Data Communication & Network: Unit - 2

BCS 53 - Data & Communication Network
Data Communication & Network
Unit -2
Dr. S. P. Ponnusamy
Assistant Professor
Thiruvalluvar University
Model Constituent College of Arts and Science, Tittagudi-606106
Department of Computer Science 1
2.1 Design Issues of Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer – Design Issues

• Network layer services
• Framing
• Error control
• Flow control

The data link layer has a number of specific functions it can carry out.
These functions include
1. Providing a well-defined service interface to the network layer.
2. Dealing with transmission errors.
3. Regulating the flow of data so that slow receivers are not swamped
by fast senders.

Packets and Frames
Relationship
Thiruvalluvar Universitybetween packets and frames.

Packets and Frames
Relationship between packets and frames.

Network Layer Services
(a) Virtual communication. (b) Actual communication.


Possible Services Offered
1.Unacknowledged connectionless service.
2.Acknowledged connectionless service.
3.Acknowledged connection-oriented service.

Possible Services Offered
Placement of the data link protocol

Framing Methods
Insert time gaps between frames, much like the spaces between words in ordinary
text
1.Character (Byte) count.
2.Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
3.Flag bits with bit stuffing.
4.Physical layer coding violations.

Framing Methods – Byte Counts
A byte stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error.

Framing Methods – Flag and Byte Stuffing
 Flag methods used for synchronization.
 The ‘flag’ bit pattern may occur in data
transformation.
 To avoid this, byte stuffing is used with ‘ESC’
byte stuffing.
 Used in PPP protocol.
 Not suitable for 16-bit characters (UNICODE).
a. A frame delimited by flag bytes.

b. Four examples of byte sequences before and after byte stuffing.

Framing Methods – Bit Stuffing
 Flag pattern - 01111110

 Every 5-consecuitive 1s occurs add ‘0’.
Bit stuffing. (a) The original data. (b) The data as they appear on
the line. (c) The data as they are stored in the receiver’s memory after destuffing.

Framing Methods – Physical layer coding
 Applicable to networks – where physical medium contains redundancy
 Encoding 1-bit data by 2-bit physical bits
 Example
 Bit ‘1’ is a high-low pair
 Bit ‘0’ is a low-high pair
 Every bit has a transition in the middle
Note
 Many data link protocols use combination of character count with one of other
methods for extra safety.

Error Control
• Acknowledgment for reliable delivery.
• If frame or ACK is lost, no ACK. Sender uses timer to react (RTT).
• If ACK is lost, receiver receives multiple copies of same frame.
• To identify multiple copies, sequence number is used.

Flow Control
• Flow control is a technique that allows two stations working at different speeds to
communicate with each other.
• It is a set of measures taken to regulate the amount of data that a sender sends so that a
fast sender does not overwhelm a slow receiver.
• In data link layer, flow control restricts the number of frames the sender can send before
it waits for an acknowledgment from the receiver.

Flow Control - Approaches

Flow Control
• Feedback based Flow Control - the sender sends frames after it has received
acknowledgments from the user. This is used in the data link layer.
• Rate based Flow Control - These protocols have built in mechanisms to
restrict the rate of transmission of data without requiring acknowledgment
from the receiver. Used in the network layer and the transport layer.
2.2 Channel Allocation Problem

Questions?
• In broadcast networks, How the channel is divided between competing users?
• What is Medium Access Control (MAC)?
• What protocols are used for allocating a multiple access channel ?
• The need for determine who gets to use the channel
 When there are two or more users trying to use a shared single channel there should be
an algorithm to control this access.
 This problem occurs in broadcast networks which are known as multiaccess channels.

What is MAC?
• Medium Access Control (MAC) is a
sublayer of the Data-link layer.
• The protocols used to determine who
goes next on a multiaccess channel
belongs to a MAC sublayer.
• MAC is important in LAN which use a
multiaccess channel as the basis for
communication.

What is MAC?

