This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

Designation: E2192 − 13 (Reapproved 2022)

Standard Guide for

Planar Flaw Height Sizing by Ultrasonics1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2192; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope 2. Referenced Documents

1.1 This guide provides tutorial information and a descrip- 2.1 ASTM Standards:3
tion of the principles and ultrasonic examination techniques for E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
measuring the height of planar flaws which are open to the E543 Specification for Agencies Performing Nondestructive
surface. The practices and technology described in this stan- Testing
dard guide are intended as a reference to be used when 2.2 ASNT Standards4
selecting a specific ultrasonic flaw sizing technique as well as SNT-TC-1A Personnel Qualification and Certification in
establishing a means for instrument standardization.2 Nondestructive Testing
1.2 This standard guide does not provide or suggest accu- ANSI/ASNT-CP-189 Standard for Qualification and Certifi-
racy or tolerances of the techniques described. Parameters such cation of Nondestructive Testing Personnel
as search units, examination surface conditions, material 2.3 AIA Standards5
composition, etc. can all have a bearing on the accuracy of NAS-410 Nondestructive Testing Personnel Qualification
results. It is recommended that users assess accuracy and and Certification
tolerances applicable for each application.
iTeh Standards
1.3 This guide does not purport to provide instruction to
3. Terminology
measure flaw length.
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1.4 This standard guide does not provide, suggest, or
3.1 Definitions—Related terminology is defined in Termi-
nology E1316.

Document
to an appropriate code Preview
specify acceptance standards. After flaw-sizing evaluation has
been made, the results should be applied
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
3.2.1 corner reflection—the reflected ultrasonic energy re-
or standard that specifies acceptance criteria. sulting from the interaction of ultrasound with the intersection
of a flaw and the component surface at essentially 90 degrees.
ASTM E2192-13(2022)
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the
standard. The values given in parentheses are for information 3.2.2 doublet—two ultrasonic signals that appear on the
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only. screen simultaneously and move in unison as search unit is
manipulated toward and away from the flaw. During tip-
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the
diffraction flaw sizing, the flaw tip signal and flaw base signal
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
(corner reflector) will appear as a doublet.
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter- 3.2.3 far-surface—the surface of the examination piece
mine the applicability of regulatory requirements prior to use. opposite the surface on which the search unit is placed. (For
1.7 This international standard was developed in accor- example, when examining pipe from the outside surface the
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard- far-surface would be the inside pipe surface).
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the 3.2.4 focus—the term as used in this document applies to
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom- dual crossed-beam search units that have been manufactured so
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical that they have a maximum sensitivity at a predetermined depth
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee. or sound path in the component. Focusing effect may be

1 3
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc- For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.06 on Ultrasonic contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Method. Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
Current edition approved Dec. 1, 2022. Published December 2022. Originally the ASTM website.
4
approved in 2002. Last previous edition approved in 2018 as E2192 – 13(2018). Available from American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), P.O. Box
DOI: 10.1520/E2192-13R22. 28518, 1711 Arlingate Ln., Columbus, OH 43228-0518, http://www.asnt.org
2 5
This Standard Guide is adapted from material supplied to ASTM Subcommittee Available from Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc. (AIA), 1000
E07.06 by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). Wilson Blvd., Suite 1700, Arlington, VA22209-3928, http://www.aia-aerospace.org.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

