and their characteristics
for breathing
Class Main features
Most reptiles live in warm habitats Examples
 Poikilothermic (cold blooded) vertebrates.

 are homoeothermic (warm blooded
 Many of them have a smooth, wet scales
 feathers, with scales on legs
on skin, streamlined shape
 two wings and two legs
 Breath by gills, reproduce sexually
 produce eggs with a
fertilization external
 hard shell, laid on land
 Fins (also used for balance)
lungs for breathing; beak
FISHBIRDS

 Live only in water (aquatic environment)
 live in water and on land
 are homoeothermic (warm blooded)
produce live young
 Poikilothermic (cold blooded)
 lungs for breathing
 Have moist skins with a good supply of
females have mammary glands to
Capillaries
AMPHIBIAN MAMMALS
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produce
 Have lungsmilk to feed
and skin foryoung;
breathing
 four types of teeth
 Fertilization external, produce jelly-
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live oneggs
 covered landin water
 Four limbs, back feet are often webbed to
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make
Keyword
wordswimming more efficient
Key
 Live both in water and on land.
Poikilothermic:
Poikilothermic: is an
is an animal
animal whosewhose internal
internal temperature
temperature varies varies
considerably.
considerably.
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Homoeothermic: organisms able to maintain a constant internal

Homoeothermic: organisms able to maintain a constant internal
body temperature. 147
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Exercise 5.5
1. Which of the following vertebrates are characterized by four limbs with back feet
are often webbed, moist skin and live both in water and on land?
A. Mammal B. fish C. reptiles D. amphibian
2. Which of the following is not true about insect? They posses
A. three segmented body B. a pair of antennae
C. two pairs of legs D. typically two pair‘s wings
3. Writes the distinguishing characteristic of mammals and birds.
5.2.2. Kingdom Plantae
Major characteristics of plants
Organisms belonging to the plant kingdom are eukaryotic and multicellular
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organisms. They have a distinct cell wall made of cellulose. Cells are organized into
true plant tissues. Plants contain plastids and photosynthetic pigments such as
2. Which of the following is not true about insect? They posses
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A. three segmented body B. a pair of antennae
C. two pairs of legs
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D. typically two pair‘s wings
3. Writes the distinguishing characteristic of mammals and birds.
5.2.2. KingdomPlantae
5.2.2. Kingdom Plantae
Major characteristics of plants
Organisms belonging to the plant kingdom are eukaryotic and multicellular
organisms. They have a distinct cell wall made of cellulose. Cells are organized into
true plant tissues. Plants contain plastids and photosynthetic pigments such as
chlorophyll. They are non-motile. Plants make their own food by photosynthesis and
are therefore said to be autotrophic. Plants undergo both sexual and asexual
reproduction. They store food as starch.
Major groups of plants and their habitats:
Important examples of plants are mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants.
T
ES
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Figure: 5.6 major groups of plants

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Non vascular plants (lack vascular tissue)
Vascular systems consist of xylem tissue, which transports water and minerals, and
phloem tissue, which transports sugars and proteins.
Bryophytes: The Phylum Bryophyta, are the most diverse group with more than
10,000 plant species.
 This phylum includes the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
 They lack vascular tissue and wood that can render them structural support.
 They also lack true leaves, stem, and roots that can help them transport water
and nutrients.
 Live in moist places and somehow have adapted several methods that can help
them thrive in dry periods.
 Reproduce through spores.
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 Play an important role in minimizing erosion along bodies of water, carrying
 They lack vascular tissue and wood that can render them structural support.
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 They also lack true leaves, stem, and roots that can help them transport water
and nutrients.
 Live in moist places and somehow have adapted several methods that can help
them thrive in dry periods.
 Reproduce through spores.
 Play an important role in minimizing erosion along bodies of water, carrying
out water and nutrient cycling
Mosses liverwort hornwort

Figure 5: 7 different types’ bryophytes
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Figure 5: 7 5.
Activity: different types‘ bryophytes
10 collecting and examining mosses
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Activity:
Materials5.you
1o collecting and examining
require: microscopes, mosses
hand lenses, scalpel blades, forceps,
Materials
microscopeyou require:
slides and covermicroscopes,
slips. hand lenses, scalpel blades, forceps,
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Procedure:slides
microscope 1. in and
groups search
cover slips.around the school for moss plants around damp
walls, rocks, tree barks or damp verandas. Then you should carry collected
specimen into the laboratory for detailed study.
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2. With the help of a hand lens examine the specimen carefully and identify the
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parts.
3. You draw and label your specimen.
Figure 5.8 the structure of pteridiophytes (fern)
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Key terms: Vascular Plants: possess vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
that aid them to transport water and minerals.
Pteridophytes
• have well-developed xylem and phloem
• Pteridophytes are seedless plants but they pass their genetics to
offspring through spores that are located on the underside of their
leaves known as sporophylls.
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• Unlike bryophytes, they are already vascular plants and capable of
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transporting fluids.
• The stem and leaves have sieve tubes and water conducting cells
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similar to those in the xylem and phloem of a flowering plant.

• The stem is usually entirely below ground and takes the form of a
structure called a rhizome.
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• The leaves of ferns vary from one species to another

• Pteridophytes have already adapted to a wide range of habitat: they
can be aquatic, terrestrial, and even cold-resistant.
Activity: 5. 11 Collecting and examining a fern

Material you require: hand lenses, scalpels, clean slides, cover slips, and micro-
scopes.
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Procedure
1. In groups, you should search for a fern along rivers/stream banks, shady areas
beneath trees and along fences.
2. Examine your specimens and identify as many structures as they can.
3. Draw and label their specimen.
4. Observe the lower surface of the leaves (fronds).
5. Draw the lower surface of the specimen showing the arrangement of the spore-
forming bodies if there are any there.
6. Using forceps or a needle, remove a capsule if they can see one, mount it on a slide
and view under low power. Draw what you see.
Exercise: 5. 6
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1. What is the difference between bryophytes and pteridophytes
2. Writes the importance of bryophytes in the environments
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Gymnosperms (confers plant)
 The name ―gymnosperm‖ literally means ―naked seed―, which is exhibited by
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the members by having cones instead of seeds to reproduce. Their seed are not
enclosed in fruit.
 They are widely distributed in the planet but dominate the temperate and arctic
regions. The stem and leaves have sieve tubes and
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water conducting cells similar to those in the xylem

and phloem of a flowering plant.
 They are characterized by having wood, and green
needle-like or scale-like foliage.
 gymnosperms are good sources of wood and paper
Activity: 5.12 collecting and examining conifers
Material you require: saw, conifer leaves and cones.
Fig 5.9 structures of

151 Fig 5.9 structures of
gymnosperm gymnosperm
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Procedure: In groups, you should search and collect a conifer tree in you school
compound.
1. Obtain some conifer leaves and cones.
2. Observe them carefully.
3. Make large well-libeled drawings of the leaves of conifer.
4. Examine some conifer cones. Note the seeds attached to the cone. Carefully remove
one seed from the cone of conifer and draw it.
B. Collecting and examining angiosperm
Material you require: bean/pea plants with flowers and bean/pea seed, maize plants
with flowers and maize grain, hand lenses.
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Procedure: Make a collection of flowering plants around your school. Identify them
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and then classify them according to whether they are monocotyledons or di cotyledons
1. Collect a bean/pea plant and a maize plant.
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2. Compare their roots, stems, leaves, flowers and seeds.

3. Make a table of differences between the bean plant and the maize plant.
4. Draw well-labeled diagrams of the bean plant and the maize plant.
Angiosperms (flowering plants)
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 They have true root, stem, leaves and flowers as reproductive organ and the
seed are enclosed in fruit.
 They reproduce by seeds which are formed in flowers.
 Flowering plants are divided into two subclasses: monocotyledons and
cotyledons.
 Their leaves are usually broad and the leaf veins form a branching network
Most angiosperms are good sources of food, medicine, clothing fibers, and wood.
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Figure 5:10 flowering plants
Activity 5.13
Develop a table that simplifies and summarizes the kingdoms from mosses to
flowering plants as follows. You should copy the example shown here and fill it in.
Division Characteristics Examples
Bryophyta
Pteridophyta
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Gymnosperm
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Angiosperm
EXERCISE: 5.7
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Choose the best answer from the give suggested option

1. True root, stem and leaves are found in
A. lichens B. algae C. fungi D. ferns
2. A group of plant characterized by the possession of amasses of spore bearing
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structures under side of their leaves are;

A. ferns B. lichen C algae D. worst
3. A seed bearing but non flowering plants are
A. algae B. angiosperm c. gymnosperm d. ferns
4. One is not belongs to Bryophytes
A. Liverwort B. mosses c hornwort D. ferns
5. Which group are vascular plants?
A. liverworts B. mosses C. Ferns D. Hornwort
5.2.3. Kingdom Protista
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5.2.3 Kingdom Protista

Major characteristics of Protista
Protista are eukaryotic and can be unicellular.

The kingdom protista is diverse group.one ways
to classify protists according to the way they
obtain nutrition. There are animallike, plantlike,
funguses like protistis. They reproduce sexually
or asexually. Important examples of protists
include the organism known as Plasmodium
(which causes malaria), Amoeba and Euglena,
Trypanosomes. T figure 5.14 Protista
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There are two major groups of Protista include:
ii. Protozoans: are similar to animal cells in that they do not have cell walls
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Organisms such as Amoeba and Paramecium take in and digest solid food and
thus resemble animals in their feeding.
They may be called unicellular ‗animals‘
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iii. Protophyta: the plant-like cells which do have cell walls and are similar to
algae.
Euglena and Chlamydomonas possess chloroplasts and make their food by
photosynthesis
They often referred to as unicellular ‗plants‘
Activity: 5. 14 Making hay infusion and observing protozoan (paramecium)
Materials: A hand full of hay, a large beaker, pond water, some milk Method:
1. Take a hand full of dried grass or hay (free from pesticides or herbicides) and
cut the grass into smaller pieces
2. Place the cut grass into the beaker and about 0.5-1 liter of water.
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3. Add 1-2 drops of milk. The water will turn slightly turbid. The milk is food for
the bacteria and they will start to reproduce. The ciliates feed on the bacteria
and will also reproduce.
4. Let the beaker stand open for several days, protected from direct sunlight as this
may result in overheating and the heat will reduce the oxygen concentration. Do
make sure that the beaker receives sufficient light, though. Photosynthetic algae
present in the pond water will produce oxygen.
5. Keep adding 1-2 drops of milk when the turbidity disappears. Bubble some air
through the water at regular intervals (using an air-pump from an aquarium) or
agitate the water a bit to enrich it with oxygen.
6. Replace the evaporated water.
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7. Take some sample from the surface of the water (where there is oxygen) for
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microscopic investigation. If the water is agitated, then the microorganisms are
(of course) not able to collect beneath the water surface.
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8. Observe paramecium using microscope and draw the structure. Follow the
mounting procedure explained in unit four.
5.2.4.
5.2.4. Kingdom Monera
Kingdom Monera
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Major characteristics of Monera

The Kingdom Monera consists of prokaryotic unicellular organisms. No nuclear
membrane or membrane-bound organelles such as chloroplasts, Golgi complex,
mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum are present. Monera have a cell wall of protein
plus polysaccharide compound, but not cellulose. They reproduce asexually by binary
fission. Important examples of Monera include blue green algae and Bacteria.
Major groups of monera and their habitats (Blue Green algae & Bacteria)
Blue Green algae
Blue-green algae, is prokaryotic singled celled photosynthetic organisms containing a
blue pigment in addition to chlorophyll they also called cyanobacteria.
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Predominantly occur singly or in colonies in diverse habitats in freshwater or a

terrestrial environment
They are microscopic but can be seen when they are in a colony, or bloom.
Cyanobacteria contain only one form of chlorophyll (a green pigment.) In addition,
they contain various yellowish carotenoids, the blue pigment phycobilin and, in some
species, the red pigment phycoerythrin. The combination of phycobilin and
chlorophyll produces the characteristic blue-green color from which these organisms
derive their popular name.
Cyanobacteria are the first organisms known to have produced oxygen as a
byproduct of photosynthesis
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ES
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FO
Figure.5:12 Colony and filamentous form of blue green algae

Bacteria: are very small organisms consisting of single cells they lack organized
nucleus and chlorophyll pigments
Their cell walls are made, not of cellulose, but of a complex mixture of proteins,
sugars and lipids (peptidoglycan).
They can be found in various shapes and sizes, may be spherical, rod-shaped or spiral
and some have fi laments, called flagella, projecting from them and serve for
movement.
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The genetic material DNA is contained in the cytoplasm called nucleoid.