Channel Allocation Problem
• There are two schemes to allocate a single channel among competing
users:
1. Static Channel Allocation
2. Dynamic Channel Allocation

Static Channel Allocation
• In this scheme a Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is used for
allocating a single channel among competing users.
• Example
 if we have N users, the bandwidth will be divided into N equal-size portions.
 ++ FDM is a simple and efficient allocation mechanism.
 - - Waste of resources when the traffic is bursty, or the channel is lightly loaded

Dynamic Channel Allocation
• Before the discussion of algorithms used for dynamic allocation we need
to consider the following assumptions.
1. Station Model: N independent stations generate frames for transmission.
(Generate >Block >Transmission)
2. Single channel Assumption: Single channel is available for all communication.
3. Collision Assumption
4. Continuous Time, or Slotted Time
5. Carrier Sense, or No Carrier sense
2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

• ALOHA is a system proposed for solving the channel allocation problem.
• there are two versions of ALOHA:
1. Pure ALOHA
2. Slotted ALOHA
• The basic difference with respect to timing is:
 Pure ALOHA does not require global time synchronization;
 Slotted ALOHA does

collision
sender A
Aloha sender B
sender C
t
collision
Slotted Aloha sender A

sender B
sender C
In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely

arbitrary times.

Pure ALOHA
• The system is working as follows:
1. let users transmit whenever they have data to
be sent.
2. expected collisions will occur.
3. the collided frames will be destroyed.
4. using a feedback mechanism to know about
the status of frame.
5. retransmit the destroyed frame.

Pure ALOHA
• The main disadvantage of Pure ALOHA is a low channel utilization.
• This is expected due to the feature that all users transmit whenever they want.
Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA systems.


Slotted ALOHA
• There is a limit for the best channel utilization using Slotted ALOHA.
• To reduce the chance of collisions the station should be able to detect what
other stations are doing.
• In LAN networks this is possible, therefore they can achieve better utilization
than Slotted ALOHA.
• Carrier Sense Protocols are protocols in which stations listen for a carrier.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
• There are several versions of carrier sense protocols:
 1-persistent CSMA
 Non-persistent CSMA
 P-persistent CSMA
 CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

CSMA Protocols : 1-persistent CSMA
• In 1-persistent CSMA, a station prior to send data it listen to the channel to see if
anyone else is transmitting at that moment.
• if the channel is busy, the station waits until it becomes idle.
• If the channel is idle, the station transmits a frame.
• If a collision occurs, the station waits a random amount of time and starts all over
again.
• Although this protocol has disadvantages, it is better than ALOHA and Slotted
ALOHA
 It’s performance depends on the propagation delay.
 There is a chance when two stations start transmission at the same time.

CSMA Protocols : Non-persistent CSMA
• In Non-persistent CSMA a station makes conscious attempt to sense
the channel.
• After the first attempt, if the channel is idle, it sends, however, if the
channel is already in use, it waits a random period of time and repeats
the algorithm.
• (+ -)This algorithm has better utilization but longer delays than 1-
persistent CSMA.

CSMA Protocols : p-persistent CSMA
• In p-persistent CSMA a station transmits if the channel is idle with a
probability p and with probability q=1-p it waits until the next slot.
• The main advantage of persistent and non-persistent over ALOHA is that
they ensure no station begins to transmit when it senses the channel busy.

CSMA Protocols : CSMA with Collision Detection
• It is important that stations should terminate transmission as soon as they
detect a collision.
• This protocol is called CSMA/CD.
• It is widely used on LANs in the MAC sublayer.
• It is the basis of the popular Ethernet LAN.

CSMA/CD can be in one of three states: contention, transmission, or idle.


• A collision can be detected by looking at the power or pulse width of the received signal and
comparing it to the transmitted signal.
• After a station detects a collision it terminates its transmission, waits a random period of time,
and then tries again, assuming that no other station has started transmitting in the meantime.
• Collision detection is an analog process. Therefore, special encoding is commonly used.
• A sending station must continually monitor the channel, listening for noise bursts that might
indicate a collision. For this reason, CSMA/CD with a single channel is inherently a half-duplex
system.
2.4 Ethernet
2.4 Ethernet
• Physical layer
• MAC sublayer protocol
• Ethernet performance
• Switched Ethernet
• Fast Ethernet
• Gigabit Ethernet
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet
2.4 Ethernet
Media Access
• Ethernet and Wi-Fi are both “multi-access” technologies
 Broadcast medium, shared by many hosts
 Simultaneous transmissions will result in collisions
• Media Access Control (MAC) protocol required
 Rules on how to share medium
• The Data Link Layer is divided into two Part MAC Media
Access Control) Sublayer and LLC (Logic Link Control)
Sublayer
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling - Standards
• IEEE 802.15 –
Bluetooth
• IEEE 802.16 –
Wireless Man
•
The 802 working groups. The important ones are marked with *.
The ones marked with  are hibernating. The one marked with † gave up
•
and disbanded itself.
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling
The most common kinds of Ethernet cabling