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 E2192 − 13 (2022)
obtained with the use of dual-element search units having both 5.5 The sizing methods are used in 1⁄3 zones to quantita-
refracted and roof angles applied to each element. tively size the crack, that is, Tip-diffraction for the far 1⁄3,
3.2.5 near-surface—the surface of the examination piece on Bi-Modal method for the middle 1⁄3, and the Focused Longi-
which the search unit is placed. (For example, when examining tudinal Wave or Focused Shear Wave Methods for the near 1⁄3
pipe from the outside surface the near-surface would be the . These 1⁄3 zones are generally applicable to most sizing
outside pipe surface). applications, however, the various sizing methods have appli-
cations outside these 1⁄3 zones provided a proper reference
3.2.6 sizing—measurement of the through-wall height or
block and technique is demonstrated.
depth dimension of a discontinuity or flaw.
3.2.7 30-70-70—term that is applied to the technique (and 6. Basis of Application
sometimes the search unit) using an incident angle that 6.1 The following items are subject to contractual agree-
produces a nominal 70° L wave in the examination piece. ment between the parties using or referencing this standard.
Provided that a parallel far-surface exists, the 30° shear wave,
produced simultaneously at the near surface, reflects as a 30° 6.2 Personnel Qualification
shear wave and generates a nominal 70° L wave as a result of 6.2.1 If specified in the contractual agreement, personnel
mode conversion off the far-surface. The 70° L wave reflects performing examinations to this standard shall be qualified in
off a planar flaw and is received by the search unit as a 70° L accordance with a nationally or internationally recognized
wave. NDT personnel qualification practice or standard such as
ANSI/ASNT-CP-189, SNT-TC-1A, NAS-410, or a similar
4. Summary of Guide document and certified by the employer or certifying agency,
as applicable. The practice or standard used and its applicable
4.1 This guide describes methods for the following flaw
revision shall be identified in the contractual agreement be-
sizing techniques.
tween the using parties.
4.1.1 Far-surface creeping wave or mode conversion
method, 6.3 Qualification of Nondestructive Agencies—If specified
4.1.2 Flaw-tip-diffraction method, in the contractual agreement, NDT agencies shall be qualified
4.1.3 Dual element bi-modal method, and
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4.1.4 Dual element, (focused) longitudinal wave or dual
and evaluated as described in Specification E543. The appli-
cable edition of Specification E543 shall be specified in the
contractual agreement.
(https://standards.iteh.ai)
element, (focused) shear wave methods.
4.2 In this guide, ultrasonic sound paths are generally 6.4 Procedures and Techniques—The procedures and tech-
niques to be utilized shall be as specified in the contractual
represent the center of the ultrasonic Document Preview
shown diagrammatically by single lines in one plane that
energy. agreement.
4.3 Additional information on flaw sizing techniques may 6.5 Reporting Criteria/Acceptance Criteria—Reporting cri-
be found in the references listed in the Bibliography section. teria for the examination results are not specified in this
ASTM E2192-13(2022)
standard, they shall be specified in the contractual agreement.
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5. Significance and Use 6.6 Reexamination of Repaired/Reworked Items—
5.1 The practices referenced in this document are applicable Reexamination of repaired/reworked items is not addressed in
to measuring the height of planar flaws open to the surface that this standard and if required shall be specified in the contrac-
originate on the far-surface or near-surface of the component. tual agreement.
These practices are applicable to through-wall sizing of me-
chanical or thermal fatigue flaws, stress corrosion flaws, or any 7. Ultrasonic Flaw Sizing Methods
other surface-connected planar flaws. 7.1 30-70-70 Mode Conversion or Far-surface Creeping
5.2 The techniques outlined describe proven ultrasonic flaw Wave Method—The far-surface Creeping Wave or 30-70-70
sizing practices and their associated limitations, using refracted Mode Conversion method (as illustrated in Fig. 1) provides
longitudinal wave and shear wave techniques as applied to qualitative additional depth sizing information. This method
ferritic or austenitic components. Other materials may be has considerable potential for use when approximating flaw
examined using this guide with appropriate standardization size, or, determining that the flaw is far-surface connected.
reference blocks. The practices described are applicable to both 7.1.1 Excitation of Creeping Waves—The excitation of re-
manual and automated examinations. fracted longitudinal waves is always accompanied by refracted
shear waves. In the vicinity of the excitation, the separation
5.3 The techniques recommended in this standard guide use between these two wave modes is not significantly distinct. At
Time of Flight (TOF) or Delta Time of Flight (∆TOF) methods the surface, a longitudinal wave cannot exist independently of
to accurately measure the flaw size. This guide does not include a shear wave because neither mode can comply with the
the use of signal amplitude methods to determine flaw size. boundary conditions for the homogeneous wave equation at the
5.4 Generally, with these sizing methods the volume of free surface alone; consequently, the so-called headwave is
material (or component thickness) to be sized is divided into formed. The headwave is always generated if a wave mode
thirds; the inner 1⁄3, the middle 1⁄3 and the near 1⁄3. Using the with higher velocity (the longitudinal wave) is coupled to a
far-surface Creeping Wave Method the user can qualitatively wave mode with lower velocity (the direct shear wave) at an
segregate the flaw into the approximate 1⁄3 zone. interface. The longitudinal wave continuously energizes the