Bacteria are found everywhere and are the most numerous organisms on Earth.
Figure: 5.13 structures and shapes of bacteria

Exercise 5.8
1. Define prokaryotes and eukaryotes cell.
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2. Explain the difference between prokaryote and eukaryotes.
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5.2.5 Kingdomfungi
5.2.5 Kingdom fungi
Major characteristics of fungi
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Fungi are eukaryotic (have membrane bounded nucleus) organisms that can be
multicellular or unicellular. Mushrooms and molds are examples of multicellular fungi
and yeast is an example of a unicellular fungi. All fungi have a cell wall made of
chitin. They are non-motile (not capable of movement) and consist of threads called
FO
hyphae. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms which mean they require organic
compounds of carbon and nitrogen for nourishment. They are important as
decomposer (saprophytes) and can be parasitic. They store carbon as glycogen, not in
the form of starch. Fungi reproduce sexually and asexually by spore formation.
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Figure
Figure 5:14 different types5:14 different types of fungi
of fungi
Yeast: single-celled fungi. It converts complex carbohydrates into alcohol and
carbon-dioxide. Used for a variety of commercial purposes like baking (‘injera‘ or
bread) and in the production of alcohol.
Mould: fungi which grow on decayed bread, cheese, fruit or other food. Many of the
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mould fungi live in the soil or in dead wood.
Another important example of a useful fungus is Penicillium (a fungus which was
ES
used to make penicillin, one of the most powerful antibiotics ever created)
Activity: 5.15 collecting and looking at fungi
RT
Materials you require: microscopes, hand lenses, scalpel blades, forceps,

microscope slides and cover slips.
Procedure: 1. in groups search around the school for mushroom in the school
FO
compound or if necessary you can grow your own fungi (moulds) on a little moist
injera or by letting a piece of fruit go rotten. Some of them may be quite big like
(mushroom) but they may want to use a microscope to look at some of them.
Look at different structures of fungi (fruiting body or mycelium) .Draw several
different types of fungus.
Unity summary
 The seven characteristics of living things are movement, respiration, sensitivity,
growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition
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 A species is a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile

offspring.
 The binomial system is an internationally agreed system in which the scientific
name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and the
species.
 Classification is a way of sorting organisms into a meaningful order
 The artificial classification based on one or a few easily observed
characteristics
 Natural or biological classification system tries to use natural relationships
between organisms
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 The smallest natural group of organisms is the species
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 The five kingdom system is the most common way of grouping living things
based on simple distinctive characteristics.
 The sequences of classification are Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family,
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Genus, and Species

 Living things can be classified into five major kingdoms: Kingdom Animalia,
Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Monera (Bacteria
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 Animal kingdom is eukaryotic and multicellular but has no cell wall or

photosynthetic pigments. They are mostly motile and they are heterotrophic,
 Insect has three parts: head, thorax and abdomen regions with three pairs of
jointed legs, compound eyes and, typically, two pairs of wings
 Plant kingdom is eukaryotic and multicellular organisms. They have a distinct
cell wall made of cellulose.
 Bryophytes are non-vascular plants that lack true leaves, stem, and roots that
can help them transport water and nutrients.
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 Pteridophytes are vascular plants that have well-developed xylem and phloem
that reproduce by spores.
 Gymnosperms are vascular plants that bearing cone.
 Angiosperms are flowering plants that reproduce by seeds which are formed in
flowers.
 Protista are eukaryotic and can be unicellular or simple multicellular. They
reproduce sexually or asexually.
 Monera are of prokaryotic unicellular organisms that lack the membrane
bounded organelle and reported by binary fusion
 Bacteria are very small organisms consisting of single cells they lack organized
nucleus and chlorophyll pigmentsT
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 Fungi are eukaryotic (have membrane bounded nucleus) organisms that can be
multicellular or unicellular and have chitin cell wall.
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Review Exercise
I. Write “true” if the statements are correct and “false” if the statements
is incorrect
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1. Blue green algae belongs to the kingdom-Protista

2. Bacteria are found everywhere and are the most numerous organisms on Earth.
3. The Kingdom Monera consists of prokaryotic multicellular organisms.
4. Protoctists are single-celled organisms containing a nucleus.
5. Amphibians can breathe in air or in water.
6. Mammals have fur, they suckle their young and the young develop inside the
mother.
7. Mosses have well-developed stems, leaves, roots and reproduce by spores.
8. Fungi are made up of thread-like hyphae and an autotroph organism.
9. Insects mostly live on land and have wings and two pairs of legs.
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II. Match the following items in “A” sides with the item in” B”
1. Plants A. made up of thread-like hyphae & reproduce by spores.
2. Fungi B. makes their food by photosynthesis.
3. Protists C. gets their food by eating plants or other animals.
4. Animal D. is single-celled organisms containing a nucleus.
5. Monera E. is single celled organism lacking nucleus
III. Fill the following question by the appropriates terms
1. The type naming organism using the Latin name indicating genus and species
is called___________
2. _______group of organisms which are able to interbreed and produce fertile
offspring.
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3. _______is the scientific name of our human race.
4. _______the type of asexual reproduction in the Kingdom Monera.
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5. Highest grouping in a classification system_____________________
IV. Choose the best answer from the following suggested option
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1. Which one of the following is not a defining characteristic of all organisms?

A. Growth B. respiration C. locomotion Reproduction
2. The smallest natural group of organisms is the_________.
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A. Kingdom B. Species C. phylum D. class

3. If two organisms belong to the same order, then they must also belong to the same
A. Genes B. class C. family D. species
4. An organism's scientific name is based on how it is classified. Which of the
following levels of classification determine the name?
A. Genus and species B. Phylum and class C. Order and family D. kingdom and
spies
5. The science of identifying, classifying, and naming living things is called?
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A. System B. nomenclature C. Taxonomy D. hierarchy

6. The level below kingdom
A. Genus B. order C. phylum D. class
7. The sequence of scientific category from general to specific:
A. Species----- genera----family----order --- class-----phylum kingdom
B. Genera--- family-----order ----class-----phylum kingdom------genus
C. order ---class----phylum-----kingdom-----family---species----genus
D. kingdom----phylum-----class------order----family---genus----species
8. Protists are;
A. All autotrophs cannot make their own food
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B. All autotrophs can make their own food
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C. Can be either autotrophs and heterotrophs
D. Are not eukaryotic (do not have nucleus
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9. A mushroom would best fit into which kingdom?

A. Animal B. Fungi C. plant D. protist
10.The main function of the vascular bundles found in many plants is to ...
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A. taps energy or food making

B. carry out photosynthesis
C. assist plant in reproduction
D. transport substances around the plant
11.The scientific (and common) names of three animals are: Canis familiaris
(dog), Canis lupis (wolf) and Vulpes vulpes (fox). These three animals all
belong to the same ...
A. Class but different genera
B. Genus but different species
C. Species different genera
D. Class different species
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12.In a five-kingdom system of classification, bacteria are members of

A. kingdom B.fungi C. plants D.monera E.protests
V. Give short answer for the following question
1. Explain the importance of classification hierarchy.
2. Describe the relationship of hierarchical levels in classification.
3. Explain the major characteristics kingdom animalia and fungi.
4. Writes the unique or distinguishing characteristics of kingdom plantia,
Protista and monera.
5. States the kingdom to which each of the following organism belongs
Lizard amoeba paramecium blue green algae
Lizard
Papaya spider amoeba
termites paramecium
mushroom yeast blue green algae
Papaya spider termites mushroom yeast
Sunflower
Sunflower pigeon pigeonrat ratmaize salmonella
maize Sorghum
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bacteria
Trypanosome euglena mold pea
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Sorghum bacteria
Key words
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Living things Genus Gymnosperms
Classification Pteridophytes Protista
Specie Class Monera

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Binomial system Family Vascular
Kingdom Eukaryotic Angiosperms
Sorting Multicellular Spore
Phylum Unicellular Prokaryotic
Order Bryophytes Poikilothermic
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Check
Unit list
Review
No. Can I Yes No
1. Differentiate between living and non-living things
2 Organize and describe characteristics of living things
3 Justify why movement or locomotion from one place to another
cannot be a defining characteristic of all organisms
4
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Relate diversity with classification of organisms
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5 Justify why scientific names of organisms should be used in
science than the local names
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6 Analyze and describe the relationships of the hierarchical levels

(Kingdom to Species) in the classification of organisms
7 Compare the five Kingdoms of living things by describing their
distinguishing characteristics
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8 Summarize the commonest examples of organisms belonging to

each Kingdom
9 Describe the body plans of insects such as butterfly, amphibians
such as frogs, mosses, liverworts, ferns, conifers such as junipers,
flowering plants, Paramecium, Algae, and Mushroom
10 Relate each Kingdom of organisms to their major habitat types as
aquatic, terrestrial or moist
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Unit 6 Earth in Space

Learning Outcome
At the end of this unit, learners will be able to:
Describe the shape of the Earth

Identify evidences supporting the shape of the Earth
List local and global ideas about the shape of the Earth
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Name dimensions (circumferences, diameters, and
angular distances) of the Earth
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Recognize all parts of the Earth
Describe the organization and contents of the different
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parts of the Earth

Explain different observations about the Earth in terms
of the nature and behaviors of the different parts of
the Earth.
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Demonstrate movements of the Earth (revolution and

rotation)
Explain the effects of motions of the Earth
Construct the model of Earth and use it to explain
phenomena related to its motion
Identify atmospheric and lithospheric systems
Explain their cycle effects of the Earth
Describe the measuring techniques for too big (Earth)
and to small (continental drift) quantities measurement
and estimation.
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Contents
Section Learning competencies
• Describe the shape of the Earth

• Identify evidences supporting the shape
6.1. Shape & dimensions
of the Earth
(page )
• List local and global ideas about the
shape of the Earth
• Name dimensions (circumferences,
diameters, and angular distances)
of the Earth
6.2. Parts of the Earth (Body & Recognize all parts of the Earth
Atmosphere) (page ) Describe the organization and contents of the
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different parts of the Earth
Explain different observations about the Earth in
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terms of the nature and behaviors of the
different parts of the Earth.
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6.3. Movements of the Earth • Demonstrate movements of the Earth

(page ) (revolution and rotation)
• Explain the effects of motions of the Earth.
• Construct the model of Earth and use it
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to explain phenomena related to its motion
6.4. Atmospheric and lithospheric • Identify atmospheric and lithospheric

Systems & Cycles, systems.
(effects, measurement ideas/ • Explain their cycle effects of the Earth
estimation) (page ) • Describe the measuring techniques for
too big (Earth) and to small (continental
drift) quantities measurement and
estimation.
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6.1
6.1. Shape and
Shape & dimensions
dimensions of the Earth
of the Earth
ByBy
thethe
endend of this
of this section
section you should
you should be able to:
be able to:
• Describe the shape of the Earth
 Describe the shape of the Earth
• Identify evidences supporting the shape of the Earth
 Identify evidences supporting the shape of the Earth
 •ListList
locallocal and global
and global ideas
ideas about theabout the
shape of theshape
Earth of the Earth
Introduction
This unit introduces the concept of Earth in Space, parts of the Earth and shape and
dimensions of the Earth. The unit also presents Atmospheric and lithospheric
Systems & Cycles, (effects, measurement ideas/estimation).
Earth sciences study the major parts of our planet earth by using other branches of
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science, such as biology, chemistry, physics and geology.
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How is Earth science used in everyday life?
Earth science affects our everyday lives. For example, Activity 6.1
Activity 6.1
meteorologists study the weather and watch for dangerous
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Form
Form aa group and
group and
storms. Hydrologists examine water and warn of floods. perform the
perform the
Seismologists study earthquakes and try to understand where they following actives.
following actives.
I. By referring internet
will strike. Geologists study the materials, processes, products, I. By referring internet
explorer or other
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physical nature, and history of the Earth. explorer or other

reference materials
reference materials
Why we study earth science? discuss about the
discuss about the
Because Earth science will affect your life. Everyone needs to shape of the earth
shape of the earth
II.II.
Identify the the
Identify
know how to prepare for changes in weather, climate, seasons,
local and global
local and global
shape of the earth, and layers of the atmosphere and earth
assumptions andand
assumptions
movements. evidences
evidences about
about its its
shape.
shape.
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What Is Earth?
Our Planet Earth is one of the eight planets our Solar System and the only known plan-
et to support life. It is our home planet that everything is just right for life to exist.
Shape of the Earth
Project work 6.1: Model of the earth
What are the local ideas about the
Form a group and Build model of the earth
including its body parts and make discussion shape of the Earth?
about shape with your class mates then present Science in ancient time’s mankind has
your work to the rest of the class.
different questions and assumptions
about the geometrical shape of our planet earth. Locally most cultures describe the
Earth as flat such as;
• The early ancient Greeks, Sumerians, Babylonians, Egyptians and Vikings all be-
lieved that the Earth was a flat disc or plane surrounded by water. This was based on
the evidence of what they saw around them.
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• The ancient Chinese believed that the Earth was a flat square shape surrounded by
heavens that were a round egg shape. This was based on their belief in a heaven that
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was above the Earth.
• Members of the Flat Earth Society claim to believe the Earth was flat. A Flat Earth
model depicting Antarctica as an ice wall surrounding a disc-shaped Earth. Members of
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the Flat Earth Society claim to believe the Earth is flat. Walking around on the planet's
surface, it looks and feels flat.
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Figure 6.1. Flat shape assumption of the earth
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GRADE 7
The primary reason that ancient people believed that the Earth was flat was that it
looks flat from our vantage point on the ground. The misconception that the Earth
must be flat because it looks flat to us arises simply because the Earth is big.
There are two primary reasons that the Greeks knew the Earth were round:
o Lunar eclipses: First, they saw that during a lunar eclipse the shadow of the
Earth always had a round profile. This happened regardless of the time of night
that the eclipse occurred, the season, or the direction that the shadow crept
across the Moon's surface.
o Star patterns: The second observation is how the pattern of stars changes as
you move north and south.
Flat Earth theorists said that if the Earth is a spinning sphere, why can‘t they feel it?
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 An ancient Greek writer, Herodotus, reported the findings of a group of
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explorers and traders called the Phoenicians; while travelling by boat around
Africa, they found that the Sun was not above them but to their right. If the
Earth is flat, then the Sun should always be above you.
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It was around 500 B.C. that Pythagoras first proposed a spherical Earth, mainly
on aesthetic grounds rather than on any physical evidence. Like many Greeks,
he believed the sphere was the most perfect shape. Possibly the first to propose
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a spherical Earth based on actual physical evidence was Aristotle (384-322

