Wireless (Chapter 3)

Chapter 2
Multiple Access for

Wireless Communication
Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-1

Chapter 2: Outline
Chapter goal: Overview/Roadmap:
❖ Introduce basic terminology ❖ Introduction
and concepts ❖ Motivation
❖ Access methods
❖ Comparison
❖ approach:
▪ use various
communication
standards as example

Chapter 2: Roadmap
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Motivation
1.2 Access Methods
1.3 Comparison

Introduction
❖ Data link control layer (DLC)
▪ Logical Link Control (LLC)
▪ MAC layer
❖ Medium Access Control (MAC)
▪ Adapted to the wireless domain
▪ Mechanisms that regulate user access to a medium using
SDM, TDM, FDM, or CDM.
▪ Traffic regulations in the highway
▪ Several vehicles use the same street crossing in TDM,
for example, requires rules to avoid collisions;
• one mechanism to enforce these rules is traffic lights
❖ Why special MACs are needed in the wireless
domain
▪ Why standard MAC schemes known from wired networks
often fail.
© Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-4
Chapter 2: Roadmap
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Motivation
1.2 Access Methods
1.3 Comparison

Motivation (1)
❖ Can we apply media access methods from fixed
networks?
❖ Example CSMA/CD
▪ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
▪ send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if
a collision occurs (original method in IEEE 802.3)
Motivation (2)
❖ Problems in wireless networks

▪ signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the
distance
▪ the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen
at the receiver
▪ it might be the case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision,
i.e., CD does not work
▪ furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is
“hidden”
Motivation (3) - hidden and exposed terminals
❖ Hidden terminals
▪ A sends to B, C cannot receive A
▪ C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
▪ collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
▪ A is “hidden” for C
A B C
Motivation (4) - hidden and exposed terminals
❖ Exposed terminals
▪ B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A
or B)
▪ C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
▪ but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is
not necessary
▪ C is “exposed” to B
A B C
Motivation (5) – near and far terminals
❖ Terminals A and B send, C receives
▪ signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the
distance
▪ the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out A’s signal
▪ C cannot receive A
A B C
If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal
B would drown out terminal A already on the physical
layer
Also severe problem for CDMA-networks - precise power
control needed!
Chapter 2: Roadmap
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Motivation
1.2 Access Methods
1.3 Comparison

Access Methods
❖ SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
❖ FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
❖ TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
❖ CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
SDMA
❖ Space Allocation
▪ used for allocating a separated space to users in
wireless networks.
❖ Typical application
▪ assigning an optimal base station to a mobile phone
user
▪ The mobile phone may receive several base stations
with different quality.
▪ A MAC algorithm could now decide which base station is
best, taking into account which frequencies (FDM), time slots
(TDM) or code (CDM) are still available(depending on the
technology).
❖ Never used in isolation
▪ always in combination with one or more other schemes.
❖ Basis for SDMA algorithm
▪ The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and
sectorized
© Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, antennas which constitute
http://www.jochenschiller.de/ Multiple the
Accessinfrastructure
for Wireless Communication 2-13
FDMA
❖ Allocating a certain frequency to a transmission
channel
▪ according to the frequency division multiplexing
(FDM) scheme
❖ Type of Allocation
▪ fixed (as for radio stations or the general planning and
regulation of frequencies)
▪ dynamic (i.e., demand driven)
❖ Pure FDMA
▪ Channels can be assigned to the same frequency at all
times
▪ permanent (e.g., radio broadcast)
❖ FDMA combined with TDMA
▪ change frequencies according to a certain pattern
▪ slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast hopping (FHSS, Frequency Hopping
Spread
© Prof. Dr.-Ing. Spectrum)
Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-14
FDD/FDMA - general scheme, example GSM
f
960 MHz 124
935.2 MHz 1 200 kHz
20 MHz
915 MHz 124
1
890.2 MHz
t
f = 890 MHz + n·0.2 MHz