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FIG. 1 Wave Generation for the Far-surface Creeping Wave/30-70-70 Mode-Conversion Search Unit

shear wave. It can be concluded that the longitudinal wave, A far-surface creeping wave signal, as a result of mode
which in fact “creeps” along the surface, is completely attenu- conversion of the indirect shear wave.
ated a short distance from the location of the excitation. (See 7.1.3.1 Direct Longitudinal Wave Signal—If the flaw ex-
Fig. 2 for generation of the near-side creeping wave). With the tends to within approximately 10 to 16 mm (0.375 to 0.625 in.)
propagation of the near-surface creeping wave and its continu- of the scanning surface (near surface), the direct longitudinal
ous conversion process at each point it reaches, the energy wave will reflect from the upper extremity of the flaw face,
converted to shear is directed into the material as shown in Fig. which is very similar to the high-angle longitudinal wave
3. Thus, the wave front of the headwave includes the head of sizing method discussed later.
the creeping wave, direct and indirect shear waves. 7.1.3.2 Mode Converted Signal—If the flaw exceeds a
7.1.2 Far-Surface Creeping Wave Generation—When the height of 10 to 20 % of the wall thickness, an indication from
iTeh Standards
headwave arrives at the far-surface of the component, the same
wave modes will be generated which were responsible for
the mode converted signal will occur at a typical wall
thickness-related position. This mode converted signal results

(https://standards.iteh.ai)
generating the shear wave energy, due to the physical law of
reciprocity. Thus, the indirect shear wave and part of the direct
from the headwave or direct shear wave, which mode converts
the 70-degree longitudinal wave that impinges on the reflector
shear wave will convert into a far-surface creeping wave and a at its highest part; it is reflected as a 70-degree longitudinal
Document Preview
70-degree longitudinal wave. The far-surface creeping wave
will be extremely sensitive to small surface-breaking reflectors
wave back to the search unit as depicted by position 1 in Fig.
4. The presence of the mode-converted echo is a strong
and the longitudinal wave will be engulfed in a bulk longitu- indication of a flaw with a height greater than 10 to 20 % of the
dinal beam created by beam spread. Additionally, ASTM
these E2192-13(2022)
reflec- wall thickness. In the case of smooth or at least open flaws,
tion mechanisms are responsible for a beam offset so that there amplitude versus height function curves can give a coarse
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is a maximum far-surface creeping wave sensitivity at about 5 estimate of flaw height.
to 6 mm (0.20 to 0.24 in.) from the ideal conversion point on 7.1.3.3 Far-Surface Creeping Wave Signal—If a far-surface
the far surface. The sensitivity range of the far-surface creeping connected reflector is within the range of sensitivity (as
wave extends from approximately 2 to 13 mm (0.080 to 0.52 described above), the far-surface creeping wave will be re-
in.) in front of the index point. The far-surface creeping wave, flected and mode converted into the headwave or shear wave
as reflected from the base of a far-surface notch or flaw, will directed to the search unit (Fig. 5). Since the far-surface
convert its energy into a headwave since the same principles creeping wave is not a surface wave, it will not interact with
apply as established earlier for the near-surface creeping wave. weld root convexity and will not produce an indication from
The shear wave will continue to convert at multiple V-paths if the root as shown by position 1 in Fig. 6. However, if the
the material has low attenuation and noise levels. search unit is moved too far toward the weld centerline, the
7.1.3 Typical Echoes of the Far-Surface Creeping Wave/30- direct shear wave beam could result in a root signal, but there
70-70 Mode Conversion Technique—When the search unit is at least 5 mm (0.2 in.) difference in positioning as shown in
approaches a far-surface connected reflector, three different Fig. 6. The far-surface creeping wave signal is a clear, sharp
signals will occur in sequence: (1) 70-degree longitudinal wave signal with a larger amplitude than the mode converted signal.
direct reflection; (2) 30-70-70 mode-converted signal; and (3) It does not have as smooth an echo-dynamic behavior as does