B.C.), who listed several arguments for a spherical Earth: ships disappear hull
first when they sail over the horizon, Earth casts a round shadow on the
moon during a lunar eclipse, and different constellations are visible at
different latitudes were used as evidence that the Earth was spherical.
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Only a spherical object always produces a round

shadow. If the Earth were flat, it would cast a straight
shadow.
Today, we know that Earth is sphere shaped, but it is not
a perfect sphere. So, the shape of Earth can be
Figure 6.2. if earth were flat ,
its shadow during an eclipse categorized as "Oblate spheroid" where 'Oblate' refers
Figurebe
would 6.2.straight
if earth were flatmoon,
on the , its to a slight elliptical appearance and 'spheroid' means
not covered.
shadow during an eclipse would almost a sphere but not actually a sphere. This describes
the true shape of the Earth, which means flatten at the poles and bulges in the middle.
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The poles are located at the north and south ends of the Earth‘s axis, called rotation,
causes day night to occur.
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Evidences about
Evidences aboutShape ofthe
Shape of theEarth
Earth
There are many ways to prove that the earth is spherical. The following are some of
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them:
1. Circumnavigation of the earth:
If you travel across the world along a
straight path in a fast flying plane
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without stopping anywhere, you

would come back to the same place
from where you started. This is
called circumnavigation. The fact is
valid as the earth has shown
circumnavigated for many times and
Figure: 6.3. Oblate spheroid Shape of the Earth finding the voyage ending to the
original point.
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a b
Figure6.4
Figure 6.4. .different
differentassumptions
assumptions about
about thethe earth
earth when
when flaying
flaying planeplane
2. Earth‟s curved horizon – The earth‘s horizon when seen from a ship, a plane, or a
high cliff appears curved. The curved horizon widens as the observers altitude
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increases until it becomes circular. If the earth were not spherical, there would be no
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circular horizon. The curvature of the horizon is influenced by the curvature of the
earth‘s surface.
3. Ship‟s visibility:
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When two ships on the same line of observation are coming towards the observer
while maintaining a considerable distance, the front Ship will be seen before the ship
at the back. If the earth‘s surface were flat, both ships could be seen at the same time.
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Provides a fact that the water body of sea overlies the surface which is not flat, but
spherical in shape, hence the earth is spherical in shape.
Figure
Figure 6.5.6.5. Ship’s
Ship‟s visibility
visibility
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4. Sun rise and sun set: The sun rises and sets at different times in different places.
As the earth rotates from west to east, places in the east see the sun earlier than those
in the west. If the earth were flat, the whole world would have sunrise and sunset at
the same time. But we know this is not happen because of spherical the shape of the
earth.
5. The lunar eclipse: The shadow cast by the earth on the moon during a lunar eclipse
is always circular. It takes the outline of an arc of a circle. Only a sphere can cast such
a circular shadow as shown in figure 6.6
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Figure 6.6.The
Figure 6.6. The position
position of Sun,
of the the Sun,
moonmoon andinearth,
and earth, in an eclipse
an eclipse
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6. Driving poles on level ground on a curved earth:

Engineers when driving poles of equal length at regular intervals on the ground have
found they do not give a perfect horizontal level.
The centre pole normally projects slightly above the poles at either end because of the
curvature of the earth. Surveyors and field engineers therefore have to make certain
corrections for this inevitable curvature, i.e. 12.6 cm to 1 km.
7. Space photographs: Pictures taken from high altitudes by rockets and satellites
show clearly the curved edge of the earth. This is perhaps the most convincing and the
most up-to-date proof of the earth‘s sphericity.
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8. The changing altitude of the sun- In the morning and evening the sun
observed to be at low level while at noon the sun observed to be at a high level.
So long the sun is at constant position in the sky; this provides a clear clue that
the earth planet is spherical in shape.
Exercise 6.1.1
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
1. The Earth's actual shape is most correctly described as
A. a perfect sphere C. an oblate sphere
B. a circle D. an eccentric ellipse
2. Which object best represents a true scale model of the shape of the Earth?
A. a Ping-Pong ball B. a football
B. an egg D. a pear
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3. The shape of the earth is
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A. egg shaped
B. spherical
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C. Angular
D. Flat
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II. Short answer questions.

1. Identify evidences supporting the shape of the earth
2. List local and global ideas about the shape of the earth
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6.1.2 Dimensions of the Earth

6.1.2. Dimensions of the Earth
•  Name dimensions
Name dimensions (circumferences,
(circumferences, diameters,
diameters, and and angular
angular distances) distances)
of the Earth
of the Earth
How big is Earth?
Activity 6.2 The dimension of the earth can be expressed in terms
Activity 6.2 of radius, diameter, circumference, density, mass,
Form
Forma group
a groupand discuss
and discuss time and volume.
Earth, is one of the eight planets and its average
about circumference,
about diame-
circumference, distance to the sun is 1 AU (1.496 × 108 km). Its
diameters and angular
ters and angular distances of diameter (the distance from one side to the other
distances of the earth. through Earth's center) is about 12,756 kilometers)
the earth. Then present your and a polar diameter of 12,714 km and its mass is
Then present your
discussion to the whole
discussion to the whole
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5.974 × 1024 kg.
Earth's circumference (the distance all the way
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class. around the equator) is (40,075 kilometers); however,
from pole to pole the meridional circumference Earth is only 40,008 km around. The
Earth's diameter is also wider at the Equator, creating a phenomenon called an
equatorial bulge.
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The orbital and rotational period of planet Earth is 365.256 days 23.9345 hours,
respectively. (Source: Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute)
Angular distance is (also known as angular separation, apparent distance, or apparent
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separation) is the angle between the two sightlines, or between two point objects as
viewed from an observer. Latitude is the angular distance measured with respect to a
central point along a plane passed through the earth at the position of the earth's
largest circumference. It denotes a geographical coordinate of a place located on the
surface of the earth and is the angular distance of that point (north or south of the equator)
measured with respect to the Centre of the Earth. Its value is zero at equator and 90
degrees at poles.
Key Words
• Equatorial diameter – is longer than polar
174 diameter (12,756 km)
• Polar diameter – is shorter than equatorial diameter (12,714 km)
• Equatorial circumference – is longer than polar circumference
(40,075 km)
• Polar circumference – is shorter than equatorial circumference (40,008 km
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Exercise6.1.2
i. Fill the blank space
1. The Earth's diameter is also wider at the Equator, creating a phenomenon called
an ______________.
2. ___________ is the angular distance measured with respect to a central point
along a plane passed through the earth at the position of the earth's largest
circumference.
ii. Short answer questions
1. What is the Precise measurements of the Earth
a. polar diameter
b. Polar circumference
c. Equatorial diameter
d. Equatorial circumference
6.2 Parts of the Earth (Body and Atmosphere)

Structure of the earth
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By the end of this section you should be able to
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• Recognize all parts of the Earth
• Describe the organization and contents of the different parts of the Earth
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• Explain different observations about the Earth in terms of the nature and
behaviors of the different parts of the Earth.
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Activity 6.3. Group discussion
Activity
Form6.3. Group
a group anddiscussion
discus the following activities and present your dis-
cussion to the class.
Form a group and discus the following activities and present your discussion to the class.
1. What are the layers of the atmosphere?
2. In which layer we live on? And air plane flay?
2. In which layer we live on? And air plane flay?
Structure of the Earth is the layer, solid or mineral part of the Earth. The structure of
the earth consists of
1. External structure (Outer zone) and
2. Internal structure (Inner zone)
6.2.1 External structure of the earth (Outer zone)
External structure of the earth consists of layers such as Atmosphere.
Atmosphere
Atmosphere is the thin layer of gases held on the earth by gravitation attraction.
Earth‘s atmosphere is so much more than the air we breathe. It is composed by abiotic
(non-living matter) and biotic (living organism).Non-living matter found in 176
the
atmosphere includes mixture of gases, water vapor and dust particles. Atmosphere
2.General Science
In which layer we live on? And air plane flay? Student TextBook
GRADE 7
Structure of the Earth is the layer, solid or mineral part of the Earth. The structure of
the earth consists of
1. External structure (Outer zone) and
2. Internal structure (Inner zone)
External structure of the earth consists of layers such as Atmosphere.
Atmosphere
Atmosphere is the thin layer of gases held on the earth by gravitation attraction.
Earth‘s atmosphere is so much more than the air we breathe. It is composed by abiotic
(non-living matter) and biotic (living organism).Non-living matter found in the
atmosphere includes mixture of gases, water vapor and dust particles. Atmosphere
consists of different gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and
other gases. The living organism includes the smallest or microscopic organisms like
bacteria.
Characteristics of atmosphere
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Characteristics of atmosphere categorized into two groups as follow
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A. According to its composition.
B. According to its vertical structure from the ground level into interplanetary space.
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The atmosphere of Earth is composed of nitrogen (about 78%), oxygen (about21%),

argon (0.009%) and carbon dioxide (0.03%) and other gases include neon, helium,
Krypton and xenon.
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176
Figure 6.7 vertical structure of the atmosphere
177
General Science ii. Stratosphere
Student TextBook
Figure 6.7 vertical structure of the
atmosphere
GRADE 7 iii. Mesosphere
iv. Thermosphere and
v. Exosphere
I. Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth‘s atmosphere - the part we live in. It
contains most of our weather - clouds, rain, and snow. It contains about 75% of all of
the air in the atmosphere, and almost all of the water vapor (which forms clouds and
rain). The decrease in temperature with height is a result of the decreasing pressure.
So, air higher up is cooler than air lower down.
The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer. The top of the
troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is about 7 -
10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km) near the equator.
Air is warmest at the bottom of the troposphere near ground level. Air gets colder as
one rises through the troposphere. That is why the peaks of tall mountains can be
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snow-covered even in the summertime.
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II. Stratosphere
Stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere as you go upward. This extends
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upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the ozone in the
atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of absorption of
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun
177 by this ozone. Temperatures in the
stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole. By
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absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us from skin
cancer and other health damage.
The Lower boundary of the stratosphere is called the tropopause; the upper boundary
is called the stratopause occurs at an altitude of 50 km
III. Mesosphere
The mesosphere is a layer of Earth‘s atmosphere. The mesosphere is directly above
the Stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from about 50 to 85 km
above our planet. Temperature decreases with height throughout the mesosphere. The
coldest temperatures In Earth‘s atmosphere, about -90° C at the "mesopause
The boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere above it is called the
Mesopause. At the bottom of the mesosphere is the stratopause, the boundary
between the mesosphere and the stratosphere below.
IV. Thermosphere
The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, extends from about 90 km to between
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500 and 1,000 km above our planet. it is a region in which temperatures again increase
coldest temperatures In Earth‘s atmosphere, about -90° C at the "mesopause
Mesopause.
GRADE 7
The boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere above it is called the
At the bottom of the mesosphere is the stratopause, the boundary
between the mesosphere and the stratosphere below.
IV. Thermosphere
The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, extends from about 90 km to between
500 and 1,000 km above our planet. it is a region in which temperatures again increase
with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic
ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun. The temperature of the thermosphere
varies between night and day and between the seasons.
The boundary between the thermosphere and the exosphere above it is called the
Thermopause. At the bottom of the thermosphere is the mesopause, the boundary
between the thermosphere and the mesosphere below.
V. Exosphere
Located between about 700 and 10,000 kilometers above Earth‘s surface, the
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exosphere is the highest layer of Earth‘s atmosphere.
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GRADE 7
Exercise 6.2.1
1. The ___________ is the outer most layer of Earth's atmosphere.
A. Troposphere C. Stratosphere
B. Exosphere D. Thermosphere
2. What makes up nearly 78 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere?
A. Oxygen B. Nitrogen C. Carbon dioxide B. Nitrogen
3. What percentage of the earth's atmosphere does oxygen comprise?
A. 75% B. 50% C. 21% D. 32%
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4. In which layer of our atmosphere weather occurs?
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A. Troposphere C. Stratosphere
B. Exosphere D. Thermosphere
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II. Short answer questions