 A baseband signal is an original transmission signal that has not be
modulated, or has been demodulated to its original frequency.
 Most telecommunications protocols require baseband signals to be
converted, or modulated, to a higher frequency so they can be transmitted
over long distances.
 Ethernet is an example of a protocol that does not require signal modulation,
since it transmits data in baseband
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling
• Physical Media :-
 10 Base5 - Thick Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
 10 Base2 - Thin Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
 10 BaseT - UTP Cat 3/5 with Tree Topology
 10 BaseFL - Multimode/Singlemode Fiber with Tree Topology
• Maximum Segment Length

 10 Base5 - 500 m with at most 4 repeaters (Use Bridge to extend
the network)
 10 Base2 - 185 m with at most 4 repeaters (Use Bridge to extend
the network)
 10 BaseT - 100 m with at most 4 hubs (Use Switch to extend the
network)
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling
50m Length
Three kinds of Ethernet cabling.

(a) 10Base5. (b) 10Base2. (c) 10Base-T.
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling – 10Basse5
• Vampire Taps
 2.5 Meters distance – marked in the cable itself
 A pin is very carefully forced halfway into the coaxial cable's core
• Transceiver or drop cable
 connects the transceiver to an interface board in the computer
 50m long
 contains five individually shielded twisted pairs
 Two of the pairs are for data in and data out, respectively
 Two more are for control signals in and out
 The fifth pair, which is not always used
• Controller
 transmits frames to, and receives frames from
 responsible for assembling the data into the proper frame format
 computing checksums on outgoing frames and verifying them on incoming frames
Thiruvalluvar
 Buffer for University
incoming and outgoing frames
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling – 10Basse2
• Connectors
 industry-standard BNC connectors to form T junctions
 easier to use and more reliable
• Cable is much cheaper and easier to install
• time domain reflectometry
 Detecting cable breaks, excessive length, bad taps, or loose connectors can
be a major problem with both media
 Technique to solve
 a pulse of known shape is injected into the cable
 If the pulse hits an obstacle or the end of the cable, an echo will be generated and sent
back
 By carefully timing the interval between sending the pulse and receiving the echo, it is
Thiruvalluvarpossible
University
to localize the origin of the echo.
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling – 10BasseT
• HUB
 there is no shared cable at all.
 just the hub (a box full of electronics) to which each station is
connected by a dedicated (i.e., not shared) cable.
 Adding or removing a station is simpler in this configuration, and cable
breaks can be detected easily.
 dominant due to its use of existing wiring and the ease of
maintenance that it offers.
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling – 10BasseF
• expensive due to the cost of the connectors and terminators
• but it has excellent noise immunity
• Suitable for long distance - running between buildings or
widely-separated hubs
• Offers good security since wiretapping fiber is much more
difficult than wiretapping copper wire
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling – Wiring
Cable topologies
(a) Linear. (b) Spine. (c) Tree. (d) Segmented
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Cabling – Wiring
2.4 Ethernet
Classic Ethernet – Physical Layer
Architecture of classic Ethernet
2.4 Ethernet
Classic Ethernet – Physical Layer
• Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD).
 CS = carrier sense
 MA = multiple access
 CD = collision detection
• Base Ethernet standard is 10 Mbps.
 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps standards came later
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Address - Sublayer Protocol
• End nodes are identified by their Ethernet Addresses (MAC
Address or Hardware Address) which is a unique 6 Byte
address.
• MAC Address is represented in Hexadecimal format e.g
00:05:5D:FE:10:0A
• The first 3 bytes identify a vendor (also called prefix) and the
last 3 bytes are unique for every host or device
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Frames – Sublayer Protocol
Frame formats. (a) Ethernet (DIX). (b) IEEE 802.3.