u
f = f +45 MHz, i.e., f = 935 MHz + n·0.2 MHz

d u d
Similar FDM schemes for FDD are implemented in AMPS,

IS-54, IS-95, IS-136,PACS, and UMTS (FDD mode).
TDMA
❖ Allocation of time slots
▪ allocate certain time slots for communication i.e., controlling TDM
▪ assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel
between a sender and a receiver for a certain amount of time
❖ Synchronization
▪ Synchronization between sender and receiver has to be achieved
in the time domain.
▪ Fixed
• using a fixed pattern similar to FDMA techniques, i.e., allocating a
certain time slot for a channel
• Do not need an identification
• but are not as flexible considering varying bandwidth requirements.
▪ dynamic allocation scheme
• require an identification for each transmission
• as this is the case for typical wired MAC schemes (e.g., sender
address) or the transmission has to be announced beforehand.
• MAC addresses are quite often used as identification.
Fixed TDM
❖ The simplest algorithm for using TDM is allocating
time slots for channels in a fixed pattern.
❖ This results in a fixed bandwidth and is the typical
solution for wireless phone systems.
❖ MAC is quite simple, as the only crucial factor is
accessing the reserved time slot at the right
moment.
❖ If this synchronization is assured, each mobile
station knows its turn and no interference will
happen.
❖ The fixed pattern can be assigned by the base
station, where competition between different
mobile stations that want to access the medium is
solved.
TDD/TDMA - general scheme, example DECT
417 µs
1 1 1 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 1 2
t
downlink uplink
Classical Aloha
❖ invented at the University of Hawaii
❖ used in the ALOHANET for wireless connection of
several stations.
❖ Aloha neither coordinates medium access nor does it
resolve contention on the MAC layer. Instead, each
station can access the medium at any time
❖ Mechanism
▪ Random access, distributed (no central arbiter), without
coordination among stations
❖ Aloha – max throughput 18%
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
t
Slotted aloha
❖ Mechanism
▪ Slotted Aloha additionally uses time-slots, sending must
always start at slot boundaries
▪ all senders have to be synchronized, transmission can
only start at the beginning of a time slot
▪ Throughput 36 per cent
❖ Slotted Aloha
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
t
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (1)
❖ Mechanism
▪ Sensing the carrier before accessing the medium.
▪ Decreases the probability of a collision.
▪ Hidden terminals cannot be detected
• If a hidden terminal transmits at the same time as another
sender, a collision might occur at the receiver.
❖ Several versions of CSMA exist.
▪ Non-persistent CSMA
▪ Persistent CSMA
• p-persistent CSMA
• 1-persistent CSMA
❖ Non-persistent CSMA
▪ Stations sense the carrier and start sending immediately
if the medium is idle.
▪ If the medium is busy, the station pauses a random
amount of time before sensing the medium again and
repeating this pattern.
❖ p-persistent CSMA
▪ Nodes sense the medium
▪ But only transmit with a probability of p
▪ With the station deferring to the next slot with the
probability 1-p
❖ 1-persistent CSMA
▪ All stations wishing to transmit access the medium at the
same time, as soon as it becomes idle.
▪ This will cause many collisions if many stations wish to send
and block each other.
❖ CSMA/CA
▪ Access scheme used in wireless LANs following the
standard IEEE 802.11.
▪ Here sensing the carrier is combined with a back-off
scheme in case of a busy medium to achieve some
fairness among competing stations.
❖ EY-NMPA
▪ Elimination Yield – Non-preemptive Multiple Access
(EY-NMPA)
▪ Used in the HIPERLAN 1 specification
▪ Several phases of sensing the medium and accessing
the medium for contention resolution are interleaved
before one “winner” can finally access the medium for
data transmission.
▪ Priority schemes can be included to assure preference
of certain stations with more important data.
DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple Access (1)
❖ ALOHA Access Systems
▪ Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha
▪ 36% for Slotted Aloha
(assuming Poisson distribution for packet arrival and packet
length)
❖ Improvement of ALOHA Access Systems
▪ Reservation mechanisms and combination with (fixed) TDM
patterns
❖ Reservation Period and Transmission Period
▪ Collisions may occur during reservation period
▪ Transmission period can then be accessed without collision
❖ Alternatively, the transmission period can be split into
periods with and without collision.
DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple Access (2)
❖ Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
▪ a sender reserves a future time-slot
▪ sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision
▪ reservation also causes higher delays
▪ typical scheme for satellite links
❖ Examples for reservation algorithms:
▪ Explicit Reservation according to Roberts (Reservation-ALOHA)
▪ Implicit Reservation (PRMA – Packet Reservation MA))
▪ Reservation-TDMA
Access method DAMA: Explicit Reservation
❖Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha):
▪ Used for satellite systems
▪ two modes:
• ALOHA (slotted) mode for reservation:
competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible
• reserved mode for data transmission within successful
reserved slots (no collisions possible)
▪ it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list
consistent at any point in time and, therefore, all stations have
to synchronize from time to time
collision
t
Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha
Access method DAMA: PRMA
❖Implicit reservation (PRMA - Packet Reservation MA):
▪ a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are repeated
▪ stations compete for empty slots according to the slotted
aloha principle
▪ once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is
automatically assigned to this station in all following frames as
long as the station has data to send
▪ competition for this slots starts again as soon as the slot was
empty in the last frame
reservation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 time-slot
ACDABA-F
frame1 A C D A B A F
ACDABA-F
frame2 A C A B A
AC-ABAF-
frame3 A B A F collision at
A---BAFD reservation
frame4 A B A F attempts
ACEEBAFD D
frame5 A C E E B A F D
t
Access method DAMA: Reservation-TDMA
❖Reservation Time Division Multiple Access
▪ every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots
▪ every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k
data-slots using this mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k).
▪ other stations can send data in unused data-slots according to
a round-robin sending scheme (best-effort traffic)
e.g. N=6, k=2