1. The diagram below shows four layers of Earth’s atmosphere.
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State the name of each layer in

D
the Earth’s atmosphere
B A.___________________
B.___________________
C C.____________________
D.___________________
A
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6.2.2 Internal
6.2.2 Internal Structure
Structure of the
of the earth earth
(Inner zone) (Inner zone)
Project work 6.2: making a module of solid Earth layers
Using 5 colors of modeling clay and waxed dental floss make in group a module of solid Earth
layers and show the model to your teacher.
Directions
 waxed dental floss

 Form a ball to represent the inner core. We chose red to represent the intense heat of the
inner core.
 Next, roll out a circle of another color and wrap around the ball and roll gently. This next
layer represents the outer core.
 Each subsequent color will need more modeling clay than the last. You will need a color
to represent the lower mantle, another for the upper mantle, and the outer layer for the
crust.*

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Once your ball of 5 layers of modeling clay is complete, use a piece of waxed dental floss
to cut the ball down the middle, revealing all the layers underneath.
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*Be sure not to press the layers too firmly together so that the colors don‘t mix.
Earth‘s interior consists of three major zones defined by its chemical composition.
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These are
i. Core
i. ii. Core
Mantle
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ii. ii.Mantle
iii. Crust
iii. Crust
Figure : 6.8.
Figure Internal
: 6.8. structure
Internal of the earth
structure of the earth
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I. The core
Earth’s core is the very hot, very dense center of our planet. It is com-
posed mainly of an iron and nickel alloy. The core is divided into inner
and outer core.
The outer core is a liquid because the temperatures there are adequate to
melt the iron-nickel alloy. However, the inner core is a solid even though
its temperature is higher than the outer core
II. The mantle
The mantle is the thickest layer, lies between Earth's dense, super-heated
core and its thin outer layer, the crust. It is a solid layer but acts like a
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viscous liquid due to temperatures being close to the melting point of key
minerals in this layer.
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Below the crust is the upper mantle, with the upper-most portion referred
to as the asthenosphere. The upper mantle is liquid rock, and very hot.
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The lower mantle is the lower liquid portion of the mantle
Note: The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of the Earth, including the
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brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust.
III. The crust:

The Earth crust is the outside and coldest layer of the earth and is made of
solid rock, mostly basalt and granite. It is the thinnest layer and forms the
outer shell on which life exists. There are two types of crust; oceanic and
continental.
Oceanic crust is denser, 5 to 10 kilometers thick and mainly composed of
basalt. However, Continental crust is less dense, thicker, the upper layer
of the earth crust and mainly composed of granite.
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GRADE 7
Exercise 6.2
I. Fill the blank space
1. The boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere above it is
called _____________________.
2. ________________is located at the bottom of the mesosphere and
the boundary between the mesosphere and the stratosphere below.
3. Lower boundary of the stratosphere is called the _________________.
4. Upper boundary of the stratosphere is called the _________________.
II.Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
1. Which layer of the earth is solid ?
A. inner mantle and inner core
B. Crust and outer core.
C. Crust and the inner core
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2. Which layer of the earth is liquid ?
A. the outer core
B. mantle crust and the inner core
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C. Crust and outer core.

3. Which layer of the earth is both solid and liquid?
A. Mantle B. Crust C. Core
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4. What do we call the center of the Earth?

5. What is the outermost layer of the Earth that consists of the continents
and the oceans?
6. What is the layer of rock between the Earth's outer core and crust?
A. Core B. Mantle C. Crust
7. What do we call the crust that makes up the continents (land)?
A. Tectonic plates C. Continental crust
B. Oceanic crust
8. The hottest layer of the Earth is:
A. Mantle C. Outer core
B. Inner core
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6.3. Earth’s movements
• Demonstrate movements of the Earth (revolution and rotation)

• Explain the effects of motions of the Earth.
• Construct the model of Earth and use it to explain phenomena
related to its motion
The Earth is in motion all the time. People cannot feel this
motion because they move with it like all other planets.
There are two types of movements of the earth, namely:
1. The rotation of the Earth on its own axis
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2. The revolution of the Earth around the Sun
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Activity 6.4
Form a group and discuss the following
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phenomena.
i. Why do not we feel when the
Earth moves?
ii. What would happen if the
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Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish

Earth didn't rotate? astronomer known as the father of modern
Share your views with the rest of t astronomy. He was the first modern
European scientist to propose that Earth
he class
and other planets revolve around the sun,
6.3.1 Rotation of Earth or the Heliocentric Theory of the universe.
Earth Rotation is the motion of the earth around its axis of rotation. Imagine a
line passing through the center of Earth that goes through both the North Pole
and the South Pole. This imaginary line is called an axis. Earth spins around
its axis, just as a top spins around its spindle. This spinning movement is
called Earth’s rotation. It is rotating on its axis from west to east. An observer
in space will see that
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Earth requires 23 hours, 56 minutes, and

4 seconds to make one complete rotation
on its axis. Hence the length of a day on
Earth is actually 24 hours.
Effects of motions of the Earth

The rotation of the Earth has the
following effects:
 The spinning of the earth on its
axis causes days turn into nights.
Figure 6.9 rotation of the earth  A difference of one hour is created
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between two meridians which are 15 degrees apart.
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 A change in the direction of wind and ocean currents. Winds and ocean currents
deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
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Hemisphere as a result of rotation.

 The rise and fall of tided every day.
6.3.2
6.3.2Revolution
Revolutionof the Earth
of the Earth
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Earth Revolution is the motion of the earth around the sun. For Earth to make one
complete revolution around the Sun takes 365.24 days. This amount of time is the
definition of one year.
The closest Earth gets to the Sun each year is at perihelion (147 million km) on about
January 3rd and the furthest is at aphelion (152 million km) on July 4th. Earth‘s
elliptical orbit has nothing to do with Earth‘s seasons. During one revolution around
the Sun, Earth travels at an average distance of about 150 million km. Earth revolves
around the Sun at an average speed of about 27 km (17 mi) per second, but the speed
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is not constant. The planet moves slower when it is at aphelion and faster when it is at
perihelion. The reason the Earth has seasons is that Earth is tilted 23 ½ degree on its
axis. During the Northern Hemisphere summer the North Pole points toward the Sun
and in the Northern Hemisphere winter the North Pole is tilted away from the Sun.
Note:
Note:The
Thefarthest (maximum
farthest distance)
(maximum position
distance) fromfrom
position the sun
the in orbit
sun of theofearth is
in orbit
the earth
called is called
aphelion aphelion
while whileposition
the nearest the nearest position
of the earth oftothe
theearth
Sun tois the Sun as
known
is known as perihelion.
perihelion.
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ES
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Figure 6.10 Revolution of the Earth

Figure 6.10 Revolution of the Earth
At the equator, Earth spins at just over 1,000 miles per hour. Earth makes a full spin
around its axis once every 24 hours, or one day. The axis is an imaginary line through
the center of the planet from the North Pole to the South Pole. Rather than straight up
and down, Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees. Earth has seasons because
its axis is tilted. Thus, the sun's rays hit different parts of the planet more directly
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depending on the time of year.
 From June to August, the sun's rays hit the Northern Hemisphere more directly than the
Southern Hemisphere. The result is warm (summer) weather in the Northern
186
Hemisphere and cold (winter) weather in the Southern Hemisphere.
GRADE 7
its axis is tilted. Thus, the sun's rays hit different parts of the planet more directly
depending on the time of year.
 From June to August, the sun's rays hit the Northern Hemisphere more directly than the
Southern Hemisphere. The result is warm (summer) weather in the Northern
Hemisphere and cold (winter) weather in the Southern Hemisphere.
 From December to February, the sun's rays hit the Northern Hemisphere less directly
than the Southern Hemisphere. The result is cold (winter) weather in the Northern
Hemisphere and warm (summer) weather in the Southern Hemisphere.
 From September to November, the sun shines equally on both hemispheres. The result
is fall in the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Southern Hemisphere.
 The sun also shines equally on both hemispheres from March to May. The result is
spring in the Northern Hemisphere and fall in the Southern Hemisphere.
Difference between
Difference between Rotation
Rotationandand T
Revolution
Revolution
The table 6.1 given below provides the basic differences between rotation and
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revolution.
Rotation Revolution
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Rotation of the Earth is its turning on Revolution is the movement of the

its axis. Earth around the Sun.
The Earth takes 24 hours to complete a The Earth takes a full year (365 days)
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rotation with respect to the sun. for one complete revolution around the
Sun
The Earth‘s axis of rotation is tilted by The path of the Earth moving around
23.5 degrees. This tilt causes the the Sun is called an orbit. The Earth‘s
different seasons of the year. orbit is elliptical.
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Exercise 6.3
I. Fill the blank space
1. Earth _________________ around the sun.
2. Day and night are the result of Earth’s ____________________
3. Seasons are the result of Earth _______________ toward or away from
the sun.
II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
1. Which of the following is NOT a factor affecting Earth's seasons
and climate?
A. Earth's orbital revolution around the sun
B. Earth's axis tilt
C. Earth's distance from the sun
D. Earth's wind and ocean current patterns
2. How long the Earth takes to complete one a rotation on its axis?
T
A. 24 hours B. 12 hours C. 1 hour D. 6 hours
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6.4 Systems and Cycles (effects, measurement ideas/estimation)

RT

• Identify atmospheric and lithospheric systems.
• Explain their cycle effects of the Earth
• Describe the measuring techniques for too big (Earth) and to small
(continental drift) quantities measurement and estimation.
FO
Activity 6.5
Form a group and go to your library; Read and discuss the definitions of each earth
system. Then write down the definitions for the following four earth systems in your
own words and present your discussions to the class
a. Atmosphere
b. Lithosphere
c. Hydrosphere
d. Biosphere
6.4.1. Earth's systems

Earth consists of land, air, water and life. The land contains mountains, valleys
and flat areas. The air is made up of different gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen.
The water includes oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, rain, snow and ice.
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Life consists of people, animals and plants. There are millions of species, or
kinds of life, on Earth. Their sizes range from very tiny to very large. Below
Earth’s surface are layers of rock and metal. Temperatures increase with depth,
all the way to about 12,000 degrees Fahrenheit at Earth’s inner core.
range from very tiny to very large. Below Earth's surface are layers of rock and metal.
Temperatures increase with depth, all the way to about 12,000 degrees Fahrenheit at
Earth's inner core.
Earth's parts once were seen as largely separate from each other. Now they are viewed
together as the "Earth system." Each part connects to and affects each of the other
parts. For example:
 Clouds in the air drop rain and snow on land.