FIG. 2 Near-Surface Creeping Wave Occurs for a Short Distance in Association with the Incident Longitudinal Wave

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FIG. 3 Generation of S-Waves (Headwaves) by an L-Wave with Grazing Incidence

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1—Mode-Converted Signal
2—Far-Surface Creeping-Wave Signal
FIG. 4 Search Unit Index Point Position

ASTM E2192-13(2022)
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FIG. 5 Generation of Far-Surface Creeping Wave Signal

the mode converted signal, and it cannot be observed over as 7.2 Tip-Diffraction Method—Ultrasonic diffraction is a phe-
long a distance as shown in Fig. 7. nomenon where ultrasound tends to bend around sharp corners

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1—Flaw indication maximized for mode-converted wave signal
2—Flaw indication maximized for creeping-wave signal
FIG. 6 Far-Surface Creeping Wave Search Unit Position Related to Index Point
ASTM E2192-13(2022)
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or ends of an object placed in its path, as illustrated in Fig. 8. 7.2.1 Time of Flight (TOF) Sizing Technique—The TOF
While the flaw tends to cast a shadow, diffraction occurs at the sizing technique is a tip-diffraction technique that takes advan-
flaw tips and ultrasonic energy is bent to fill part of the shadow tage of uniquely locating the flaw tip. The signal from the flaw
region. Sharp edges are diffraction centers tending to radiate tip is peaked (maximized), and its arrival time or sound path is
spherical or cylindrical wave fronts as though they were measured without regard to the arrival time of other signals.
actually ultrasonic point or line sources. If the screen signals This time of flight or sound path is then a direct measurement
correlating to these diffraction centers are identified, it is of the remaining ligament (material) above the flaw, or the
possible to determine their positions relative to the thickness of distance from the flaw tip to the examination surface. This
the component. The tip-diffraction method relies on this technique is illustrated in Fig. 9. Note that here the second
principle. Although the tip-diffraction concept sounds simple, half-V path is possible also. When the search unit is moved
there are many other signals that may complicate screen away from the flaw, the tip echo may again be obtained after
interpretation. This is due to the fact that the ultrasound/planar the tip-diffracted signal reflects off the opposite surface of the
flaw interaction is very complex. When ultrasound strikes a component. With the second half-V path technique, the tip
flaw, specular reflection from the main plane of the flaw and signal will occur later in time than the signal from the flaw
texture reflections from flaw surface facets occur in addition to corner reflector.
diffraction and mode conversions. There are two standardiza-
NOTE 1—It is very important that the user be extremely conscious of the
tion and measuring techniques for tip-diffraction sizing: (1 ) weld geometry when using the second half-V path since, for example, the
The Time of Flight (TOF) technique that measures the arrival counterbore can exaggerate flaw height.
time of the tip-diffracted signal from the top of the flaw and NOTE 2—Longitudinal waves should not be applied when practicing the
locates the top of the flaw with respect to the near surface; and second half-V path technique as this can cause mode conversions that may
(2) The Delta Time of Flight (∆TOF) technique that measures interfere with the ability to interpret the instrument display.
the difference in arrival time of the tip-diffracted signal and the 7.2.2 Delta Time of Flight (∆TOF) Technique—The ∆TOF
corner reflector signal at the far surface. Technique is applied by observing the arrival time difference

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FIG. 7 Echo-Dynamic Behavior of Mode-Converted Echo Signal and Far-Surface Creeping-Wave Signal