2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Frames - Sublayer Protocol
• Preamble:
 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with
pattern 10101011
 Used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates
• Addresses: 6 bytes, frame is received by all adapters on a
LAN and dropped if address does not match
• Length: 2 bytes, length of Data field
• CRC: 4 bytes generated using CR-32, checked at receiver, if
error is detected, the frame is simply dropped
• Data Payload: Maximum 1500 bytes, minimum 46 bytes
 If data is less than 46 bytes, pad with zeros to 46 bytes
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet – Collision (Sublayer Protocol)
Collision
Thiruvalluvar detection
University can take as long as 2.
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet Performance
Efficiency of Ethernet at 10 Mbps with 512-bit slot times.
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet – Switched Ethernet
(a)
Thiruvalluvar University Hub. (b) Switch.
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet – Switched Ethernet
Switch
Switch ports
Twisted pair
An
Thiruvalluvar University Ethernet switch.
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet – Fast Ethernet
o 100 Mbps bandwidth
o Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol and packet
format as in Ethernet.
o 100BaseTX (UTP) and 100BaseFX (Fiber) standards
o Physical media :-
o 100 BaseTX - UTP Cat 5e
o 100 BaseFX - Multimode / Singlemode Fiber
o Full Duplex/Half Duplex operations.
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet – Fast Ethernet
o Provision for Auto-Negotiation of media speed:
10 Mbps or 100Mbps (popularly available for copper media
only).
o Maximum Segment Length
 100 Base TX - 100 m
 100 Base FX - 2 Km (Multimode Fiber)
 100 Base FX - 20 km (Singlemode Fiber)
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet – Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z)
o 1 Gbps bandwidth.
o Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in Ethernet and
is backward compatible (10/100/100 modules are available).
o 1000BaseT (UTP), 1000BaseSX (Multimode Fiber) and
1000BaseLX (Multimode/Singlemode Fiber) standards.
o Maximum Segment Length
 1000 Base T - 100m (Cat 5e/6)
 1000 Base SX - 275 m (Multimode Fiber)
 1000 Base LX - 512 m (Multimode Fiber)
 1000 Base LX - 20 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
 1000 Base LH - 80 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet – Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z)
o Point-to-Point rather than multidrop.
o Called as classic ethernet
o Full-duplex(default) and half-duplex supported
A two-station Ethernet A multi station Ethernet

2.4 Ethernet
Ethernet – 10 Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet cabling

2.5 Wireless LAN
2.5 Architecture of 802.11

To Network
Access
Point
Client
802.11
Thiruvalluvar architecture
University – infrastructure mode
2.5 Architecture of 802.11
Thiruvalluvar802.11 architecture
University – ad-hoc mode
2.5 Protocol Stack of 802.11
Part of the
Thiruvalluvar University 802.11 protocol stack.
End

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BCS 53 - Data & Communication Network

Data Communication & Network

2.1 Design Issues of Data Link Layer

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Relationship between packets and frames.

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

(a) Virtual communication. (b) Actual communication.

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Placement of the data link protocol

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

A byte stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error.

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

a. A frame delimited by flag bytes.

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

 Flag pattern - 01111110

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

Data Link Layer – Design Issues

2.2 Channel Allocation Problem

2.2 Channel Allocation Problem

2.2 Channel Allocation Problem

2.2 Channel Allocation Problem

2.2 Channel Allocation Problem

2.2 Channel Allocation Problem

2.2 Channel Allocation Problem

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

Slotted Aloha sender A

In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA systems.

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

CSMA/CD can be in one of three states: contention, transmission, or idle.

2.3 Multiple Access Protocols

The most common kinds of Ethernet cabling

• Maximum Segment Length

Three kinds of Ethernet cabling.

Architecture of classic Ethernet

Frame formats. (a) Ethernet (DIX). (b) IEEE 802.3.

A two-station Ethernet A multi station Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet cabling

2.5 Wireless LAN

2.5 Architecture of 802.11