T
Water gives life to plants and animals.
ES
 Volcanoes on land send gas and dust into the air.
 People breathe air and drink water.
RT
Earth system science is the study of interactions between and among Earth's
different parts. Earth's parts - land, air, water and life - are always changing.
The Main Components of the Earth System

FO
The earth system is itself an integrated system, but it can be subdivided into four main
components, sub-systems or spheres: the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere. These components are also systems in their own right and they are tightly
interconnected. The four main components of the earth system may be described
briefly in the following way.
These are described in the table 6.2 below
Earth spheres Descriptions

1. Geosphere (lithosphere) all of the rocks and "hard parts" of the Earth
2. Hydrosphere all of Earth's water
3. Biosphere all living things
4. Atmosphere the blanket of gases surrounding the planet
These four subsystems are called "spheres."
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These components are also systems in their own right and they are tightly
interconnected.
For example, rain (hydrosphere) falls from clouds in the atmosphere to the
lithosphere and forms streams and rivers that provide drinking water for wildlife and
humans as well as water for plant growth (biosphere).
The four main components of the earth system may be described briefly in the
following way.
The geosphere (lithosphere): - this is the part of the planet composed of rock and
minerals. It includes the solid crust, the molten mantle and the liquid and solid parts
of the earth's core.
In many places, the geosphere develops a layer of
soil in which nutrients become available to living
T
organisms, and which thus provides an important
ES
ecological habitat and the basis of many forms of life.
The surface of the geosphere is subject to processes
of erosion, weathering and transport, as well as to
RT
tectonic forces and volcanic activity, which result in

the formation of landforms such as mountains, hills
Figure
Figure 6.11
6.11Earth
Earth Systems
Systems interactions
interactions 1. The atmosphere - this is the gaseous layer
FO
surrounding the earth and held to its surface by

gravity. The atmosphere receives energy from solar radiation which warms the
earth's surface and is re-emitted and conducted to the atmosphere.
The atmosphere also absorbs water from the earth's surface via the process of
evaporation; it then acts to redistribute heat and moisture across the earth's surface. In
addition, the atmosphere contains substances that are essential for life, including
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen.
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2. The hydrosphere - this consists of those parts of the earth system composed of water
in its liquid, gaseous (vapour) and solid (ice) phases.
3. The biosphere - this contains all living organisms and it is intimately related to the
other three spheres: most living organisms require gases from the atmosphere, water
from the hydrosphere and nutrients and minerals from the geosphere.
Living organisms also require a medium for life, and are adapted to inhabit one or
more of the other three spheres.
6.4.2. Cycles of the Earth System and effects
What is cycle?
Project work6.3
Project work6.3
TCycles are sequences of events that repeat themselves
in the same order. Earth's surface systems involve
ES
Make a group
Make a groupand
andfind
find the different cycles some of them are
the Cycles
Cycles of the of the System
Earth
Earth System and Geologic cycles
RT
andeffects
effectsinin
anan encyclopedia,
encyclopedia, internet, Although we have discussed various parts of the
internet, in reference
in reference books, orbooks, Earth as separate entities, in reality each of the
in other resource
or in other resource material. entities, atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, etc,
material. Read and interact with each other continuously exchanging
FO
Read and analyze

analyze the the
both matter and energy. This exchange of matter and
informationyou
information youfind.
find. Write a
energy occurs on a cyclical basis, with both matter
Write a report and
report andtopresent
present to the class. and energy cycling between various storage
the class.
reservoirs on various time scales. Because matter and
energy is thus cycled, the various geologic cycles
play a large role in the development of natural disasters.
Hydrologic Cycle
Perhaps the easiest of the cycles to understand is the hydrologic cycle that involves the
movement of water throughout Earth systems. The ocean is by far the largest of these
reservoirs with 97% of all water. Water moves between 7 main reservoirs: the oceans;
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the atmosphere where it moves in the clouds transported by winds; glaciers and ice
sheets; surface lakes and streams; groundwater (water that moves in the pore spaces
in rock beneath the surface); the biosphere; and the lithosphere, where it is held
within the crystallographic structure of hydrous (water bearing) minerals.
The main pathway by which water moves is through the atmosphere. Two main
sources of energy drive the cycle: Solar energy causes evaporation of the surface
waters and atmospheric circulation, and Gravitational energy causes the water to flow
back to oceans.
Biogeochemical Cycles
Although the hydrologic cycle involves the biosphere, only a small amount of the total
T
water in the system at any given time is in the biosphere. Other materials, for example
ES
Carbon and Nitrogen have a much higher proportion of the total residing in the
biosphere at any given time. Cycles that involve the interactions between other
RT
reservoirs and the biosphere are often considered differently because they involve
biological processes like respiration, photosynthesis, and decomposition (decay).
These are referred to as biogeochemical cycles. Cycles that exchange materials among
living and nonliving components of the Earth are known as biogeochemical cycles.
FO
A good example is the Carbon Cycle, as it involves the cycling of Carbon between 4
major reservoirs:
a. Biosphere, where it is the major building block of life,
b. Lithosphere, where it is a component in carbonate minerals and rocks and fossil
fuels such as coal and petroleum,
c. Oceans, where it occurs as a dissolved ion in seawater, and
d. Atmosphere, where it occurs as Carbon Dioxide (CO2) gas.
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In all reservoirs except the lithosphere, residence time is generally short, on the order
of a few years.
Steps of carbon cycle
i. CO2 Used by Plants for Photosynthesis

ii. Consumption by Animals
iii. Ocean Intake
iv. Decay and Decompose
v. Formation of Fossil Fuels
vi. Use of Fuels for Industrial Purposes
vii. Carbon Emissions
viii. Respiration by Plants and Animals
The Rock Cycle T
ES
The rock cycle involves cycling of elements
between various types of rocks, and thus mostly
involves the lithosphere, because materials such
RT
as water and Carbon cycle through the Figure 6.10. Carbon cycle
lithosphere, the rock cycle overlaps with these
other cycles.
FO
The rock cycle involves the three types of rocks as reservoirs (1) igneous, (2)
sedimentary, and (3) metamorphic.
Measuring techniques of Earth and Continental drift
Eratosthenes hired a man to pace the distance between the two cities and learned they
were apart, 800 kilometers. He could then use simple proportions to find the Earth's
circumference. The method is known as Eratosthenes' methods. This method was
simple but effective. All he needed to know was the distance between two locations
and what percentage of a circle this distance constituted.
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Three different geologic methods help determine the trajectories of Continental drift
plates: paleomagnetic, geometric, and seismic.
a. The paleomagnetic method is based on the Earth's magnetic field.
b. The geometric method gives scientists the spreading direction to go with the
spreading speed.
c. Seismic methods use the focal mechanisms of earthquakes to detect the
orientation of faults. Although less accurate than paleomagnetic mapping and
geometry, these methods are useful for measuring plate movements in parts of the
globe that are not well mapped and have fewer GPS stations.
Since plate motions are at a global scale, they are best measured by satellite-based
T
methods. The three most commonly used space-based techniques are: very long
baseline interferometry (VLBI), satellite laser ranging (SLR), and The Global
ES
Positioning System (GPS).
Geodesy, or the study of measuring the form, gravity, and rotation of the Earth, is still
RT
used by scientists today to study the shape and size of the Earth. Geodesy gives
precise measurements that demonstrate that the Earth is round. Scientists can measure
Earth's size and form to within a centimeter using GPS and other satellites.
FO
Exercise 6.4.
1. All living things on earth are part of the_______________.
A. Biosphere B. Geosphere C. Hydrosphere D. Cryosphere
2. The Geosphere is...
A. All liquid water on Earth C. 100km thick layer of gases
B. frozen water on earth D. Earth's entire solid body
3. Fresh water is important for life on Earth because:
A. without fresh water sources people will get sick and die
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B. we need water to grow food

C. the biosphere needs water
D. All of the above
4. This photo is mainly showing an example of the:
A. Hydrosphere
B. Geosphere
C. Atmosphere
D. Biosphere
5. An example of a connection between Atmosphere and Hydrosphere is:

A. Rivers B. rain
T C. lakes D. rocks
ES
RT
KEY TERMS OF A UNIT

KEY TERMS OF A UNIT
- Earth science - Atmosphere - Geosphere -Biosphere
 Earth science  Atmosphere  Geosphere  Biosphere
- Earth - Troposphere - lithosphere - Hydrosphere
FO
 Earth  Troposphere  lithosphere  Hydrosphere

- Inner core - Stratosphere - revolution - Core
 Inner core  Stratosphere  revolution  Core
- Geologists - Mesosphere - rotation -Eratosthenes' methods
Geologists
- Lunar eclipses  Mesosphere
- Exosphere  rotation
- Crust  Eratosthenes' methods
- Biogeochemical
 Lunar eclipses  Exosphere  Crust  Biogeochemical
Cycle
Cycle
- Oblate spheroid - Thermosphere - Mantle - Continental drift
 Oblate spheroid  Thermosphere  Mantle  Continental drift
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Unit Summary
• Earth is the only planet in the universe to support life. It is about 150 mil-
lion kilometers from the sun. This distance, called an astronomical unit
(AU), is a standard unit of measurement in astronomy.
• Earth is an oblate spheroid. This means it is spherical in shape, but not per-
fectly round. The geoid describes the model shape of Earth, and is used to
calculate precise surface locations.
• The equatorial circumference of the Earth is 40,075 km. This is the distance
around the equator of the Earth. If you measure the circumference of the
Earth, while passing through the poles, the distance is only 40,008 km. This
is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere. It’s rotating rapidly, which caus-
es the equator to bulge out.
• The equatorial diameter of the Earth is 12,756 km. This is the diameter of
T
the Earth measured from one side of the Earth, passing through the center. If
you go from pole to pole through the center, the distance is only 12,714 km.
ES
• The 4 components of the Earth subsystems are called "spheres." Specifi-
cally, they are the "lithosphere" (land), "hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere"
RT
(living things), and "atmosphere" (air).

• Earth's interior is divided into three major layers: the crust, the mantle, and
the core. Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and
can impact life on Earth's surface.
FO
• Rotation and Revolution are two motions of the earth. When earth spins
or rotates around its axis, that movement of spinning is called Rotation of
Earth. And when earth spins or revolves around the sun, that movement is
called Revolution of Earth.
• The motions of the earth have its own effects. Those are: the main effects
of the Earth's rotation are a diurnal cycle of light and darkness, i.e. day and
night, rise and fall of the sea level twice a day, sunrise in the east and sunset
in the west. Effects of Earth's revolution include the seasons and variation in
the length of days and nights.
• Earth's surface systems involve many cycles, .Cycles that exchange ma-
terials among living and nonliving components of the Earth are known as
biogeochemical cycles.
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REVIEW EXERCISE
I. Write True if the statement is Correct and False if the statement if incorrect.
1. Atmosphere is the thin layer of gases held on the earth by gravitation attraction.
2. Earth rotates around the sun.
3. Day and night are the results of Earth’s rotation.
4. We live on the core of the Earth.
II. Match the following earth spheres with their related meaning
Column ‘A’ Column ‘A’
1. Lithosphere A. all of Earth's water
2. Hydrosphere B. all living things
3. Atmosphere C. all of the rocks and "hard parts" of the Earth
4. Biosphere
T
D. the blanket of gases surrounding the planet
ES
III. Fill the blank space
Use these words to fill in the blanks next to the sentences below.
RT
365.25 days Revolution 24 hours
Season Rotation Axis

FO
1.______________the amount of time for Earth to make a complete rotation.
2._____________the process of Earth spinning on its axis.
3.____________ the amount of time it takes Earth to completely orbit the sun.
4.____________the process of Earth orbiting the sun.
5.____________an imaginary line that runs through the center of Earth from
the North Pole to the South Pole.
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6. ____________ term used to describe a certain time of year.
7. ____________the number of days in a year on Earth.
IV. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. An example of Biosphere connecting to Atmosphere
A. plants produce oxygen C. animals live in caves
B. animals eat plants D. animals drink water
2. What is Earth’s outermost system?
A. Atmosphere B. Cryosphere
C. Hydrosphere D. Geosphere
3. The earth’s four systems are:
A. independent from one another C. all part of the atmosphere
B. all connected D. not important for life on earth
4. Photosynthesis is an example of an interaction between the biosphere
T
and the:
A. Atmosphere B. Cryoshpere
ES
C. Geosphere D. hydrosphere
5. What is Earth’s largest system?
RT
A. Biosphere B. Hydrosphere C. Geosphere D. Atmosphere

6. The Earth is slightly flattened from a perfect spherical shape because of
A. its rotation C. the pull of the sun and moon
B. storms on the sun’s surface. D. its molten core
FO
7. As altitude within the troposphere increases, the amount of water vapor

generally
A. decreases, only C. remains the same
B. increases, only D. decreases, then increases
8. Oxygen is the most abundant element by volume in Earth’s
A. Hydrosphere B. troposphere C. crust D. inner core
9. An observer watching a sailing ship at sea notes that the ship appears to
be “sinking” as it moves away. Which statement best explains this
observation?
A. The Earth is revolving. C. The Earth is rotating.
B. The Earth has a curved surface. D. The surface of the ocean has
depressions.
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10. In which two Earth regions is oxygen the second most abundant element
by volume?
A. crust and hydrosphere. C. core and crust
B. troposphere and core. D. hydrosphere and troposphere
11. What is the approximate elevation of the stratopause?
A. 10 km B. 80 km C. 30 km D. 50 km
12. The best evidence that the Earth has a spherical shape is provided by
A. photographs of the Earth taken from space satellites
B. the amount of daylight received at the North Pole on June 21
C. the changing orbital speed of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun
D. the cyclic change of seasons
T
13. This is true for flat earthers beliefs EXCEPT
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A. Round earth is a conspiracy
B. Planes fly in straight lines
RT
C. The earth is a flat disc

D. Photographs were photoshopped
FO
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Check List
Competencies given below are expected to be achieved in this unit by
Unit Review
students. You areList
Check required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√)
mark underCompetencies
“Yes” columngiven if
below
youare
areexpected
able totoperform
be achieved
thein competency
this unit by students.
or
You are required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√) mark under
under “No” column if you are unable to perform the competency.
―Yes‖ column if you are able to perform the competency or under ―No‖ column
This wouldif help tounable
you are evaluate yourself
to perform and you can revise the parts of top-
the competency.
This would help to evaluate yourself and you can revise the parts of topics for
ics for which the competencies are not met.
which the competencies are not met.
No. Can I Yes No
Describe the shape of the Earth
T
Identify evidences supporting the shape of the Earth
ES
List local and global ideas about the shape of the Earth
Name dimensions (circumferences, diameters, and angular distances) of
RT
the Earth
Recognize all parts of the Earth
Describe the organization and contents of the different parts of the Earth
FO
Explain different observations about the Earth in terms of the nature and
behaviors of the different parts of the Earth.
Demonstrate movements of the Earth (revolution and rotation)

Explain the effects of motions of the Earth.
Construct the model of Earth and use it to explain phenomena related to
its motion
Identify atmospheric and lithospheric systems.
Explain their cycle effects of the Earth
Describe the measuring techniques for too big (Earth) and to small
(continental drift) quantities measurement and estimation
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Unit 7 Motion, Force, Energy and Energy

Resources
Learning Outcome
At the end of this unit, learners will able to:

• Describe the term motion
• Identify types of motion (motion on straight line, circular
motion, rotary motion and curvilinear motion)
• Show those types of motion in the class.
• Explain the term force.T
ES
• Demonstrate the pulling/pushing activity of force.
• Explain gravitational force.
• List all effects of force
RT
• Demonstrate some effects of force.