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FIG. 8 Corners or Ends of Reflectors are Diffraction Centers and Tend to Radiate Spherical or Cylindrical Waves

between the flaw corner reflector signal and the diffracted to its shorter sound path. The tip signal amplitude is very small
signal from the flaw tip while both are simultaneously present in comparison to the flaw corner reflector signal; and the flaw
on the ultrasonic instrument display. While using this tip and corner signals are out of phase due to one signal being
technique, the ultrasonic beam diameter must be greater than diffracted and the other reflected twice. To measure flaw
the projected height of the flaw (actual height multiplied by the height, it is necessary to note the difference in the time of
sine of the refracted beam angle) and the flaw must be arrival between the two signals, then apply the following
essentially perpendicular to the examination surface. In this formula:
situation, the tip-diffracted signal will occur earlier in time due

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FIG. 9 Various Metal Paths (MP) from Different Search Unit Positions Used in the TOF Technique

v ~ δt ! readily confused with the true tip signal. Some flaws produce
h5
2cosθ multiple tip signals that must be resolved. The ability of the
where: operator to distinguish between tip and corner signals can be
compromised if several cracks are clustered in the same area.
h = flaw height,
v = ultrasonic velocity in the material, In areas of clustered cracks, corner reflections will dominate
δt = difference in arrival time, and and mask tip signals. In cases of clustered cracks, the depth of
θ = refracted beam angle. the peaked signal may be the only reliable means to distinguish
Alternately, the ultrasonic instrument may be standardized to the tip signals from the corner signals. The tip-diffraction
read directly in flaw height. This standardization method will methods can be valid for a wide range of flaw heights. The
be addressed in the standardization section. Separation be- prerequisites are that the tip of the flaw and the tip signal be
tween the doublets should remain constant as the signals move distinguishable from other signals. For very shallow flaws, the

iTeh Standards
across the screen. The echo dynamic of the doublet is asyn-
chronous; however, since it is the fixed interval between the
tip signal may be masked by the flaw corner-reflector signal
due to poor resolution. A search unit with a shorter pulse
duration will improve this limitation. Broadband search units
(https://standards.iteh.ai)
doublet arrival times that is measured, it is not necessary to
maximize the response from either signal. This technique have been noted for their short pulse durations; however, due to
allows measurement when the weld crown is wide, preventing dispersion in austenitic stainless steel weld metal, it may be
Document Preview
maximization of the tip signal. It may also be possible to note
a tip signal after reflection from the back surface (second
beneficial to select a narrow-band search unit with greater
penetrating characteristics. This argument holds true for very
half-V path). The principles are the same as for the first half-V deep flaws also. When the flaw is located in the weld region or
path except that the tip signal will appear later in time than the very near the weld region, longitudinal waves may be consid-
ASTM E2192-13(2022)
corner reflector signal. Whether using the first or second half-V ered for the tip-diffraction method. Longitudinal waves may
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path, accuracy of the height measurement depends on the flaw help locate weak tip-diffracted signals in highly attenuative
orientation. If the flaw is vertical, then the measurement is stainless steel but reflection from the component far surface
accurate. If the flaw is oriented toward the search unit, the first should be avoided due to mode conversion. A very important
half-V path measurement will overestimate the height and the factor in the sizing of planar flaws using the tip-diffraction
second half-V path measurement will underestimate the height. method is signal pattern recognition. To size with this method,
The opposite occurs for flaws oriented away from the search the user must be able to identify two signals: (1) a signal that
unit.
is diffracted from the flaw tip and (2) a second signal that is
7.2.3 Application Considerations—For all of the physics
reflected from the base of the flaw. The task of identifying the
involved in tip diffraction, the method relies on the user’s
two signals is complicated by the high-amplitude noise signals
ability to uniquely identify the location of the flaw tip. The
and geometric signals from the component surface. Some
signal need not originate singly from diffraction, since reflec-
tion can also occur very near the flaw tip. In fact, reflection is ultrasonic instruments allow the user the option of using the
the mechanism that will primarily be observed when using un-rectified or rectified display (RF display) signals. In many
notched reference blocks. It is reasonable to expect some cases, an RF display facilitates in distinguishing the tip signal
reflection to occur at an actual flaw tip. The associated rough from noise signals by identifying the phase of the signals. The
texture will often act as a good scattering center. It should be signal from the tip of the flaw must always peak when the
noted, however, that this may not be true in every case and the search unit is moved forward from the point where the corner
amplitudes of the signals received may be 20-30 dB below the signal is maximized (for first half-V path) or backed up from
flaw corner-reflector signal amplitude. Each component and the point where the corner signal is maximized (for second
material type examined should be considered as a separate half-V path). This distance traveled is directly related to flaw
examination problem. The flawed area should be adequately height. The examiner must become accustomed to the search
scanned so that all signals, which occur in the region, can be unit movement as it relates to flaw height by becoming familiar
identified. Care should be taken to define the tip signal since with the characteristics observed when sizing notches of
some geometries or weld flaws produce signals that can be known heights.