N mini-slots N * k data-slots
reservations other stations can use free data-slots

for data-slots based on a round-robin scheme
MACA - collision avoidance
❖ MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses
short signaling packets for collision avoidance
▪ RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send
from a receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a
data packet
▪ CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as
soon as it is ready to receive
❖ Signaling packets contain
▪ sender address
▪ receiver address
▪ packet size
❖ Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as

DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC)
MACA examples
❖ MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
▪ A and C want to
send to B
▪ A sends RTS first RTS
▪ C waits after receiving CTS CTS
CTS from B A B C
❖ MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

▪ B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
▪ now C does not have
RTS RTS
to wait for it cannot
receive CTS from A CTS
A B C
MACA variant: DFWMAC in IEEE802.11
sender receiver
idle idle
packet ready to send; RTS
data;
ACK
RxBusy wait for time-out;
the RTS time-out RTS;
ACK right to ∨ CTS
time-out
send data;
∨
NAK
NAK;
RTS CTS; data
wait for wait for
ACK data
ACK: positive acknowledgement RxBusy: receiver busy RTS; RxBusy

NAK: negative acknowledgement
Polling mechanisms
❖ If one terminal can be heard by all others, this
“central” terminal (a.k.a. base station) can poll all other
terminals according to a certain scheme
▪ now all schemes known from fixed networks can be used
(typical mainframe - terminal scenario)
❖ Example: Randomly Addressed Polling
▪ base station signals readiness to all mobile terminals
▪ terminals ready to send can now transmit a random number
without collision with the help of CDMA or FDMA (the
random number can be seen as dynamic address)
▪ the base station now chooses one address for polling from
the list of all random numbers (collision if two terminals
choose the same address)
▪ the base station acknowledges correct packets and continues
polling the next terminal
▪ this cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list
ISMA (Inhibit Sense Multiple Access)
❖ Current state of the medium is signaled via a “busy
tone”
▪ the base station signals on the downlink (base station to
terminals) if the medium is free or not
▪ terminals must not send if the medium is busy
▪ terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone
stops
▪ the base station signals collisions and successful transmissions
via the busy tone and acknowledgements, respectively (media
access is not coordinated within this approach)
▪ mechanism used, e.g.,
for CDPD
(USA, integrated
into AMPS)
Access method CDMA (1)
▪ codes with certain characteristics can be applied to the
transmission to enable the use of code division
multiplexing (CDM).
▪ CDMA systems use these codes
• to separate different users in code space and
• to enable access to a shared medium without
interference.
▪ all terminals
• send on the same frequency probably at the same time and
• can use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel
▪ Sender
• each sender has a unique random number,
• the sender XORs the signal with this random number
▪ Receiver
• the receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows the
pseudo random number,
• tuning is done via a correlation function
❖Main problem
▪ how to find “good” codes?
▪ how to separate the signal from noise generated
by other signals and the environment?
❖ Disadvantages:
▪ higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen
into the medium and start receiving if there is a signal)
▪ all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
❖ Advantages:
▪ all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
▪ huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
▪ interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
▪ forward error correction and encryption can be easily
integrated
Orthogonality
❖ A code for a certain user should be orthogonal to other
codes.
❖ Think of a system of coordinates and vectors starting at the
origin, i.e., in (0, 0, 0).
❖ Two vectors are called orthogonal if their inner product is 0
❖ Vectors (2, 5, 0) and (0, 0, 17) are orthogonal:
▪ (2, 5, 0)*(0, 0, 17) = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
❖ Vectors like (3, –2, 4) and (–2, 3, 3) are orthogonal:
▪ (3, –2, 4)*(–2, 3, 3) = –6 – 6 + 12 = 0
❖ Vectors (1,2,3) and (4,2, –6) are not orthogonal:
▪ inner product is –10 i.e. (1, 2, 3) * (4, 2, -6) = 4+4-18=-10
❖ Vectors (1, 2, 3) and (4, 2, –3) are “almost” orthogonal:
▪ inner product being –1 (which is “close” to zero) i.e. (1, 2, 3)* (4, 2,
-3)=4+4-9=-1
Autocorrelation
CDMA in theory
❖ Sender A
▪ sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: “0”= -1, “1”= +1)
▪ sending signal As = Ad * Ak = +1*(–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1) = (-1, +1, -1, -1,
+1, +1)
❖ Sender B
▪ sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: “0”= -1, “1”= +1)
▪ sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = –1*(+1, +1, –1, +1, –1, +1) = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1,
-1)
❖ Both signals superimpose in space
▪ interference neglected (noise etc.)
▪ C = As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
❖ Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A
▪ apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)
• Ae = C*Ak=(-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) · (–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1)
=2+0+0+2+2+0=6
• result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was “1”
▪ receiving B
• B =C*B =(-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) · (+1, Multiple
e Schiller,
© Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen
+1, –1,
k http://www.jochenschiller.de/
+1,for–1,
Access = -2 + 0 + 0 2-42
+1)Communication
Wireless -2
Several Simplifications (1)
❖ The codes were extremely simple, but at least
orthogonal.
❖ noise was neglected
▪ Noise would add to the transmitted signal C,
▪ the results would not be as even with –6 and +6,
▪ but would may be close to 0,
▪ making it harder to decide if this is still a valid 0 or 1.
❖ Both spread bits were precisely superimposed and
both signals are equally strong when they reach the
receiver.
Several Simplifications (2)
❖ What would happen if B was much stronger?
▪ Assume that B’s strength is five times A’s strength.
▪ Then, C' = As + 5*Bs = (–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1) + (–5, –5,
+5, –5, +5, –5) = (–6, –4, +4, –6, +6, –4).
▪ Receiver wants to receive B:
• C'*Bk = –6 –4 – 4 – 6 – 6 – 4= –30.
• It is easy to detect the binary 0 sent by B.
▪ Receiver wants to receive A:
• C'*Ak = 6 – 4 – 4 + 6 + 6 – 4 = 6.
• Clearly, the (absolute) value for the much stronger signal is
higher (30 compared to 6).
• While –30 might still be detected as 0, this is not so easy for the
6 because compared to 30, 6 is quite close to zero and could be
interpreted as noise.
CDMA on signal level I
❖ Coding and spreading of data from sender A
data A
1 0 1 Ad
key A
key
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Ak
sequence A
data ⊕ key 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
signal A
As
Real systems use much longer keys resulting in a larger distance