• Relate effects of force with their daily life experience
• Name measuring device of force
FO
• Identify different measuring scales on measuring

device of force
• Explain parts of measuring device of force
• Define energy as a property of matter that can be converted
• List all forms of energy
• Explain which energy converted to other forms of energy.
• List sources of energy.
• Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable forms
of energy
• Describe how energy is used wisely.
• List the strategies of conservation of energy
• Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation.
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Contents
Section Learning competencies
7.1 Definition and types of motion • Define motion as the change of position
with time.
• Describe the types of motion.
• Give examples for each type of motion
7.2 Definition of force and • Explain the term force.

gravitational force • Demonstrate the pulling/pushing
activity of force.
7.3 Effects of force • List all effects of force

• Relate effects of force with their
T
daily life experience
ES
7.4 Measuring forces • Name measuring device of force
• Identify different measuring scales
on measuring device of force
RT
• Explain parts of measuring device

of force
7.5 Definition of Energy • Define energy as a property of matter
(Property of matter can be converted) that can be converted
FO
7.6 Forms and Conversion of Energy • List all forms of energy

• Explain which energy converted
to other forms of energy.
7.7 Energy Sources (sun, fuel, • List sources of energy.

hydroelectric, wind, nuclear) • Distinguish between renewable
and non-renewable forms of energy.
7.8 Wise use & Conservation • Describe how energy is used wisely.
• ist the strategies of conservation
of energy
7.9 Resource depletion & • Explain resource depletion and

environmental degradation environmental degradation
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7.1. Definition and types of motion

• Define motion as the change of position with time.
• Describe the types of motion.
• Give examples for each type of motion
Introduction
In this unit, you will be introduced to the basic concepts of motion, force, ener-
gy, forms and conservation of energy, wise use conservation of energy, resource
depletion and environmental degradation.
7.1.1. Definition of Motion T
When you go to your school, your journey begins from home. Your home is
ES
your original position and your school is your final position. While you are
going, from home to school, you are increasing the gap between your present
position and your home.
RT
This continuous change of position is known as a motion. Notice that your

change of position is, observed by considering the distance from your school to
home. Your home is taken as a reference frame.
FO
Activity 7.1
Form a group and perform the following task; present your finding to the class.
1. Define motion by your own word and give examples.
2. When you move in bus describe are you at rest or in motion with respect to
i. The bus seat
ii. The ground
Now let us understand motion clearly with the help of a few Examples:
• Our daily activities, like walking, running, closing the door, etc.
involve motion. There is a change of position of the object involved
in these activities.
• The flow of air in and out of our lungs is also an Example of motion.
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• The automobiles that carry passengers from one place to another possess
motion. In this case, the position of passengers is changed from one
place to another.
Activity 7.2
Form a group and perform the following tasks
i. Observe the motions indicated in Fig 7.1.
ii. Have you noticed any difference between the motions in Fig 7.1 (a-e)?
Describe them.
iii. Group these motions, based on their path.
T
ES
RT
FO
a. Wrists watch. b. A car moving on a straight line
C. Roundabout d. Simple pendulum e. Motion of kids swing
Figure 7.1 different types of motion
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In Fig 7.1 (a) you observe that the motion of second or minute hand of a wrist
watch about an axis. In Fig 2.1 (b) you observe that a car is moving on a
straight road. Its path is a straight line. Fig 2.1(c) shows that the path of the
moving car is a curved line. While Fig 2.1 (c and d) show the 'to and fro'
motions of an object.
According to the nature of the movement, or based on the path followed
motion is classified into four types as follows:
1. Rectilinear Motion 3. Oscillatory Motion

2. Curvilinear Motion 4. Rotary Motion
1. Rectilinear Motion: Motion in a straight line is called rectilinear motion.
In other words, when an object moves along a straight line path, it is
called rectilinear motion. Example: A boy walking on a straight road.
T
• A car moving in a straight road.
ES
• A falling ball from a certain height.
• A boy pulling a toy towards him. etc.
2.Curvilinear motion
RT
The motion of a particle or object moving along a curved path is called curvilin-
ear motion.
Examples: Motion of a car around a circular path,
• The motion of a ball thrown horizontally from a certain height.
FO
• The motion of the moon around the earth.

• Motion of a basketball into the basket, etc.
Figure 7.2 a boy and girl Figure 7.3 Motion of a

walking on a straight road basketball into the basket
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GRADE 7
Note: Circular motion is a special case of curvilinear motion, in which the body
moves along a circular path.
Examples of circular motion are:
• Movement of the earth on its axis,
• a bicycle or a car moving on a circular track of park,
• The motion of the moon around the earth etc.
3. Rotary Motion:
A type of circular motion where an object spins on its own axis, it is called
rotational motion. Example:
• rolling ball,
• Spinning top and
• the motion of the second or minute hand of a wrist watches etc.
4. Oscillatory Motion
T
A repeating motion in which an object continuously repeats in the same motion
again and again is called Oscillatory Motion. It is also a to and fro, back and
ES
forth or up and down motion. Some of the best
Examples of Oscillatory Motion are:
• A swinging swing
RT
• The motion of a pendulum

• A boat tossing up and down a river
• The tuning fork etc
FO
Figure 7.4 rotating wooden Figure 7.5 motion of a

spinning top pendulum
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Exercise 7.1
1. Which of the following is a type of motion?
A. Rectilinear motion B. rotary motion C. oscillatory motion D. all of these
2. The motion of pendulum of a clock is an Example: of which motion?
A. linear motion C. rotary motion
B, oscillatory motion D. all of these
3. The spinning of the body about its axis is
A. Rotatory C. translational
B. Circular D. vibratory
4. Which type of motion is “the pendulum of a wall clock moves at regular intervals”?
A. Rectilinear C. Rotatory
B. Vibratory D. B and C
5. Which type of motion is “a train moving on a track “?
A. Circular C. Rotary
B. Rectilinear T
D. none of the above
6. The act, process or state of the change in place or position of a body with respect
ES
to time and relative to the observer is said to be__________________.
A. Rest C. motion
B. Stationary D. none of the above
RT

1. Define what a motion is.
2. State at least four types of motion, and give practical examples for each type
FO
7.2. Definition of Force and Gravitational Force

Definitions of force
• Explain the term force.
• Demonstrate the pulling/pushing activity of force.
Activity 7.3
Form a group and perform the following activities Share your opinion to
the whole class.
i. What is a force?
ii. Mention some examples of forces from your daily activities.
iii. Explain the following actions.
- A push you exert on a wall,
- A pull exerted to drag a box on a table.
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All of us are familiar with the word force as we use it in our everyday life. Let
us used to describe interactions between different bodies in nature.
For example when you kick a ball, tear a paper, bend a wire, hold a bag,
walk on the floor, close and open a door, you apply a force.
A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction
with another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there
is a force upon each of the objects.
Forces influence objects that are at rest or that are already in motion. it can also
be defined as an external agent which can change the state of rest or motion of a
body.
T
ES
RT
Figure 7.6(a) When a horse pushing a cart Figure 7.6(b) When a wagon pushed
Fundamental forces are the basic forces in nature that cannot be explained by
FO
the action of another force. There are four types of fundamental forces. These
include: The gravitational force, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force and
weak nucleus force.
Gravitational force
ACTIVITY7.4
Form a group and discuss the following ideas. Present your discussion to the
class.
Throw a ball vertically upward and observe its motion. What will happen to the ball?
Will it continue to move upward
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We live on the Earth. It is difficult to get away from earth. If you

jump upwards, you fall back down again. The earth’s gravity pulls
you down wards. The earth’s gravity causes a force that pulls any
object down wards. This force is called weight (gravitational force).
Gravity always pulls you towards the center of the Earth. It
doesn’t matter where you are on the surface of the earth. Science, a
freely falling body in the air moves down irrespective of its mass.
This is due to force of gravity. Example:
• Falling of fruits from trees due to Earth’s gravitational pull
• The Earth’s gravitational pull keeps us all stationary; otherwise,
we all would be flying now.
• Revolution of the Earth around the Sun
• Revolution of the moon around the Earth
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ES
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Figure 7.7. Our weight is caused

by the pull of the earth's gravity
Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician and physicist who lived from
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1642-1727. The legend is that Newton

discovered Gravity when he s
aw a falling apple while thinking about the forces of nature.
Whatever really happened, Newton realized that some force must be acting on
falling objects like apples because otherwise they would not start moving from
rest. Newton called this force "gravity" and determined that gravitational forces
exist between all objects.
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GRADE 7
Key word
• Force is a push or pull of an object.
• Pull and push are opposite forces.
• Gravity is attractive force between objects with mass.
• Gravity always a pull never a push.
• Gravitational force is the force of attraction between all masses in
the universe; especially the attraction of the earth's mass for
bodies near its surface.
Exercise 7.2
I. Fill in the blank spaces with the appropriate word(s).
1.______________ is the force of attraction that acts between all objects in
the universe, without exception.
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2. Push or pull of an object in a certain direction is known as __________.
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II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
1. The force of gravity on a person or object at the surface of a planet is called
A. Mass B. Gravity C. weight D. motion
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2. The force that pulls objects toward Earth is called

A. Mass B. gravity C. air D. wind
3. Which one of the following best describes a gravitational force?
A. A repulsive force between any two objects with mass
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B. A force of attraction between two objects with mass

C. A force between any two objects, whether or not they have
mass or energy
D. All of the above
III short answer questions
1. Define the term Force as a science with appropriate examples
with your daily life.
2. Explain gravitational force.
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GRADE 7
7.3. Effects of force

• List all effects of force
• Relate effects of force with their daily life experience
Activity 7.5 .
Observe the activities shown in Figure 7.8
a. Explain the effects of forces in each activity.

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b. List and show other effects of force in the class in front of the students.
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a, When force is applied on flour dough, b, The force of brakes can stop a
it changes its shap moving car
Figure 7. 8. Different effects of forces
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GRADE 7
Force has the following main effects, when it is exerted on an object:
• A force can move a stationary object
Example: when a force is applied to a stationary tennis ball, it will
make the ball continue its motion in the direction of the applied force.
• A force can change the speed of a moving object.
Example: When we keep on pedaling the pedal of the bicycle, the speed
of the bicycle increases. And when we apply the brake, the speed of the
bicycle decreases.
• A force can either stop or slow down the moving object.
Example: The force of brakes can stop a moving car.
• A force can change the direction of a moving object.
Example: the direction of the moving football can be changed by applying
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force at an angle.
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• A force can change the shape of an object.
Example: When force is applied on flour dough, it changes its shape.
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Figure 7.9 . Some Effect of force on daily activities
How effect of force is related with the daily life?