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7.3 Dual-Element Bi-Modal Method—The Bi-Modal Sizing examination, however, this is also applicable to carbon steel
Method is based on the use of a dual-element search unit. This materials. As shown in Fig. 10, the Bi-Modal search unit
dual-element search unit is designed to insonify the entire wall transmits one longitudinal wave, and two shear waves and
thickness by transmitting and receiving high-angle refracted receives two longitudinal waves (one from the tip of the flaw
longitudinal waves as well as low-angle shear waves. For this and one from the base of the flaw), one mode-converted signal
reason, the Bi-Modal sizing methods that feature the dual- from the flaw face, and one far-surface Creeping wave signal
element search unit are applicable to far-surface connected from the base of the flaw when the search unit is operated in its
planar flaws from 10 to 90 % through-wall. The TOF technique normal dual element mode. Depending upon search unit
requires that the first signal, the longitudinal wave, be maxi- design, either element can be used as the transmitter or the
mized or peaked and the peaked first signal is measured along receiver. The directivity patterns of the Bi-Modal search units
the instrument time base which is standardized in through-wall are quite broad due to the relatively small active element size
depth. The ∆TOF technique is particularly useful because the and low operating frequency in the region of 3 MHz.
flaw height-related separation between the direct longitudinal Therefore, the high-angle longitudinal waves and the low-
wave and mode-converted signal can be measured before the angle shear waves insonify the entire component wall thick-
search unit is restricted by the weld crown. For the ∆TOF ness. Four associated signals that move together on the
technique, both measurements are independent of signal am- instrument screen can be expected when the search unit is
plitudes. A20 % far-surface notch and an 80 % far-surface scanned over a far-surface connected flaw with broad back-
notch are sufficient to standardize the time base for components and-forth movements, (Fig. 11). This follows from the premise
in the thickness range of 10 to 40 mm (0.4 to 1.6 in.). Flaw that while the longitudinal waves interact effectively with both
height may then be read directly on the screen in percent of extremities of the flaw (the tip and the base), the shear waves
wall thickness. The extent of the flaw is indicated by the signals interact only with the flaw base. The first signal originates from
that are observed in the left half of the instrument screen. The the upper tip of the flaw. If each element were a transmitter, the
further the direct longitudinal wave is peaked, or the greater the longitudinal wave energy from the two elements would con-
separation of the signals from the mode-converted signal, or verge to this area. The usually weak tip-diffracted signal is
peaks from mid-screen, the deeper the flaw. Signals originating enhanced while the background of irrelevant indications is
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from the interaction of shear waves with the base of the flaw,
with or without mode conversion, are confined to the right half
suppressed by restricting the longitudinal wave beams to the
upper flaw tip area. The next signal can sometimes be observed

far-surface connected. (https://standards.iteh.ai)

of the instrument screen and merely indicate that the flaw is

7.3.1 Wave Propagation Through the Material—It is ac-

from a flaw and is usually observed from a far-surface notch as
a result of the longitudinal wave from the transmitter reflecting
at the flaw base and being received as a longitudinal wave by
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knowledged that shear waves cannot interact effectively with
the upper extremities of tight and branched, medium to large
the receiver. The third signal is usually the strongest because it
results from the mode-converted shear wave from the face of
flaws that are located near the sound-scattering fusion lines of the flaw. The reflection of the incident shear wave at the flaw
austenitic welds. These may not produce readily recognizable
ASTM opening results in the fourth signal which is analogous to the
E2192-13(2022)
tip-diffracted signals for flaw sizing purposes. The Bi-Modal far-surface creeping wave signal. The echo-dynamic curve is
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search unit is designed specifically for austenitic weld broadest for the longitudinal wave signal and narrowest for the