between single code words in code space.
CDMA on signal level II
❖ Coding and spreading of data from sender B
signal A As
data B 1 0 0 Bd
key B
key 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 Bk
sequence B
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
data ⊕ key
Bs
signal B
As + B s
CDMA on signal level III
data A
1 0 1 Ad
As + B s
Ak
(As + Bs)
* Ak
integrator
output
comparator 1 0 1
output
CDMA on signal level IV
data B
1 0 0 Bd
As + B s
Bk
(As + Bs)
* Bk
integrator
output
comparator 1 0 0
output
CDMA on signal level V
As + B s
wrong
key K
(As + Bs)
*K
integrator
output
comparator
output (0) (0) ?
SAMA - Spread Aloha Multiple Access
❖ Aloha has only a very low efficiency, CDMA needs
complex receivers to be able to receive different
senders with individual codes at the same time
❖ Idea: use spread spectrum with only one single code
(chipping sequence) for spreading for all senders
accessing according to aloha
collision
sender A 1 0 1 narrow
sender B 0 1 1 band
send for a
shorter period
with higher power
spread the signal e.g. using the chipping sequence 110101 (“CDMA without CD”)
Problem: find a chipping sequence with good characteristics

Chapter 2: Roadmap
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Motivation
1.2 Access Methods
1.3 Comparison

Comparison SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
END

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Chapter 2

Multiple Access for

Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-1

Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-2

Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-3

Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-5

❖ Problems in wireless networks

Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-11

935.2 MHz 1 200 kHz

f = 890 MHz + n·0.2 MHz

f = f +45 MHz, i.e., f = 935 MHz + n·0.2 MHz

Similar FDM schemes for FDD are implemented in AMPS,

e.g. N=6, k=2

reservations other stations can use free data-slots

❖ Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as

❖ MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

ACK: positive acknowledgement RxBusy: receiver busy RTS; RxBusy

Real systems use much longer keys resulting in a larger distance

Problem: find a chipping sequence with good characteristics

Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-51

Multiple Access for Wireless Communication 2-53

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