We are very familiar with the various effects of force in our everyday life.
Like we walk, we run, we play, and we sit or at even times stand. In all of
these activities, we have all seen the changing of the motion of the state.
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GRADE 7
Some additional the examples are:
• Pushing a wheel barrow.
• Opening or closing a door.
• Squeezing wet clothes.
• Gravitational force.
• Brakes applied to stop a moving vehicle.
• A football kicked
• Rubbing a glass rod with a silk.
• Running and Pushing etc.
Exercise 7.3
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1. Which one of the following is the effects of force, when it is exerted on
an object?
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A. change the speed of a moving object
B. move a stationary object
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C. change the shape of an object

D. All of the above.
2. If two forces from opposite direction are applied on an object and the
object is malleable, it will change its shape.
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A. Change in color C. Change in direction

B. Change in motion D. Change in shape
3. To squeeze toothpaste or press a lift button we apply
A. Heat C. force
B. Signal D. stationary
4. A force can act on a stationary object and can cause it to
A. Move C. develop
B. Grow D. stationary
II. short answer questions

1. List and describe some effects of a force.
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GRADE 7
7.4. Measuring forces

• Name measuring device of force
• Identify different measuring scales on measuring device of force
• Explain parts of measuring device of force
Activity 7.6
Discuss the following activity in your group and present your discussion
to the class.
1. What is the instrument used to measure a force?
2. Explain parts of measuring device of force.
3. Can we use spring balance to measure mass when
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a shopkeeper measure banana, orange or others?
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In science, if we want to know that one force is bigger than another we do not
simply guess; we make measurements. How can we measure forces?
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To measure the amount of force exerted on an object we use an instrument

Newton meter (force meter) also called spring balance. But Newton meter is
the scientific instrument used to measure a force.
Parts of Spring balance
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• Spring balance: Scale made up of a hook attached to a spring that stretches

in proportion to the weight of the object being weighed.
• Hook: Curved part on which the body to be weighed is hung.
• Graduated scale: The divisions of equal length that are marked on the
spring balance and constitute the units of measurement.
• Pointer: Pointer connected to the spring that moves along a graduated
scale to indicate the weight of the body being weighed
Figure 7.10. Spring balance
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GRADE 7
Figure 7.11 shows how you to measure the force needed to pull a block of wood
along the bench.
• Check that the force meter reads zero before you start.
• Attach the hook of the force meter to the block.
• Hold the ring at the other end of the force meter and pull the block.
• Read the value of the force from the scale
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ES
Figure 7.11 Measuring pull of force
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Exercise 7.4
1. _______A force is measured using an instrument called _______.
2. ________is a curved part of force meter on which the body
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to be weighed is hung.
3.________The diagram shows parts of newton meter name parts of the arrow
that represented by numbers.
1. _____________
2. _____________
3. _____________
4. _____________
5. _____________
6. _____________
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GRADE 7
7.5. Definition of Energy (Property of matter can be converted)

• Define energy as a property of matter that can be converted
Project work 7.1

By using internet explorer or other reference materials perform
the following tasks in group and present your findings to the
class.
i. Define energy as a property of matter.
ii. Explain with examples how energy and matter related.
T
In unit two of this book you learned important concepts about matter. In this
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section you will learn the concepts of energy. Matter is the substance of which
all material is made.
Energy is a very common word frequently used in our day-to-day life. It has a
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much wide scope than it will be implied in this unit. Energy in this unit is
limited to define as a property of matter only.
Energy is the property of matter, and it comes in many forms, such as heat,
sound, light, and motion. It can be transferred between objects, and converted
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in form. It cannot be created or destroyed.
Examples of energy and matter

• A raindrop falling from the sky is made of matter (water), plus it has
potential, kinetic, and thermal energy.
• Alit light bulb is made of matter, plus it emits energy in the form of
heat and light.
• The wind consists of matter (gases in air, dust, pollen), plus it has
kinetic and thermal energy.
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GRADE 7
Exercise 7.5
1._____________is the property of mater, and it comes in many forms.

2.____________ is the substance of which all material is made.
3. Alit light bulb is made of matter, plus it emits energy in the form
_ __________ and ____________.
7.6. Forms and Conversion of Energy

• List all forms of energy
• Explain which energy converted to other forms of energy
Forms of energy
T
ES
The world we live in provides us with many different forms of energy.
Examples of these are: light energy, heat energy, mechanical energy,
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gravitational energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, thermal energy, and

electrical energy, sound energy, chemical energy, nuclear or atomic energy, elastic
potential energy and so on. We can think energy coming in different forms, some for storing
and some for transferring.
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Activity7.7
Discuss the following
questions in a group and present your opinion to the whole class.
i. List all different forms of energy.
ii. Define conversion of
energy and give examples which energy is converted to other forms of energy.
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GRADE 7
The table 7.1 shows some different forms of energy and their descriptions.
The table
Form of 7.1 shows some different forms ofDescription
energy energy and their descriptions.
Chemical energy
Form of energy Energy of a chemical substance.
Description
Elastic
Chemicalenergy
energy Energy
Energy of of a stretched
a chemical or squashed object
substance.
Elastic energy
Electrical energy Energy
Energyof carried
a stretched
by or squashed object
electricity
Electrical energy Energy carried by electricity
Gravitational potential energy Energy of an object that has been lifted
Gravitational potential energy Energy of an object that has been lifted
Heat energy Energy spreading out from a hot object
Heat energy Energy spreading out from a hot object
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy
Energy of a moving object
Energy of a moving object
Light energy
Light energy Energy
Energy spreading
spreading out from
out from a bright
a bright object object
Thermal energy
Thermal energy Energy
Energy of of a hot
a hot object
object
Sound energy
Sound energy Energy
Energycoming from
coming a vibrating
from sourcesource
a vibrating
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Energy conversions
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Energy can be changed from one form to another. The process of changing energy from one
form to another form is called energy conversion. A very common energy conversion is a
change from gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy. This occurs whenever an
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object falls due to the force of gravity. Each form can be converted or changed into the
other forms. The notion of energy is that energy is changed from one form into different
forms using transducers. Transducer is a device used to transform energy from one form to
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another. For example:

1. Battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
2. A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
3. A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The Table7.2 Summarizing Energy Conversion from one form to another
Original energy Transducer Energy transformed
Chemical energy Battery Electrical energy
Chemical energy Motor Chemical energy
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another. For example:
GRADE 7
1. Battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
2. A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
3. A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The Table7.2 Summarizing Energy Conversion from one form to another
Chemical energy Battery Electrical energy
Chemical energy Motor Chemical energy
Mechanical energy Generator Electrical energy
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Solar energy Solar panel Electrical energy
Chemical energy Motor car Mechanical energy
Electrical energy Microphone Sound energy
Electrical energy Heater Heat energy
Exercise 7.6
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i. Choose the best answer from the following alternatives
1. One of the following is not form of energy?
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A. Light B. sound C. Kinetic D. weight
2. The process of changing energy from one form to another form is called
A. energy conversion C. energy depilation
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B. energy conservation D. energy degradation

3. Which One of7.12
Figure the energy
following is a form of energy?
conversion
A. Chemical B. Solar C. Electrical D. all of the these
Exercise 7.6
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ii. complete the table

i. Choose the best
1. Energy cananswer from the following
be transferred alternatives
in different ways. Copy the table and
1. One of the following is not form of energy?
use words from the list to complete the first column.
A. Light B. sound C. Kinetic D. weight
Chemical energy, Electrical energy, Mechanical energy
2. The process of changing energy from one form to another form is called
A. energy conversion C. energy depilation
Original
B. energy energy
conservation D.Transducer
energy degradationEnergy transformed
3. Which One of the following is a form of energy?
Microphone Sound energy
A. Chemical B. Solar C. Generator
Electrical D. all ofElectrical
the these energy
ii. complete the table
Battery Electrical energy
1. Energy can be transferred in different ways. Copy the table and use words from
the list to complete the first column.
Chemical energy, Electrical energy, Mechanical energy

Microphone Sound energy
Generator Electrical energy
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Battery Electrical energy
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GRADE 7
7.7. Energy Source (sun, fuel, hydroelectric, wind, nuclear

7.7. Energy Sources (sun, fuel, hydroelectric, wind, nuclear)
ByBy
thethe
endend
of this
ofsection you should
this section youbeshould
able to:be able to:
• List
Listsources
sources of energy.
of energy.
• Distinguish between
Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable
renewable forms of energy.
and non-renewable forms of energy.
Activity
Activity 7.8 7.8
Discuss
Discuss the thefollowing
following
activities
activities with
with in in a
a group
group
and and your
present present your
discussiontotothetheclass.
discussion class.
1. List
1. out
Listany
outfive
anyactivities
five
from your daily
activities fromlife in
your
which
dailydifferent forms of
life in which
energy are involved.
different forms of
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2. Differentiate between
energy are involved.
renewable and non-
2. Differentiate between
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renewable sources of
renewable and
energy.
non-renewable
Figure 7.12Source
Figure 7.13 Source of energy
of energy sources of energy.
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In simple terms we can say that anything out of which usable energy can be extracted is a
source of energy. There is a variety of sources that provide us energy for different purposes.
Some of them are coal, petrol, diesel kerosene, natural gas, hydroelectric power, wind mills,
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solar panels, biomass etc.
The energy sources can be replenished in a short period of time are referred to as
―renewable‖ energy sources, whereas the energy sources that we are using up and cannot be
generated in a short period of time are called non-renewable energy sources. Thus, all the
sources of energy can be divided into two categories: renewable sources and non-renewable
sources of energy.
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GRADE 7
There are three main differences between both sources of energy types:
a. availability and renewal times;

b. production and transportation cost;
c. Impact on the environment and human health.
Renewable energy sources: - are the energy sources, which can be turned into use again
after being used. It come from natural sources and continually regenerates themselves,
which makes them nearly inexhaustible. These energy sources are plentiful, sustainable,
naturally replenished and good to the environment.
The major types or sources of renewable energy are:
 Solar energy from the sun
 Wind energy
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 Geothermal energy from the heat inside the earth
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 Hydropower from flowing water
 Biomass from plants
 Ocean energy in the form of wave, tidal, current energy and ocean thermal energy.
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Non- renewable sources: are the energy sources, which cannot be turned into use again. It is
a finite resource. It is a natural substance that is not replenished with the speed at which it is
consumed. These are formed over thousands of years from the buried remains of ancient sea
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plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. Most of these energy sources are “dirty”
fossil fuels, which are generally dingier for the environment.
The major types or sources of non-renewable energy are: petroleum, natural gas, coal, nuclear
energy and hydrocarbon gas liquids
Table 7.3 major differences between renewable and non-renewable resources
Renewable Resources Non-renewable Resources

Depletion
Renewable resources cannot be depleted over time
Non-renewable resources deplete over time
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GRADE 7
Table 7.3 major differences between renewable and non-renewable resources
Renewable Resources Non-renewable Resources

Depletion
Renewable resources cannot be depleted Non-renewable resources deplete
over time over time
Renewable resources include sunlight, Non-renewable energy includes
water, wind and also geothermal sources fossil fuels such as coal
such as hot springs and fumaroles and petroleum.
Enviromental Impact
Most renewable resources have low Non-renewable energy has a
carbon emissions and low carbon comparatively higher carbon
footprint footprint and carbon emissions.
Cost
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The upfront cost of renewable energy is Non-renewable energy has a
high. – For instance, Generating electricity comparatively lower upfront
ES
using technologies running on renewable cost.emissions.
energy is costlier than generating it with
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fossil fuels
Renewable and non-renewable resources have many similarities They both are
resources and they both have to do with the environment. Also, we must use them
wisely. Because if not they will disappear. They both grow on Earth, as well
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Exercise 7.7
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which of the following is a nonrenewable energy resource?
A. Solar B. hydroelectric C. wind D. coal
2. What type of energy is derived from heated groundwater?
A. solar energy C. geothermal energy
B. hydroelectric energy D. nuclear energy
3. Which of the following is a renewable energy resource?
A. Solar B. Biomass C. Geothermal D. All
1. List sources of energy.
2.What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable forms of
energy and give four examples for each.
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7.8. Wise use and Conservation of energy

• Describe how energy is used wisely.
• List the strategies of conservation of energy
Energy conservation
The key for resolving the country’s energy crisis lies with us citizens. Among
things we can do is the conservation of our energy sources. It is said that
energy saved is as good as energy generated. Therefore, we should not only
judiciously use energy sources but save energy as much as we can. You can
start conservation of energy in your home.
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Energy conservation is the practice of using less energy in order to lower
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costs and reduce environmental impact. So. Energy can be conserved by
• Reducing wastage and losses,
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• Improving efficiency through technological upgrades and

• Improved operation and maintenance
A good rule to follow for conservation use the three (3) R’s:
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• Reduce: Reduce the amount of trash you produce and the amount of energy
that consume. This is the best way to conserve natural resources and reduce
pollution.
• Reuse: By products that you can use more than once. Try to avoid
disposable items that use up natural resources and produce extra trash.
• Recycle: Recycling is the process that reuses and changes used materials
into things that can be of use. Although it requires energy to recycle things,
overall, recycling saves energy as well as landfill space and reduces our
need for more natural resources. Lots of things can be recycled:
Project work 7.2

By referring internet explorer or other reference materials explain how
energy is used wisely and list the strategies of conservation of energy.
Present your finding to the class.
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GRADE 7
Example: plastic, metal, glass, paper, and compost etc.