Subscript ’a’ denotes travel to the receiver and subscript ’b’ denotes travel from the transmitter. Enlarged detail note refers to Fig. 11.
FIG. 10 Bi-Modal Search Unit Longitudinal Wave and Shear Wave Signals

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ASTM E2192-13(2022)
Subscripts as in Fig. 10.
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FIG. 11 Interaction of the Incident L-Wave and S-Wave from a Bi-Modal Search Unit with a far-surface Connected Flaw Resulting in Four
Associated Signals

creeping wave signal as shown in Fig. 12. The mode-converted divisions and the flaw height in percent of wall thickness is
signal peaks shortly after the flaw is insonified. It follows from very nearly linear and independent of wall thickness.
geometrical considerations that the echo-dynamic curves for 7.3.3 Principles of the ∆TOF Technique—The longitudinal
the longitudinal wave signal and the far-surface creeping wave wave signal may be considered as a satellite of the mode-
signal are nearly synchronous for a large flaw (that is, the rise converted signal since their separation, measured in screen
in the amplitude of one signal is in unison with the amplitude divisions, is practically independent of the axial coordinate of
rise of the other). When the center of the incident longitudinal the search unit relative to that of the flaw. Figs. 14 and 15
wave beam is directed toward the flaw tip, the center of the illustrate the nearly linear relationship between normalized
incident shear wave beam is directed toward the flaw base, and flaw height and this signal separation. The most useful feature
the amplitude of the longitudinal wave signal, as well as that of of the Bi-Modal sizing method is that the flaw height can be
the far-surface creeping wave signal, is maximized. Upon measured anywhere along the length of the flaw as long as both
moving the search unit closer to the flaw, the longitudinal wave the longitudinal wave and the mode-converted signals are seen
signal will again recede into the background of irrelevant moving in unison on the screen, allowing height measurements
indications. To determine the arrival time of this signal, the to be made even when a wide weld crown is present. A second
user typically moves the search unit toward the flaw until the ∆TOF measurement may sometimes be used to confirm the
amplitude drops. flaw height. This second measurement is obtained by noting
7.3.2 Principles of Bi-Modal TOF Technique—Weld crown the difference in arrival time of the longitudinal wave signal
permitting, the search unit may be moved toward the weld far and the longitudinal wave signal reflected from the flaw base.
enough to peak the longitudinal wave signal. Fig. 13 shows that These two signals also move in unison and form a linear
the relationship between the signal arrival time in screen relationship when the flaw is oriented vertically.

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FIG. 12 Asynchronous Echo-Dynamic Curves for a 50 % Deep far-surface Notch

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FIG. 13 Correlation of Normalized Flaw Height With Time Delay, τ, Obtained by the Bi-Modal Time of Flight Technique

7.4 Focused Longitudinal Wave or Dual-Elements Focused which are mid-wall to very deep. The use of high beam angles
Shear Wave Methods—The dual-element focused longitudinal results in this technique being the most accurate for very deep
or dual-element focused shear wave flaw sizing techniques are flaws. As with the tip-diffraction method, the signal from the
essentially the TOF or sound-path measurement techniques flaw tip is maximized or peaked and its time of flight or sound
with the use of focused longitudinal or shear wave search units, path is recorded without regard to the arrival time of other
generally greater than 50 % from the far surface in depth. signals. The focused longitudinal wave and focused shear wave
These techniques are particularly suitable for sizing flaws sizing techniques are used to measure the remaining ligament

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iTeh Standards
FIG. 14 Relationships Among Normalized Flaw Height, h/t, Doublet Separation, σ and Time Delay, τ

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FIG. 15 Correlation of Normalized Flaw Height With Doublet Separation, σ, Obtained by the Bi-Modal ∆TOF Technique

of good material between the flaw and the scanning surface. ligament from the local wall thickness. Occasionally, the signal
Actual flaw height is obtained by subtracting the remaining associated with the upper extreme of a flaw is due to beam

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