Strategies of conservation of energy
The steps that you can and should take for saving energy at home or in the office are:
 Switch off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.
 Water taps should not be left open.
 While cooking vegetables the vessel should remain covered.
 For cooking, only the required quantity of water should be used.
 Soak pulses in water for some time before cooking,
 Use of more efficient appliances.
 Use public transport in place of your own vehicle to save fuel.
 Share automobiles rides to office, instead of driving alone to office.
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Exercise
Exercise 7.87.8
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Give short answers.
Give short answers.
1. What is conservation of energy?
1. Whathow
is conservation of energy?
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2. Explain energy is used wisely.

2. Explain how energy is used wisely.
3. List Strategies of conservation of energy
3. List Strategies of conservation of energy
7.9.
7.9.Resource depletion
depletionand
and environmental degradation
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Resource environmental degradation
 Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation
Activity7.10
Activity 7.10
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your conclusion to the class.
Perform the following tasks in groups Resource depletion
and present your conclusion to the class.
i. Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation
ii. Explain causes and effects of resource depletion and environmental degradation
i. Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation
ii. Explain causes and effects of resource depletion
223 and environmental
degradation
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GRADE 7
Resource depletion is the exhaustion of raw materials within a region. Resources are
commonly divided between renewable resources and non-renewable resources. Use of
either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be
resource depletion. There are different types of resource depletion. These are
Deforestation, mining, aquifer depletion, contamination of resources, slash-and-burn
agriculture and overconsumption.
Causes
Causesforfor
Resource DepletionEffects of resource depletion
Resource Solutions to the Resource
Depletion Depletion Problem
Waste  Water shortages  Avoid plastic
Farming  Oil shortages  Reduce waste
Overpopulation  Economic effects  Stop deforestation
Mining
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 Health effects  Reduction in consumption
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Erosion  Air pollution  Save electricity
Pollution  Loss of forests  Use renewable energies

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Deforestation  Global warming  Recycle and reuse
Industrialization  Extinction of animals and plants  Education

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Environmental degradation
Environmental degradation
The environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of
resources which includes all the biotic and abiotic element that form our surrounding that is
The environmental degradation
air, water, soil, pant animals, andis the deterioration
all other of the environment
living and non-living through
element of the planet of
depletion
earth.ofThe
resources which
major factors includes alldegradation
of environmental the bioticareand abiotic element that
form oursurrounding
Human (modern that is air, water, soil,industrialization,
urbanization, pant animals, and all other living
overpopulation growth,
and non-living elementetc.)
deforestation, of the
and planet of earth. The major factors of environmental
degradation are
• Human (modern urbanization, industrialization, 224 overpopulation growth,
deforestation, etc.) and
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GRADE 7
• Natural (flood, typhoons, droughts, rising temperatures, fires, etc.)
Cause. Environmental pollution refers to the degradation of the quality
and quantity of natural resources.
The major Effects of Environmental Degradation are: Impact on Human
Health, Poverty, Atmospheric Changes, Loss of Biodiversity and Scarcity of
Natural Resources
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ES
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Figure7.14 Different causes of environmental degradation.
Key terms
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- Motion - Rectilinear motion -Transducer -Oscillatory motion
- Curvilinear -environmental -Energy -Resource depletion

motion degradation
- Force - Gravity - matter - Gravitational force
- Weight - Newton meter - conservation - Spring balance

of energy
- Graduated - Renewable - Non-renewable - Rotary motion
scale energy energy
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GRADE 7
SUMMARY
In this unit you learnt that:
• Motion is a continuous change of position relative to a reference point. There are
four types of motion. They are rectilinear, curvilinear, rotary and vibrational
motion.
• A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with
another object.
• Gravitational force is the force that is exerted by the Earth on every object, which
is near or on its surface.
• Force acting on an object causes the object to change its shape or size, to start
moving, to stop moving, to speed up or to slow down a moving object.
• You can use a device called a force meter to measure the size of a force. It contains
a spring connected to a metal hook. The spring stretches when a force is applied
to the hook. The bigger the force applied, the longer the spring stretches and the
bigger the reading. The unit of force is called the newton, and it has the symbol N.
•
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Energy is the property of mater, and it comes in many forms, such as heat, sound,
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light, and motion. It can be transferred between objects, and converted in form.
• Energy exists in many different forms. Examples of these are: light energy, heat
energy, mechanical energy, gravitational energy, electrical energy, sound energy,
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chemical energy, nuclear or atomic energy and so on. Each form can be converted
or changed into the other forms.
• sources of energy can be classified into: Renewable Sources and Non-renewable
Sources.
• A renewable source is the natural resources that cause no impact to nature. These
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resources of energy can be naturally replenished and are safe to the environment
. Example: Solar energy, geothermal energy, Wind energy, biomass, Hydropower
and tidal energy.
• Non-renewable sources of energy cause impact to nature and are a limited supply
source. Non-renewable sources can be extracted from the earth, and will run out as
time passes. Example: Natural gas, coal, petroleum, Nuclear energy .
• Using energy more wisely can reduce air pollution and result in cleaner air. The
power plants that supply energy release harmful greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere.
• Resource depletion is the exhaustion of raw materials within a region .The
depletion of natural resources is a big problem. It has several adverse effects
on humanity as well as on the whole environmental system.
• Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through
depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction
of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution.
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GRADE 7
Review Exercise
Part I: True / False type questions
1. Energy can be created.
2. Geothermal energy is renewable
3. A forces that acting an object falling from a tall building is called
gravitational force.
4. push or pull of an object in a certain direction is known as motion.
Part II: Complete the following sentences by choicing alternatives from
the bracket and fill in the blank space.
Coal, natural gas and oil are all examples of _____ (renewable/non-renewable)
energy resources. When they are burned, they release _____ (energy/electric-
ity). Coal, natural gas and oil are also known as _____ (nuclear fuels/fossil
T
fuels). Wind and solar energy are examples of _____ (renewable/non-renew-
able) energy sources because they _____ (can/cannot) be replaced. _________
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has to be applied to change the __________of a ____________object. (moving,
direction, force)
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Part II: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which type of motion repeats itself at regular intervals of time?
A. Circular motion C. Rectilinear motion
B. Periodic motion D. none of the above
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2. Rotation of the Earth is an example of

A. Periodic motion C. Circular motion
B. Rectilinear motion D. Both (A) and (B)
3. The best definition of force is .
A. a push or pull of an object. C. stored energy
B. energy in motion D. anything that takes up space
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GRADE 7
4. What type of energy does an oven produce?

A. light B. heat C. light and heat D. none of the above
5. Which of the following is NOT the effect of force?
A. Deformation C. To start motion
B. To stop motion D. to change mass
6. Which instrument used to measure force?
A. Spring balance B. Beam balance C. Newton D. Thermometer
7. All of the following are examples of things that produce light energy EXCEPT:
A. Candle B. Compass C. Desk Lamp D. Flashlight
8. Which of the following does NOT produce light energy?
A. Car B. phone T C. picture frame D. computer
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9. Energy you get from eating an apple
A. nuclear energy C. sound energy
B. electromagnetic energy D. chemical energy
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10.The energy source that does the least harm to the environment is
A. Renewable B. Non-renewable
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11.Nuclear energy is: A. Renewable B. Non-renewable

12.Which of the following is a source of energy?
A. Sun B. Waves C. Wind D. All
13.Which of these are renewable energy sources.
A. Coal B. natural gas C. sunlight D. None of these
14.Which type of renewable energy uses the movement of air to generate electricity?
A. water B. sun C. wind D. Biomass
15.Most energy sources are used to give us
A. Food and water B. Electricity and fuel C. Heat and water D. Heat and fuel
16.Renewable energy is energy that
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GRADE 7
16. Renewable energy is energy that

A. Can be reused over and over. C. Can be changed into a new energy
B. Can be used up completely. D. Cannot be replaced.
17. Non-renewable energy is the energy that
A. Can be used over and over. C. Cannot be changed into a new energy.
B. Can be used up completely. D. Can be replaced
18.resource depletion is commonly associated with
A. Water usage B. Fossil fuel consumption C. trees and fishing D. All
19.Which one of the following is an examples of environmental degradation:
A. Deforestation. B. Depletion of the ozone layer C. Water Pollution. D. All
PartIV:
Part IV:Give
Giveshort
short answer
answer question
questions
T
1. Explain in and give one example for gravitational force.
2. Why an object thrown upwards comes down after reaching a point?
ES
3. What is meant by weight?
4. Name the motion possessed by these objects- blades of an electric fan in motion, a
RT
spinning top, and hands of a clock. Vehicle on a straight road, the earth around the
sun and pendulum of a wall clock.
5. Name and define the type of motion exhibit by the object in
FO
the given below figure 1.

6. If you want to measure the weight of your school bag using
the equipment shown below. Name this piece of equipment.
That shown in figure 2.
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Figure 2 Figure 1
229
230
GRADE 7
Check List
Competencies given below are expected to be achieved in this unit by students. You
are required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√) mark under ―Yes‖ column
if you are able to perform the competency or under ―No‖ column if you are unable to
perform the competency.
This would help to evaluate yourself and you can revise the parts of topics for which
the competencies are not met.
No. Can I Yes No
1 Define motion as the change of position with time.
2 Describe the types of motion.
3
4
T
Give examples for each type of motion
Explain the term force.
ES
5 Demonstrate the pulling/pushing activity of force.
6 Explain gravitational force.
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7 List all effects of force
8 Demonstrate some effects of force.

9 Relate effects of force with their daily life experience
10 Name measuring device of force
FO
11 Identify different measuring scales on measuring device of force

12 Explain parts of measuring device of force
13 Define energy as a property of matter that can be converted
14 List all forms of energy
15 Explain which energy converted to other forms of energy.

16 List sources of energy.
17 Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable forms of
energy.
18 Describe how energy is used wisely.
19 List the strategies of conservation of energy
20 Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation
230
231
GRADE 7
T
ES
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Addis Ababa City Administration Education Bureau

FO
Addis Ababa / Ethiopia / 20 14 EC
232

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General Science

Unit 1 Basic Concepts of Science

At the end of this unit, you will able to:

• Discuss the importance of scientific values in decision making and

and ways of thinking.

By the end of this section you should be able to:

to that body of knowledge

natural world and the social aspect of human society. It provides an

Why teach Indigenous Knowledge in science?

knowledge practiced for a long time to solve practical problem that

Biology Chemistry Physics

such as chemistry, biology, physics and geology. These fields of study in

Chemistry is a branch of natural science which deals with

1.1.3. Science and technology

Figure 1.3 Relationship of science and technology

Uses of Science and technology for the society

1.1.4. Scientists and ethical discipline

understanding and knowledge. Some of the world and Ethiopian

Fig1.4 some world known scientist and their works

discovery very early in

Gebisa Ejeta (born 1950) is an

Ethical principle in science

Form a group and discuss on the following questions then present

Ethics is an integral part of science. Like science, it requires to be

A. Chemistry and biology C. Biology and physics

B. It comes from Latin word “Scientia meaning ‘knowledge’

1.2.1. Common Laboratory Apparatus

available materials produce laboratory tools such as beaker,

Name Picture Use

Triple-beam Obtaining the mass of an

Tongs Transport a hot beaker;

Thermometer Used to measure

Test tubes Holds small amounts of liquids for

Petri dish Measuring small distance

Graduated Marked with milliliter (ml)

Bunsen burner Heating (flame-safe) contents

1.2.2 Laboratory Safety Rules

the followings laboratory safety rules precautions when you perform

1.2.3 Science laboratory safety symbol and hazard signs, Meanings

Toxic materials High voltage hazardT Gloves Saftety glasses

Flammable materrials boots Face shield

Electrical hazard Chemical storage area Hand wash Fire extinguisher

Biological hazard Health hazard Protective cloth Hearind protection

Figure: 1. 4 A) hazard signs B) Laboratory safety symbols

1.2.4 Writig a Laboratory Report

A laboratory report is a written composition of the results of an

No. Can I Yes No

1. Define science as a body of knowledge and the processes

3. Relate how science and technology affect one‗s beliefs,

4. Appreciate the contributions of outstanding scientists to

5. Discuss the importance of scientific values in decision

6. Relate how science and technology affect one‗s beliefs,

7. Identify the significant contributions of Ethiopian

8. Identify different laboratory tools

9. Demonstrate safe ways of using apparatus in the

10. Practice precautionary measures in the laboratory

11. Exhibit knowledge of lab safety rules and procedures.

12. Identify potential hazards and implement appropriate

Safety rule Laboratory

Natural science Hazard sign